1

Module I: Introduction to Research

Foundations of Research: Meaning, Objectives, Motivation, Utility. Concept of theory,
empiricism, deductive and inductive theory Characteristics of scientific method – Understanding
the language of research – Concept, Construct, Definition, Variable, Research Process.

Meaning
Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of
critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with
suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem
using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research
is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It
involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed
event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

What are the characteristics of research?

● Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need
to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing
conclusions.
● The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
● Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
● There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
● It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research
opportunities.
● It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.

Created by Anu☺️
 2

● Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be
accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to
collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.
Characteristics of Research:
1. Research should be controlled-
It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by
each other (whether it is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will not
be able to design a particular research report.
2. Research should be rigorous-
It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related
questions which are relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two
types of sciences such as physical and social sciences. These two sciences are also varied from
each other.
3. Research should be systematic-
Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or
process then it will have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market in a
systematic manner. It takes various steps to do a perfect or systematic research process and all
the steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.
4. Research should be valid-
It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by
yourself (i.e, researcher himself). If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research
will also be ethical in nature.
5. Research should be empirical-
This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered
information collected from observations and real-life experiences.
6. The foundation of knowledge-
Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source
for providing guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or governmental
problems. It is a variety of formal training which enables us to understand the new developments
in one’s field in an efficient way.

Created by Anu☺️
 3

What is the purpose of research?

Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group
of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It
is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory
process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.
Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data
collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable
is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing,
explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level
management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of
money from the company profit.
Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of
specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form.
For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer
loyalty.

Types of research methods and Examples

Qualitative methods
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually
open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps
a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.
● One-to-one Interview
● Focus Groups
● Ethnographic studies
● Text Analysis
● Case Study
Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
● Survey research

Created by Anu☺️
 4

● Descriptive research
● Correlational research

Importance or Objectives of the Research:

1. To find out the real facts-
As we know, every type of research has its own object but the basic aim of the research is always
to find out or obtained the information from the markets and societies and their number of
respondents. A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact information for our problem-related
questions.
2. To achieve the new thoughts-
In this objective of the research, anybody can find new thoughts from the research. Research is
the process of finding the exact information through proper observation, optimization, and
experiments.
These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the information which is very necessary
for evaluating the problem task.
3. To evaluate the information-
The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an
appropriate or efficient manner so that they can easily design the research problem and solve
them also.
A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and methods,
statistical analysis and procedures, and another type of tables and graphs.
4. To test a hypothesis-
In this objective of the research, the researcher does the causal relationship between the variables
(it can also be said that the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing study
represents the number of actions like these terms:
(a) Making a formal statement,
(b) Selecting a significance level,
(c) Deciding the distribution use,
(d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,
(e) Calculation of the probability,
(f) Comparing the probability.

Created by Anu☺️
 5

5. To design or implement the research-

After the collection of all information, the researcher prepares the structure of a research design
for the company so that they can easily describe or identify the structure of a particular research
theme. The research designs can be broadcasted into two forms such as experimental designs and
non-experimental designs.
After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements them in a problem and find
out the optimum factor to solve them.
6. To improve the understanding-
In this objectives of the research, the researcher helps to improve the understanding of a
particular topic by asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or
what knowledge could be assembled from a more focused investigation, or scrutiny of the
existing findings.

Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Inductive research approach

When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive

research, because there is no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages:

Created by Anu☺️
 6

1. Observation
○ A low-cost airline flight is delayed
○ Dogs A and B have fleas
○ Elephants depend on water to exist
2. Seeking patterns
○ Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
○ All observed dogs have fleas
○ All observed animals depend on water to exist
3. Developing a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion
○ Low cost airlines always have delays
○ All dogs have fleas
○ All biological life depends on water to exist

Limitations of an inductive approach

A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully proven. However, it
can be invalidated.

ExampleYou observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them experience a delay, which
is in line with your theory. However, you can never prove that flight 1001 will also be delayed.
Still, the larger your dataset, the more reliable your conclusions.

Deductive research approach

When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory. This is usually the result of
inductive research. Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. Remember that if there
is no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive research.

The deductive research approach consists of four stages:

1. Start with an existing theory and create a problem statement

○ Low cost airlines always have delays
○ All dogs have fleas
○ All biological life depends on water to exist

Created by Anu☺️
 7

2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis, based on existing theory

○ If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience delays
○ All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
○ All land mammals depend on water to exist
3. Collect data to test the hypothesis
○ Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
○ Test all dogs in the building for fleas
○ Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water
4. Analyze and test the data
○ 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
○ 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas
○ All land mammal species depend on water
5. Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis
○ 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
○ 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis
○ All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis

Limitations of a deductive approach

The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set in the inductive
study are true and the terms are clear.

Empiricism
Empiricism is the philosophical belief that all conceptions are based on personal experience, all
ideas are about or apply to objects that can be experienced and all rationally acceptable views or
propositions can only be justified or known by personal experience. The term originates from the
ancient Greek word ‘Empeiria’, which means “experience,” supporting this broad interpretation.
Meaning of Empiricism
The idea of empiricism is that all knowledge arises from sense perception. It emphasises the
importance of experience and evidence, particularly sensory perception. In the creation of
concepts, you can only have a posteriori knowledge (i.e. based on experience). The majority of
empiricists likewise dismiss the idea of innate conceptions or innatism.

Created by Anu☺️
 8

Induction or inductive reasoning (creating generalisations based on particular examples) must be

utilised to develop a more complicated body of knowledge from these direct observations. In the
scientific and social sciences, the term “empirical” (rather than “empiricism”) refers to the
process of observation and experimentation. The scientific method requires that all hypotheses
and ideas be assessed against observations of the natural world, rather than depending solely on a
priori reasoning, intuition or revelation.

Types of Empiricism
Classical empiricism is founded on the idea that knowledge is neither intrinsic nor inborn. John
Locke, one of the most prominent empiricists, believed that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate)
from birth. According to Locke, our world experience provides us with knowledge.
Radical empiricism is founded on the notion that our understanding of the universe is
completely dependent on our senses. Radical empiricists believe that if something cannot be
experienced via our senses, it does not exist. Radical empiricists reject religious concepts
because they cannot be tested using sensory evidence.
Modern empiricism’s philosophical premise that all knowledge is acquired from experience is
investigated by moderate empiricism.

Scientific Method
The specific methods and techniques for acquisition or enhancement of current knowledge
pertaining to research are covered under the scientific method of investigation. A method can be
called scientific only when it includes data which is observable, quantifiable, and measurable as
well as based upon logical principles and reasoning. The primary objective of scientific method
gather data with the help observation and experimentation process through which verifiable
hypotheses can be formulated.
Features of Scientific Method
1) Experiential :
Being different from methods based on reasoning, emotions, and subjective data, scientific
method is experimental in nature. Scientific method examines the facts and only believes in
hypothesis which is supported by relevant facts.

Created by Anu☺️
 9

2) Reproduction of Similar Results :

Due to existence of predefined procedures in research methods, others can also reproduce the
outcomes generated from scientific methods. The same research methodologies can be used by
anyone to verify their results and ensure their liability as the scientists publish the outcomes
obtained by them. Therefore, it can be said that results achieved from scientific methods are
based on the individual or group experiences instead of being completely individual or people
oriented.
3) Provisional :
This feature of being provisional or conditional means that the outcomes obtained from these
methods are debatable and any researcher is free to question them. Also, if any other researcher
discovers or finds some new facts, the outcomes obtained from scientific methods need to be
altered.
4) Objective :
Scientific methods of research are not based on philosophical or emotional dota. Instead, it is
supported by facts and their objectives. The prejudice on the part of researcher is also eliminated
through, the objectivity feature of scientific methods.
5) Structured :
Though random or unorganized events can be the basis of scientific research, it follows a
structured and well-organised procedure. Scientific methods are systematic and leave no room
for unorganized observations.
6) Collective :
Prior to initiating a new research, the existing information is reviewed by the scientists to ensure
that there are no repetitions. The existing information is upgraded and enhanced through new
findings and data. In addition, the outcomes are duly documented along with the facts and
figures to assist the reader in understanding the report and drawing correct conclusions.
7) Deterministic :
Scientific methods try to establish causal relationships between occurrences and the factors
responsible for them. Each and every event is triggered by some or the other reason which is
analysed by scientific methods.
8) Statistical Generalization :

Created by Anu☺️
 10

Generalization of the outcomes generated from scientific methods to other researches of similar
nature is possible. Various researches done for scientific purposes can be benefited to a great
extent through widespread statistical generalization of results obtained front scientific methods.
9) Rationalism :
The findings of scientific study are backed by logical reasoning and not influenced by traditions,
customs, or beliefs. In other words, it can be said that scientific study is driven by the principle
of rationalization.
Approaches for Scientific Method
1) Deduction :
Under scientific research, deduction or deductive reasoning is the most basic form of reasoning.
Here, the researcher attempts to arrive at a logical and rational inference based on a hypothesis or
generalized report formulated by him/her. According to deductive reasoning, what applies to an
entire group/class of individuals is also believed to be true for members of respective
group/class. Accurate and careful formulation of hypothesis leads to effective deductive
reasoning. On the other hand, even being logical cannot ensure the truthfulness of an inference if
the generalization is incorrect. For example, "All dogs have long ears. Tommy is a dog. So,
Tommy has long ears." This inference is valid. But, it is does not hold true because many dogs
have small ears. Therefore, the generalization is false.
2) Induction :
Also known as "bottom-up" approach, induction moves from specific to broader generalizations
and theories. This is just opposite to deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves a
step-by-step procedure in which the researcher makes several observations, attempts to
determine a pattern in them, formulates a generalized hypothesis, and ultimately concludes a
theory. For example, "One marble from the bag is black. Another marble from the bag is, black.
A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black".

Basis of
Deduction Method Induction Method
Difference

Meaning This method moves from This method goes from

general to specific. specific to general.

Created by Anu☺️
 11

It has a bottom up
Approach Its approach is top-down.
approach.
Addition to This method makes
It does no additions to the
Previous additions to the existing
existing knowledge.
Knowledge knowledge.

Importance of Scientific Method

1) Provides Adaptability :
With the help of scientific methods, the transition of information and knowledge from an existing
context to an entirely new context is possible. This provides greater adaptability to the
researchers. Also, this adaptability is very crucial for the development of science and technology
due to their dynamic nature.
2) Increased Applicability :
In contrast to non scientific approaches, scientific methods are more involving, interesting, and
have a broader scope. This ensures increased applicability of these methods.
3) Realistic Approach :
A comprehensive knowledge of several issues pertaining to science and humanities is obtained
through a balanced viewpoint under scientific methods. This leads to a more realistic approach to
the problem.
4) More Productive :
These methods enable an individual to take efficient decisions and are characterized by increased
effectiveness. It focuses on proactive interpretations and realizes the need for repeating the
experiments in future.
5) Ethical Neutrality :
Scientific methods aim to arrive at accurate and rational inferences related to the population
being considered and are therefore ethically neutral.
6) Constructs Generalized Theorems:
Another advantage of scientific methods is that they formulate generalized theorems on the basis
of scientific logic's.

Created by Anu☺️
 12

Difficulties in Applying Scientific Method

1) Possibility of Blased Conclusions :
Direct involvement of researchers in internal research of an organisation or indirect involvement
when a third party researcher attempts to represent the outcome can lead to binsness and
manipulation. They wish to see their careers enhancing along with the marketing organisation.
The urge to get their outcomes validated, leads the researchers to gather information which
supports the opinions of their superiors or clients. This can be done either through avoiding the
data's objectivity or ignoring an in-depth analysis. The closer a researcher is to the decision
making. greater are the chances of biasness, prejudice, and manipulations.
2) Imprecise Measuring Devices :
Accurate measurement is one of the unique features of scientific methods which differentiate
them from non-scientific activities. However, due to the large number of researchers involved,
interview is one of the primary methods to gather information. This process considered
somewhat subjective and seldom results in accurate measurements. The information obtained can
be quantified only approximately as most of it are personal views and attitudes. For example,
what individual feels about organisational policies can be measured only in degrees and not
precisely. The devices used to measure the data by marketing researchers are not as accurate as
those of natural scientists.
3) Influence of Measurement Process on Results :
In contrast to the weight of chemicals, speed of light, area of a room, etc., human beings tend to
modify or change themselves when they realize that they are being measured or assessed. For
example, employees tend to bring amendments in their behavior when they come to know that
they are being monitored through cameras.
4) Time Constraints :
Usually, scientific methods involve in-depth and contextual analysis of facts. But in reality, these
researches have to be really quick and take lesser time so that the product can be launched at an
earlier stage to attain first mover advantage and larger market share. This aspect of scientific
research thus leads to lack of of information.
5) Difficulty in using Experiments to Test Hypotheses:
The cause and effect relationship is very clearly established through the experiments undertaken
in a research process. It holds a lot of importance in scientific research. However, its use in

Created by Anu☺️
 13

business research is sometimes impossible because all the factors which influence the product
like weather, competitor's strategies, customer attitudes, etc., cannot be controlled. Hence,
repetition of experiments again and again is not possible. In addition, reliability of the research is
affected due to incomplete availability of experimentation tool.
6) Greater Complexity of Subject :
Numerous factors like machinery, raw materials, furnishing, manpower, etc., have their influence
over the product. The scientific research process is faced with complexities because these factors
have to be kept in proper alignment.

Understanding the Language of Research

Research is a systematic and organized process of acquiring knowledge and understanding about
a particular topic or phenomenon. It involves various components and terms that are essential for
comprehending and conducting research effectively. In this note, we will explore five key terms
commonly used in research: concept, construct, definition, variable, and research process.

1. Concept:
A concept refers to an abstract idea or a general notion that represents something in the research
context. Concepts are the building blocks of research and serve as the foundation for formulating
research questions or hypotheses. For example, in a study on happiness, the concept of
"well-being" might be used to measure and understand the subjective experience of happiness.
2. Construct:
A construct is a theoretical concept that is not directly observable but is inferred from observable
indicators or variables. Constructs are developed to represent complex ideas or phenomena that
cannot be directly measured. For instance, intelligence is a construct that encompasses multiple
cognitive abilities and is often measured using various tests and assessments.
3. Definition:
A definition provides clarity and precision to concepts and constructs in research. It outlines the
specific meaning and boundaries of a concept or construct, ensuring that researchers have a
common understanding when using these terms. Definitions play a crucial role in establishing a
shared language within a research community and promoting consistency in research studies.

Created by Anu☺️
 14

4. Variable:
A variable is a measurable or observable entity that can vary or change. In research, variables are
used to operationalize concepts or constructs into specific measurable indicators. There are two
main types of variables: independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV). The
independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the
dependent variable, which is the outcome or response being measured.
5. Research Process:
The research process refers to the systematic steps involved in conducting research. It typically
includes identifying a research problem, reviewing relevant literature, formulating research
questions or hypotheses, selecting an appropriate research design, collecting and analyzing data,
interpreting findings, and drawing conclusions. The research process provides a structured
framework for researchers to follow, ensuring rigor and reliability in their investigations.

(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)
##############################################################################
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑

Module II: Problem Identification & Formulation

Research Question – Investigation Question – -sources-technique involved in defining a
problem, Measurement Issues – Hypothesis, Measurement: Levels of measurement – Nominal,
Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

Research Question
A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question
often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is
answered in the study’s conclusion. In most studies, the research question is written so that it
outlines various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the
problem the study addresses.

Created by Anu☺️
 15

Importance of the research question

The primary importance of developing a research question is that it narrows down a broad topic
of interest into a specific area of study (Creswell, 2014). Research questions, along with
hypotheses, also serve as a guiding framework for research. These questions also specifically
reveal the boundaries of the study, setting its limits, and ensuring cohesion.
Moreover, the research question has a domino effect on the rest of the study. These questions
influence factors, such as the research methodology, sample size, data collection, and data
analysis (Lipowski, 2008).
As their name implies, a research question is often grounded on research. As a result, these
questions are dynamic; this means researchers can change or refine the research question as they
review related literature and develop a framework for the study. While many research projects
will focus on a single research question, larger studies often use more than one research question.

Types of Research Questions

Quantitative research questions
Quantitative research questions are precise. These questions typically include the population to
be studied, dependent and independent variables, and the research design to be used. They are
usually framed and finalized at the start of the study (Berger, 2015).
Quantitative research questions also establish a link between the research question and the
research design. Moreover, these questions are not answerable with “yes” or “no” responses. As
a result, quantitative research questions don’t use words such as “is,” “are,” “do,” or “does.”
Quantitative research questions usually seek to understand particular social, familial, or
educational experiences or processes that occur in a particular context and/or location (Marshall
& Rossman, 2011). They can be further categorized into three types: descriptive, comparative,
and relationship.
Descriptive research questions aim to measure the responses of a study’s population to one or
more variables or describe variables that the research will measure. These questions typically
begin with “what”. Students aim for a what is research question to uncover particular processes.
Comparative research questions aim to discover the differences between two or more groups for
an outcome variable. These questions can be causal, as well. For instance, the researcher may

Created by Anu☺️
 16

compare a group where a certain variable is involved and another group where that variable is
not present.
Relationship research questions seek to explore and define trends and interactions between two
or more variables. This research question design often includes both dependent and independent
variables and use words such as “association” or “trends.”
Qualitative research questions
Qualitative research questions may concern broad areas of research or more specific areas of
study. Similar to quantitative research questions, qualitative research questions are linked to
research design. Unlike their quantitative counterparts, though, qualitative research questions are
usually adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible (Creswell, 2013). As a result, studies using
these questions generally aim to “discover,” “explain,” or “explore.”
Ritchie et al. (2014) and Marshall and Rossman (2011) have also further categorized qualitative
research questions into a number of types, as listed below:
Contextual research questions seek to describe the nature of what already exists.
● Descriptive research questions attempt to describe a phenomenon.
● Emancipatory research questions aim to produce knowledge that allows for engagement
in social action, especially for the benefit of disadvantaged people.
● Evaluative research questions assess the effectiveness of existing methods or paradigms.
● Explanatory research questions seek to expound on a phenomenon or examine reasons for
and associations between what exists.
● Exploratory research questions investigate little-known areas of a particular topic.
● Generative research questions aim to provide new ideas for the development of theories
and actions.
● Ideological research questions are used in research that aims to advance specific
ideologies of a position.
The following table illustrates the differences between quantitative and qualitative research
questions.

Created by Anu☺️
 17

Example: Factors that increase the likelihood of childhood anxiety include peer
pressure, genetics, and higher intelligence levels.

Topic childhood anxiety

Key aspects of the topic to be peer pressure, parental education, and higher
discussed intelligence levels

Steps to Developing a Good Research Question

1. Start with a broad topic.
A broad topic provides writers with plenty of avenues to explore in their search for a viable
research question. Techniques to help you develop a topic into subtopics and potential research
questions include brainstorming and concept mapping. For example, you can raise
thought-provoking questions with your friends and flesh out ideas from your discussions. These
techniques can organize your thoughts so you can identify connections and relevant themes
within a broad topic.
When searching for a topic, it’s wise to choose an area of study that you are genuinely interested
in, since your interest in a topic will affect your motivation levels throughout your research. It’s
also wise to consider the interests being addressed recently by the research community, as this
may affect your paper’s chances of getting published.
2. Do preliminary research to learn about topical issues.
Once you have picked a topic, you can start doing preliminary research. This initial stage of
research accomplishes two goals. First, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to
discover issues that are currently being discussed by scholars and fellow researchers. This way,
you get up-to-date, relevant knowledge on your topic.
Second, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to spot existing gaps or limitations
in existing knowledge of your topic. With a certain amount of fine-tuning, you can later use these
gaps as the focus of your research question.
Moreover, according to Farrugia et al. (2010), certain institutions that provide grants encourage
applicants to conduct a systematic review of available studies and evidence to see if a similar,
recent study doesn’t already exist, before applying for a grant.

Created by Anu☺️
 18

3. Narrow down your topic and determine potential research questions.

Once you have gathered enough knowledge on the topic you want to pursue, you can start
focusing on a more specific area of study and narrowing down a research question. One option is
to focus on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature. Referred to by Sandberg and
Alvesson (2011) as “gap-spotting,” this method involves constructing research questions out of
identified limitations in literature and overlooked areas of study. Similarly, researchers can
choose research questions that extend or complement the findings of existing literature.
4. Evaluate the soundness of your research question.
Your initial research and review of related literature will have produced some interesting
questions that seem like they’re worth pursuing. However, not all interesting questions make for
sound research questions. Keep in mind the research question meaning — that a research
question draws its answer or conclusion through an analysis of evidence. Here we present a set
of criteria that can guide you on how to formulate research questions.
Hulley et al. (2007) suggest using a set of criteria- known as the “FINER” criteria-to find out if
you have a good research question. The FINER criteria are outlined below:
F – Feasible
A good research question is feasible, which means that the question is well within the
researcher’s ability to investigate. Researchers should be realistic about the scale of their
research as well as their ability to collect data and complete the research with their skills and the
resources available to them. It’s also wise to have a contingency plan in place in case problems
arise.
I – Interesting
The ideal research question is interesting not only to the researcher but also to their peers and
community. This interest boosts the researcher’s motivation to see the question answered. For
instance, you can do research on student housing trends if it is right up your alley, as they do
change often.
N – Novel
Your research question should be developed to bring new insights to the field of study you are
investigating. The question may confirm or extend previous findings on the topic you are
researching, for instance.

Created by Anu☺️
 19

E – Ethical
This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research
question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate
authorities will approve.
R – Relevant
Aside from being interesting and novel, the research question should be relevant to the scientific
community and people involved in your area of study. If possible, your research question should
also be relevant to the public’s interest.
5. Construct your research question properly.
Considering research question importance, research questions should be structured properly to
ensure clarity. Look for good research questions examples. There are a number of frameworks
that you can use for properly constructing a research question. The two most commonly used
frameworks are explained below.
PICOT framework
The PICOT research question framework was first introduced in 1995 by Richardson et al. Using
the PICOT framework, research questions can be constructed to address important elements of
the study, including the population to be studied, the expected outcomes, and the time it takes to
achieve the outcome. With these elements, the framework is more commonly used in clinical
research and evidence-based studies.
P – population, patients, or problem
I – intervention or indicator being studied
C – comparison group
O – outcome of interest
T – timeframe of the study

Investigation Question
An investigation question, also known as a research question, is a concise and focused query that
guides the investigation and exploration of a specific topic or issue in a research study. It serves
as the foundation for the research and directs the collection and analysis of data to find answers
or insights.

Created by Anu☺️
 20

An effective investigation question should be:

1. Clear and specific: It should be well-defined and narrow enough to be addressed within the
scope of the research study.
Example: "What is the impact of exercise on cardiovascular health among adults aged 50 and
above?"
2. Measurable and observable: The question should be formulated in a way that allows for the
collection of relevant data and the possibility of drawing conclusions.
Example: "What is the relationship between student performance (measured by test scores) and
class size in elementary schools?"
3. Relevant and significant: The question should address a relevant issue within the field of
study and have practical or theoretical implications.
Example: "How does the use of social media affect adolescents' self-esteem and body image?"
4. Feasible: The question should be answerable within the resources, time frame, and constraints
of the research study.
Example: "What are the factors influencing customer satisfaction in a specific retail store?"
Overall, an investigation question serves as a guidepost for the research process, helping
researchers focus their efforts, collect relevant data, and ultimately contribute to the existing
body of knowledge on a particular subject.

Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem

1. Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique that involves generating a large number of ideas about a topic
without censoring them. It is an effective technique for defining a problem because it allows the
researcher to explore different perspectives and generate a broad range of potential research
questions.
2. Mind Mapping
Mind mapping is a technique that involves visually organizing ideas and information around a
central theme or concept. It is an effective technique for defining a problem because it allows the
researcher to identify key concepts and relationships among them.

Created by Anu☺️
 21

3. Problem Tree Analysis

Problem tree analysis is a technique that involves identifying the causes and effects of a problem
and organizing them in a hierarchical structure. It is an effective technique for defining a
problem because it helps the researcher to understand the underlying factors that contribute to the
problem and identify potential research questions.
4. SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis is a technique that involves identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats associated with a particular issue or problem. It is an effective technique for defining
a problem because it allows the researcher to identify potential research questions based on the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with the problem.
5. Literature Review
Literature review is a technique that involves reviewing existing literature and research on the
topic of interest. It is an effective technique for defining a problem because it helps the
researcher to identify knowledge gaps and determine the most appropriate research methodology
and design.

Measurement Issues
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part
of a research effort.
Measurement issues in research methodology refer to challenges and limitations associated with
the process of measuring variables or concepts of interest in a study. These issues can arise in
various stages of the research process, including the design, data collection, and data analysis
phases.
Here are some common measurement issues researchers may encounter:
1. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurements. If a
measurement instrument or procedure produces inconsistent results, it lacks reliability. This can
be due to instrument error, observer bias, or other factors. Low reliability reduces the confidence
in the study's findings.
2. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement accurately captures the concept
it intends to measure. There are different types of validity, such as construct validity, content

Created by Anu☺️
 22

validity, and criterion validity. If a measurement lacks validity, it may not accurately represent
the concept under investigation.
3. Sampling bias: Sampling bias occurs when the sample used in a study does not accurately
represent the target population. This can lead to results that are not generalizable or applicable to
the broader population. It is important to ensure that the sample is representative and selected in
a way that minimizes bias.
4. Social desirability bias: Social desirability bias occurs when participants in a study respond
in a way that they believe is socially acceptable or desirable, rather than providing their true
opinions or behaviors. This bias can lead to inaccurate or distorted data, particularly in surveys
or interviews where self-reporting is involved.
5. Measurement scale limitations: The choice of measurement scale can also introduce
limitations. For example, using an ordinal scale instead of an interval scale may restrict the
statistical analyses that can be performed. Similarly, using a scale that does not capture the full
range of possible responses may limit the precision of the measurement.
6. Instrumentation bias: Instrumentation bias refers to systematic errors introduced by the
measurement instrument or tool. This can occur if the instrument is poorly designed, misused, or
if there are inconsistencies in the way it is administered across different settings or participants.
7. Hawthorne effect: The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in participant behavior due to
being observed or aware of being part of a study. This effect can distort the measurement of
variables, particularly in studies where participant behavior is observed or monitored.
Addressing these measurement issues requires careful consideration and planning. Researchers
can employ various strategies, such as using reliable and validated measurement tools,
implementing rigorous sampling techniques, minimizing biases through study design, employing
multiple measurement methods, and conducting pilot studies to assess measurement procedures
before full-scale data collection. Additionally, proper statistical analyses can help account for and
mitigate measurement limitations to the extent possible.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of
any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components

Created by Anu☺️
 23

like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a
hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Following are the characteristics of the hypothesis:

● The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

● If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
● The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
● The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.

Sources of Hypothesis

Following are the sources of hypothesis:

● The resemblance between the phenomenon.

● Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.
● Scientific theories.
● General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Types of Hypothesis

There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:

● Simple hypothesis
● Complex hypothesis
● Directional hypothesis
● Non-directional hypothesis
● Null hypothesis
● Associative and casual hypothesis

Created by Anu☺️
 24

Simple Hypothesis

It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For
example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables
is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis

It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent
variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, and reduces the
risk of many diseases such as heart disease.

Directional Hypothesis

It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship
between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating
proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper
meal. This shows the effect and direction of the effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis

It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between
two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

Null Hypothesis

It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is
no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the
other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between
two or more variables.

Created by Anu☺️
 25

Examples of Hypothesis

Following are the examples of hypotheses based on their types:

● Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple

hypothesis.
● All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.
● If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less. It is
an example of a directional hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis

Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:

● Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

● It becomes the start point for the investigation.
● Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
● It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

How will Hypothesis help in the Scientific Method?

Researchers use hypotheses to put down their thoughts directing how the experiment would take
place. Following are the steps that are involved in the scientific method:

● Formation of question
● Doing background research
● Creation of hypothesis
● Designing an experiment
● Collection of data
● Result analysis
● Summarizing the experiment
● Communicating the results

Created by Anu☺️
 26

Measurement

According to G.C. Helmstadter : "Measurement is a process of obtaining a numerical description

of the extent to which a person or object possesses some characteristics".

According to Kerlinger : "Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events

according to rules".

Functions of Measurement

1) Allows to Summaries Information :

The framing of proper measures also allows the information to be summarized and presented in a
better way. This also allows researchers to use various graphs, tables, and, charts to represent he
data properly. This also makes the research and the research findings more presentable and
attractive to any potential user of the research report.

2) Provides Better Understanding of a Situation :

Measurement allows better understanding of a situation as compared to a scenario where there is

no measurement at all. For example, various data about population is obtained only when it is
measured, Until and unless the data is measured, it does not provide in-depth understanding of
the situation.

3) Allows to Quantify Data and Statistical Sophistication :

The process of measurement also allows the researcher to quantify the abstract variables and
research parameters. The degree of statistical treatment of the data depends upon he
measurement scale adopted to quantify the data.

4) Important for Research Approach :

Selection of measurement techniques also determines the research approach and the way a
researcher will tend to solve the research problems. Deciding the measures is thus an essential
part of the research activity. The selection of proper measures goes a long way towards making
the research a better planned end organised activity.

Created by Anu☺️
 27

5) Provides Important Set of Tools :

The measurement procedures and instruments to be used provide invaluable information to the
researcher which allows him to reach at a decision regarding the research problem. It also has a
bearing on the policies and programs. However. the measures that are framed are only the means
towards the objective of the researcher and not the ends. It helps the Researcher in reaching at
critical decisions regarding a research objective.

Types of Measurement

1) Questionnaires :

The questionnaire is an inventory of questions used to seek information from respondents on

different topics like behavior, demographic and psychographic details, opinions, attitudes,
beliefs, feelings, etc. The questions are designed for a particular study and are validated before
concluding.

2) Attitude Scales :

Attitude seeks responses on the feelings of respondents towards a particular object. Attitude
scales can be of different types like as follows :

i) Rating scales make a respondent to place an object on a scale which is numerically numbered.

ii) Ranking scales require the respondents to compare a set of objects and rate them

between '1' to '10', where, '1' stands at a highest position and '10' stands at a lowest position.

3) Depth Interviews :

In depth interviews, the respondents have complete freedom to express their feelings without any
fear of rejection or meeting opposition from others. The responses which we received from the
respondents are recorded in specially designed formats. This technique is used when the
researcher wants to gather in-depth information about the feelings and opinions of respondents or
when the researcher wants to examine some new issue or aspect of the study.

Created by Anu☺️
 28

Many times, depth interviews are also used to provide clarity or perspective on the other
gathered data. It helps to provide a more comprehensive picture on the data that has been
gathered. In depth interviews, a technique should be used in lieu of focus interviews where It is
felt that the respondents will not be comfortable talking about the topic in a group atmosphere or
where the researcher wants to differential between individual opinions and group opinions on a
topic of discussion. Depth interviews are also used where the researcher wants to refine
questions for a future study or survey.

4) Observation :

Observation is a direct technique of examining the behavior or the results of the behavior. This
requires the researcher to observe the behavior of an individual or a group of people. This
observation must be done in a natural setting and over an interval of time. The biggest advantage
of this method is it increases the credibility of the research process. It utilizes trained researchers
who are unbiased regarding the research topic. By observing the behavior formally, the observers
are often able to identify attitudes and predispositions which are often over locked by
researchers. The disadvantage is that observation is a time-taking process and the observers often
find that their presence influences the behavior of the people being observed and thus affects the
reliability of the observation process.

Criteria for Good Measurement

1) Reliability :

Reliability is an important criterion for testing the measurement. When the results offered by the
measuring instrument are consistent, it is called reliable. Although reliable instrument is not
necessarily a valid instrument in its nature, but it leads to validity of the measurement.

2) Validity :

The next criterion used for evaluating the measurement is its validity. The extent of to which a
particular measuring instrument specifically measures is called its validity. It can also be denoted
as utility. It also expresses the extent to which differences described by a measuring instrument
between the two behaviors are true.

Created by Anu☺️
 29

3) Practicality :

Practicality is also a criterion for testing the measuring instrument. The extent, to which a
particular measuring instrument is suitable, cost-effective and interpret-able, denotes the
practicality of the instrument.

4) Sensitivity :

The next criterion for evaluating the measurement instrument is its sensitivity. A particular
measuring instrument is said to be sensitive if all the variations in responses are effectively
measured by it. Measuring instruments dealing with 'Agree' or 'Disagree' types of responses are
not so, sensitive. A little modification is required in instruments so as to record more sensitive
responses.

5) Generalisability :

Generalisability is also an important criterion for testing the measuring instrument. The ability of
data collection of an instrument from widespread respondents along with offering flexibility in
its interpretation is called generalisabilty.

6) Economy :

The choice of data collection method is also often dictated by economic factors. The rising cost
of personal interviewing first led to an increased use of telephone surveys and subsequently to
the current rise in Internet surveys. In standardized tests, the cost of test materials alone can be
such a significant expense that it encourages multiple reuses.

7) Convenience :

A measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to administer. A questionnaire or a

measurement scale with a set of detailed but clear instructions, with examples, is easier to
complete correctly than one that lacks these features. In a well-prepared study, it is not
uncommon for the interviewer instructions to be several times longer than the interview
questions. Naturally, the more complex the concepts and constructs, the greater is the need for
clear and complete instructions.

Created by Anu☺️
 30

Levels of Measurement | Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio

Levels of measurement, also called scales of measurement, tell you how precisely variables are
recorded. In scientific research, a variable is anything that can take on different values across
your data set (e.g., height or test scores).

There are 4 levels of measurement:

● Nominal: the data can only be categorized

● Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked
● Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced
● Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.

Nominal level Examples of nominal scales

You can categorize your data by labelling them in mutually ● City of birth
exclusive groups, but there is no order between the categories. ● Gender
● Ethnicity
● Car brands
● Marital status

Ordinal level Examples of ordinal scales

You can categorize and rank your data in an order, but you cannot ● Top 5 Olympic medallists
say anything about the intervals between the rankings. ● Language ability (e.g.,
beginner, intermediate,
fluent)
Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic medallists, this scale
● Likert-type questions
does not tell you how close or far apart they are in number of
(e.g., very dissatisfied to
wins.
very satisfied)

Created by Anu☺️
 31

Interval level Examples of interval scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between ● Test scores (e.g., IQ or
neighboring data points, but there is no true zero point. exams)
● Personality inventories
● Temperature in Fahrenheit
The difference between any two adjacent temperatures is the
or Celsius
same: one degree. But zero degrees is defined differently
depending on the scale – it doesn’t mean an absolute absence of
temperature.

The same is true for test scores and personality inventories. A

zero on a test is arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker has
an absolute lack of the trait being measured.

Ratio level Examples of ratio scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between ● Height
neighboring data points, and there is a true zero point. ● Age
● Weight
● Temperature in Kelvin
A true zero means there is an absence of the variable of interest.
In ratio scales, zero does mean an absolute lack of the variable.

For example, in the Kelvin temperature scale, there are no

negative degrees of temperature – zero means an absolute lack of
thermal energy.

Nominal: Used to categorize data into mutually exclusive categories or groups.

Ordinal: Used to measure variables in a natural order, such as rating or ranking. They provide
meaningful insights into attitudes, preferences, and behaviors by understanding the order of
responses.

Created by Anu☺️
 32

Interval: Used to measure variables with equal intervals between values. This type of
measurement is often used for temperature and time, allowing for precise comparisons and
calculations.

Ratio: Allows for comparisons and computations such as ratios, percentages, and averages.
Great for research in fields like science, engineering, and finance, where you need to use ratios,
percentages, and averages to understand the data.

Nominal Scale: 1st Level of Measurement

Nominal Scale, also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a scale that labels
variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t involve a quantitative value or order. This scale
is the simplest of the four variable measurement scales. Calculations done on these variables will
be futile as the options have no numerical value.

There are cases where this scale is used for the purpose of classification – the numbers associated
with variables of this scale are only tags for categorization or division. Calculations done on
these numbers will be futile as they have no quantitative significance.

For a question such as: Where do you live?

Nominal Scale Examples

● Gender
● Political preferences
● Place of residence

Ordinal Scale: 2nd Level of Measurement

Ordinal Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply depict the order of
variables and not the difference between each of the variables. These scales are generally used to
depict non-mathematical ideas such as frequency, satisfaction, happiness, a degree of pain, etc. It
is quite straightforward to remember the implementation of this scale as ‘Ordinal’ sounds similar
to ‘Order’, which is exactly the purpose of this scale.

Created by Anu☺️
 33

● Grades
● Satisfaction
● Happiness

How satisfied are you with our services?

● 1- Very Unsatisfied
● 2- Unsatisfied
● 3- Neural
● 4- Satisfied
● 5- Very Satisfied

Interval Scale: 3rd Level of Measurement

Interval Scale is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the variables is known as well as
the difference between these variables. Variables that have familiar, constant, and computable
differences are classified using the Interval scale. It is easy to remember the primary role of this
scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates ‘distance between two entities’, which is what Interval scale helps
in achieving.

These scales are effective as they open doors for the statistical analysis of provided data. Mean,
median, or mode can be used to calculate the central tendency in this scale. The only drawback
of this scale is that there no pre-decided starting point or a true zero value.

Interval Scale Examples

● There are situations where attitude scales are considered to be interval scales.
● Apart from the temperature scale, time is also a very common example of an interval
scale as the values are already established, constant, and measurable.
● Calendar years and time also fall under this category of measurement scales.
● Likert scale, Net Promoter Score, Semantic Differential Scale, Bipolar Matrix Table, etc.
are the most-used interval scale examples.

The following questions fall under the Interval Scale category:

Created by Anu☺️
 34

● What is your family income?

● What is the temperature in your city?

Ratio Scale: 4th Level of Measurement

Ratio Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale that not only produces the order of
variables but also makes the difference between variables known along with information on the
value of true zero. It is calculated by assuming that the variables have an option for zero, the
difference between the two variables is the same and there is a specific order between the
options.

With the option of true zero, varied inferential, and descriptive analysis techniques can be
applied to the variables. In addition to the fact that the ratio scale does everything that a nominal,
ordinal, and interval scale can do, it can also establish the value of absolute zero. The best
examples of ratio scales are weight and height. In market research, a ratio scale is used to
calculate market share, annual sales, the price of an upcoming product, the number of consumers,
etc.

● Ratio scale provides the most detailed information as researchers and statisticians can
calculate the central tendency using statistical techniques such as mean, median, mode,
and methods such as geometric mean, the coefficient of variation, or harmonic mean can
also be used on this scale.
● Ratio scale accommodates the characteristic of three other variable measurement scales,
i.e. labeling the variables, the significance of the order of variables, and a calculable
difference between variables (which are usually equidistant).
● Because of the existence of true zero value, the ratio scale doesn’t have negative values.
● To decide when to use a ratio scale, the researcher must observe whether the variables
have all the characteristics of an interval scale along with the presence of the absolute
zero value.
● Mean, mode and median can be calculated using the ratio scale.

Created by Anu☺️
 35

Ratio Scale Examples

What is your daughter’s current height?
Less than 5 feet.
5 feet 1 inch – 5 feet 5 inches
5 feet 6 inches- 6 feet
More than 6 feet
What is your weight in kilograms?
Less than 50 kilograms
51- 70 kilograms
71- 90 kilograms
91-110 kilograms
More than 110 kilograms

(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)
##############################################################################
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑
Module III: Research Design
Concept and Importance in Research – Features of a good research design – Exploratory
Research Design – concept, types and uses, Descriptive Research Designs – concept, types and
uses, Experimental Design: Concept of Independent & Dependent variable,.Qualitative and
Quantitative Research

Research Design
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to
conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for the
subject matter and set up their studies for success.

Created by Anu☺️
 36

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey research,
correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental design, research
problem, descriptive case-study).
There are three main types of designs for research:
● Data collection
● Measurement
● Data Analysis
The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not vice-versa. The design
phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.

The Process of Research Design

The research design process is a systematic and structured approach to conducting research. The
process is essential to ensure that the study is valid, reliable, and produces meaningful results.

1. Consider your aims and approaches: Determine the research questions and objectives,
and identify the theoretical framework and methodology for the study.
2. Choose a type of Research Design: Select the appropriate research design, such as
experimental, correlational, survey, case study, or ethnographic, based on the research
questions and objectives.
3. Identify your population and sampling method: Determine the target population and
sample size, and choose the sampling method, such as random, stratified random
sampling, or convenience sampling.
4. Choose your data collection methods: Decide on the methods, such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or experiments, and select the appropriate instruments or tools
for collecting data.
5. Plan your data collection procedures: Develop a plan for data collection, including the
timeframe, location, and personnel involved, and ensure ethical considerations.
6. Decide on your data analysis strategies: Select the appropriate data analysis techniques,
such as statistical analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis, and plan how to
interpret the results.

Created by Anu☺️
 37

Characteristics of Research Design

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you
expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from research bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the results.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every time.
You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should
indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part
of a population with similar accuracy.

Research Design Types

Qualitative research
It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical
calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative observation research methods that conclude “why”
a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.
Quantitative research
It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers
provide a better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative research
methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex
numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions about the
business’s future.

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Created by Anu☺️
 38

Focuses on putting ideas and Concentrate on generating ideas and

hypotheses to the test. developing a theory or hypothesis.

Math and statistical analysis were used Summarizing, classifying, and analyzing
to examine the situation. data were used to conduct the analysis.

Numbers, graphs, and tables are the Mostly represented with words
most common forms of expression.

It necessitates the participation of a Only a few people are required to answer.

large number of people.

Closed questions (multiple choice) Open-ended inquiries

Key terms: testing, measurement, Key terms: understanding, context,

objectivity, replicability complexity, subjectivity

1. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the

situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights
into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for
the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.
Descriptive Research Design
In Descriptive Research Design, the scholar explains/describes the situation or case in depth in
their research materials. This type of research design is purely on a theoretical basis where the
individual collects data, analyses, prepares and then presents it in an understandable manner. It is
the most generalised form of research design. To explore one or more variables, a descriptive
design might employ a wide range of research approaches. Unlike in experimental research, the
researcher does not control or change any of the variables in a descriptive research design;
instead, he or she just observes and measures them. In other words, while qualitative research

Created by Anu☺️
 39

may also be utilised for descriptive reasons, a descriptive method of research design is typically
regarded as a sort of quantitative research. To guarantee that the results are legitimate and
dependable, the study design should be properly constructed. Here are some examples of the
descriptive design of the research type:
● How has the Delhi housing market changed over the past 20 years?
● Do customers of Company A prefer Product C or Product D?
● What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between Indian
wild cows and hybrid cows?
● How prevalent is disease 1 in population Z?
2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect
of a situation. It is a causal research design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an
independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or
brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.
The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.
Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around them
react to understand social psychology better.
Experimental Research Design
Experimental research is a type of research design in which the study is carried out utilising a
scientific approach and two sets of variables. The first set serves as a constant against which the
variations in the second set are measured. Experimentation is used in quantitative research
methodologies, for example. If you lack sufficient evidence to back your conclusions, you must
first establish the facts. Experimental research collects data to assist you in making better
judgments. Experimentation is used in any research undertaken in scientifically appropriate
settings. The effectiveness of experimental investigations is dependent on researchers verifying
that a variable change is due only to modification of the constant variable. The study should
identify a noticeable cause and effect. The traditional definition of experimental design is “the
strategies employed to collect data in experimental investigations.” There are three types of
experimental designs:

Created by Anu☺️
 40

● Pre-experimental research design

● True experimental research design
● Quasi-experimental research design
3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique. It
helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis
techniques calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two different
groups.
A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose values range
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables, and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.
4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying
cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that
create troublesome situations.
This design has three parts of the research:
● Inception of the issue
● Diagnosis of the issue
● Solution for the issue
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject
to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details
the research questions’ what, how, and why.

Exploratory Research Design

It is conducted for a research problem when the researcher has no past data or only a few studies
for reference. Sometimes this research is informal and unstructured. It serves as a tool for initial
research that provides a hypothetical or theoretical idea of the research problem. It will not offer
concrete solutions for the research problem. This research is conducted in order to determine the
nature of the problem and helps the researcher to develop a better understanding of the problem.
Exploratory research is flexible and provides the initial groundwork for future research.
Exploratory research requires the researcher to investigate different sources such as published

Created by Anu☺️
 41

secondary data, data from other surveys, observation of research items, and opinions about a
company, product, or service.

Benefits of Research Design

Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear understanding of the research
objectives and the desired outcomes.
Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and reliability of results, research
design help to minimize the risk of bias and helps to control extraneous variables.
Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the proper data is collected and
data is collected systematically and consistently.
Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the collected data can be analyzed
effectively, providing meaningful insights and conclusions.
Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure the results are clean and
influential within the research team and external stakeholders.
Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and maximizing the impact of the
research, research design helps to ensure that resources are used efficiently.
A well-designed research plan is essential for successful research, providing clear and
meaningful insights and ensuring that resources must be practical

Independent and Dependent Variables

● The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your
study.
● The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent
variable.
independent variable
An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to
explore its effects. It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in
the study.
Independent variables are also called:
● Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
● Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)

Created by Anu☺️
 42

● Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).

These terms are especially used in statistics, where you estimate the extent to which an
independent variable change can explain or predict changes in the dependent variable.
Subject variables
Subject variables are characteristics that vary across participants, and they can’t be manipulated
by researchers. For example, gender identity, ethnicity, race, income, and education are all
important subject variables that social researchers treat as independent variables.
It’s not possible to randomly assign these to participants, since these are characteristics of
already existing groups. Instead, you can create a research design where you compare the
outcomes of groups of participants with characteristics. This is a quasi-experimental design
because there’s no random assignment. Note that any research methods that use non-random
assignment are at risk for research biases like selection bias and sampling bias.

Dependent variable
A dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable
manipulation. It’s the outcome you’re interested in measuring, and it “depends” on your
independent variable.
In statistics, dependent variables are also called:
Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)
The dependent variable is what you record after you’ve manipulated the independent variable.
You use this measurement data to check whether and to what extent your independent variable
influences the dependent variable by conducting statistical analyses.
Based on your findings, you can estimate the degree to which your independent variable
variation drives changes in your dependent variable. You can also predict how much your
dependent variable will change as a result of variation in the independent variable.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of human
behaviour, intentions, attitudes, experience, etc., based on the observation and interpretation of

Created by Anu☺️
 43

people. It is an unstructured and exploratory technique that deals with highly complex
phenomena. This kind of research is usually done to understand the topic in-depth. It is carried
out by taking interviews with open-ended questions, observations that are described in words,
and so on.
Quantitative Research: Quantitative research method relies on the methods of natural sciences,
which develops hard facts and numerical data. It establishes the cause-and-effect relationship
between two variables using different statistical, computational, and statistical methods. As the
results are accurately and precisely measured, this research method is also termed as “Empirical
Research”. This type of research is generally used to establish generalised facts about a particular
topic. This type of research is usually done using surveys, experiments, and so on.

Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

A method for developing a better It is the method used to generate numerical

understanding of human and social sciences, data by using a lot of techniques such as
in understanding human behaviour and logical, statistical and mathematical
personalities better techniques

It employs a subjective approach It employs an objective approach

It is generally expressed using words It is expressed using graphs and numbers

It has open-ended questions It has multiple choice questions

Qualitative research needs only a few Quantitative research requires many

respondents respondents

Created by Anu☺️
 44

The data collection methods involved are The data collection methods involved are
interviews, focus groups, literature review, experiments, surveys, and observations
ethnography expressed in numbers

Qualitative research is holistic in nature Quantitative Research is particularistic in

nature

The reasoning used to synthesise data in this The reasoning used to synthesise data in
research is inductive this research is deductive

This method involves a process-oriented This method does not involve a

inquiry process-oriented inquiry

It develops the initial understanding of data It recommends a final course of action

The data taken in the Qualitative research The data taken in this method is pretty
method is pretty verbal measurable

The objective of this research method is to The main objective of Quantitative research
engage and discover various ideas is to examine the cause and effect between
the variables

It is one of the exploratory research methods It is a conclusive research method

(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)
##############################################################################
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑

Created by Anu☺️
 45

Module IV: Sampling

Concepts of Statistical Population, Sample, Sampling Frame, Sampling Error, Sample Size,
Characteristics of a good sample. Probability Sample – Simple Random Sample, Systematic
Sample, Stratified Random Sample & Multi-stage sampling. Determining size of the sample

Population
A population is the complete set group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or a
group of people with a common characteristic.
In statistics, a population is the pool of individuals from which a statistical sample is drawn for a
study. Thus, any selection of individuals grouped by a common feature can be said to be a
population. A sample may also refer to a statistically significant portion of a population, not an
entire population. For this reason, a statistical analysis of a sample must report the approximate
standard deviation, or standard error, of its results from the entire population. Only an analysis of
an entire population would have no standard error.
● In ordinary usage, a population is a distinct group of individuals with shared citizenship,
identity, or characteristics.
● In statistics, a population is a representative sample of a larger group of people (or even
things) with one or more characteristics in common.
● The members of a sample population must be randomly selected for the results of the
study to accurately reflect the whole.
● The U.S. Census is perhaps the most ambitious survey in existence, given that it entails a
door-to-door canvas of the entire population rather than a sample group study.
● Population surveys large and small inform many if not most decisions by government and
business.
Population
It includes all the elements from the data set and measurable characteristics of the population
such as mean and standard deviation are known as a parameter. For example, All people living in
India indicates the population of India.
● Finite Population
● Infinite Population
● Existent Population

Created by Anu☺️
 46

● Hypothetical Population
Finite Population
The finite population is also known as a countable population in which the population can be
counted. In other words, it is defined as the population of all the individuals or objects that are
finite. For statistical analysis, the finite population is more advantageous than the infinite
population. Examples of finite populations are employees of a company, potential consumer in a
market.
Infinite Population
The infinite population is also known as an uncountable population in which the counting of
units in the population is not possible. Example of an infinite population is the number of germs
in the patient’s body is uncountable.
Existent Population
The existing population is defined as the population of concrete individuals. In other words, the
population whose unit is available in solid form is known as existent population. Examples are
books, students etc.
Hypothetical Population
The population in which whose unit is not available in solid form is known as the hypothetical
population. A population consists of sets of observations, objects etc that are all something in
common. In some situations, the populations are only hypothetical. Examples are an outcome of
rolling the dice, the outcome of tossing a coin

Sample
It includes one or more observations that are drawn from the population and the measurable
characteristic of a sample is a statistic. Sampling is the process of selecting the sample from the
population. For example, some people living in India is the sample of the population.
Basically, there are two types of sampling. They are:
● Probability sampling
● Non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, the population units cannot be selected at the discretion of the
researcher. This can be dealt with following certain procedures which will ensure that every unit

Created by Anu☺️
 47

of the population consists of one fixed probability being included in the sample. Such a method
is also called random sampling. Some of the techniques used for probability sampling are:
● Simple random sampling
● Cluster sampling
● Stratified Sampling
● Disproportionate sampling
● Proportionate sampling
● Optimum allocation stratified sampling
● Multi-stage sampling
Non Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, the population units can be selected at the discretion of the
researcher. Those samples will use the human judgements for selecting units and has no
theoretical basis for estimating the characteristics of the population. Some of the techniques used
for non-probability sampling are
● Quota sampling
● Judgement sampling
● Purposive sampling

Comparison Population Sample

Meaning Collection of all the units or elements that A subgroup of the members
possess common characteristics of the population

Includes Each and every element of a group Only includes a handful of

units of population

Characteristics Parameter Statistic

Data Collection Complete enumeration or census Sampling or sample survey

Focus on Identification of the characteristics Making inferences about the

population

Created by Anu☺️
 48

Sampling Frame:
Sampling frame (synonyms: “sample frame”, “survey frame”) is the actual set of units from
which a sample has been drawn: in the case of a simple random sample, all units from the
sampling frame have an equal chance to be drawn and to occur in the sample. In the ideal case,
the sampling frame should coincide with the population of interest.

Features of Sampling Frame

The sampling frame should be representative of the population, with no repetitions of units. Only
units in the frame must be included and not those who fall outside its purview. The sampling
frame lists basic details of the unit and may not provide supplementary information about the
unit.
An improper frame will set the way for an inadequate study. A good sampling frame is accurate,
and complete. We mean complete in the sense that all the possible units must be included. If a
study of children's study habits is the population, it must include school going children but
shouldn’t exclude children who are home schooled.
By accuracy it means that the frame must include all units of the population. If we plan to study
households with more than 4 members, and we include families with less than 4 members or
double count an individual who stays with their parents and their grandparents for 3 months at a
time (double counting) it would be an inaccurate frame.
A sampling frame should be current and relevant. A study of people staying in an area can only
use secondary sources that are current. A census report or an administrative list of citizens
residing in the area that was created 5 years back would be irrelevant.

Types of Sampling Frames

There are two types of sampling frames. They are Area frames and List frames. Usually the
survey begins using an area frame and then moves to a List frame.
Area sampling frames cover large geographical areas. These areas are clearly delineated, have
population figures, are mapped, and usually cover large areas. Typically area frames cover a
nation and the national census figures are used as the starting point.
A list frame is a frame that contains a list of the target population. The census list may be further
investigated for additional factors. This information can become the basis of a list frame.

Created by Anu☺️
 49

Problems with Sampling Frames

Some of the problems of sampling frames are non-sampling bias due to the obsoleteness and
inaccuracy of the sampling frame. Non-inclusion of representative units of the population can
result in an inadequate sampling frame.
Sampling frames help provide clarity in research design and helps researchers in selecting the
sample for their study.

Sampling Error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that
represents the entire population of data. As a result, the results found in the sample do not
represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population.
Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of observations from a larger
population. The method of selection can produce both sampling errors and non-sampling errors.
● A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the
whole population.
● Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of observations from a larger
population.
● Even randomized samples will have some degree of sampling error because a sample is
only an approximation of the population from which it is drawn.
● The prevalence of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the sample size.
● In general, sampling errors can be placed into four categories: population-specific error,
selection error, sample frame error, or non-response error.
Understanding Sampling Errors
A sampling error is a deviation in the sampled value versus the true population value. Sampling
errors occur because the sample is not representative of the population or is biased in some way.
Even randomized samples will have some degree of sampling error because a sample is only an
approximation of the population from which it is drawn.
Calculating Sampling Error
The sampling error formula is used to calculate the overall sampling error in statistical analysis.
The sampling error is calculated by dividing the standard deviation of the population by the

Created by Anu☺️
 50

square root of the size of the sample and then multiplying the resultant with the Z-score value,
which is based on the confidence interval.
​

Sampling Error=𝑍×[σ ÷ 𝑛​]

​

where:
Z=Z score value based on the confidence interval (approx=1.96)
σ=Population standard deviation
n=Size of the sample

Types of Sampling Errors

Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who to survey.
Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those participants who are
interested in the survey respond to the questions. Researchers can attempt to overcome selection
error by finding ways to encourage participation.
Sample Frame Error
A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the wrong population data.
Non-response Error
A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the surveys because
researchers were unable to contact potential respondents (or potential respondents refused to
respond).
​
Sample Size
In statistics, the sample size is the measure of the number of individual samples used in an
experiment. For example, if we are testing 50 samples of people who watch TV in a city, then the
sample size is 50.
The sample size is defined as the number of observations used for determining the estimations of
a given population. The size of the sample has been drawn from the population. Sampling is the
process of selection of a subset of individuals from the population to estimate the characteristics

Created by Anu☺️
 51

of the whole population. The number of entities in a subset of a population is selected for
analysis.
Formula
The sample size formula for the infinite population is given by:

SS= Z2 P(1-P)
C2
Where,
SS = Sample Size
Z = Z -Value
● 90% – Z Score = 1.645
● 95% – Z Score = 1.96
● 99% – Z Score = 2.576
P = Percentage of Population
C = Confidence interval

The characteristics of a good sample are:

● An ideal sample must be representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
It should not lack in any characteristic of the population.
● It must be unbiased and must be obtained by a probability processor random method.
● It must make the research work more feasible and has the practicability for the research
situation.
● It must yield an accurate result and does not involve errors. The probability of error can
be estimated.
● Sample must be adequate to ensure reliability. A sample having 10% of the whole
population is generally adequate.

Created by Anu☺️
 52

● The sample must be comprehensive. It is a quality of sample which is controlled by the

specific purpose of the investigation.
● Sample units must be chosen systematically and objectively.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

Created by Anu☺️
 53

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Created by Anu☺️
 54

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on
the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.
5. Multistage Sampling
In multistage sampling, or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population
using smaller and smaller groups (units) at each stage. It’s often used to collect data from a large,
geographically spread group of people in national surveys.
Multistage sampling is often considered an extended version of cluster sampling.
In multistage sampling, you divide the population into clusters and select some clusters at the
first stage. At each subsequent stage, you further divide up those selected clusters into smaller
clusters, and repeat the process until you get to the last step. At the last step, you only select
some members of each cluster for your sample.
Like in single-stage sampling, you start by defining your target population. But in multistage
sampling, you don’t need a sampling frame that lists every member of the population. That’s
why this method is useful for collecting data from large, dispersed populations.

Created by Anu☺️
 55

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That
means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample
is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Created by Anu☺️
 56

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of
observer bias affecting your arguments.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.
5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit
sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up
your sample.

(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)
##############################################################################
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑
Created by Anu☺️
 57

Module V: Data Analysis

Data Preparation – Univariate analysis - frequency tables, bar charts, pie charts, percentages,
Bivariate analysis – Cross tabulations and Chi-square test - testing hypothesis of
association-Interpretation of Data and Report Writing

Data Preparation
Data preparation is the process of gathering, combining, structuring and organizing data so it can
be used in business intelligence (BI), analytics and data visualization applications. The
components of data preparation include data preprocessing, profiling, cleansing, validation and
transformation; it often also involves pulling together data from different internal systems and
external sources.
Data preparation work is done by information technology (IT), BI and data management teams
as they integrate data sets to load into a data warehouse, NoSQL database or data lake repository,
and then when new analytics applications are developed with those data sets. In addition, data
scientists, data engineers, other data analysts and business users increasingly use self-service data
preparation tools to collect and prepare data themselves.
Data preparation is often referred to informally as data prep. It's also known as data wrangling,
although some practitioners use that term in a narrower sense to refer to cleansing, structuring
and transforming data; that usage distinguishes data wrangling from the data preprocessing stage.
Purposes of data preparation
One of the primary purposes of data preparation is to ensure that raw data being readied for
processing and analysis is accurate and consistent so the results of BI and analytics applications
will be valid. Data is commonly created with missing values, inaccuracies or other errors, and
separate data sets often have different formats that need to be reconciled when they're combined.
Correcting data errors, validating data quality and consolidating data sets are big parts of data
preparation projects.
Data preparation also involves finding relevant data to ensure that analytics applications deliver
meaningful information and actionable insights for business decision-making. The data often is
enriched and optimized to make it more informative and useful -- for example, by blending
internal and external data sets, creating new data fields, eliminating outlier values and addressing
imbalanced data sets that could skew analytics results.

Created by Anu☺️
 58

What are the benefits of data preparation?

Data scientists often complain that they spend most of their time gathering, cleansing and
structuring data instead of analyzing it. A big benefit of an effective data preparation process is
that they and other end users can focus more on data mining and data analysis -- the parts of their
job that generate business value. For example, data preparation can be done more quickly, and
prepared data can automatically be fed to users for recurring analytics applications.
Done properly, data preparation also helps an organization do the following:
● ensure the data used in analytics applications produces reliable results;
● identify and fix data issues that otherwise might not be detected;
● enable more informed decision-making by business executives and operational workers;
● reduce data management and analytics costs;
● avoid duplication of effort in preparing data for use in multiple applications; and
● get a higher ROI from BI and analytics initiatives.
Effective data preparation is particularly beneficial in big data environments that store a
combination of structured, semistructured and unstructured data, often in raw form until it's
needed for specific analytics uses. Those uses include predictive analytics, machine learning
(ML) and other forms of advanced analytics that typically involve large amounts of data to
prepare. For example, in an article on preparing data for machine learning, Felix Wick, corporate
vice president of data science at supply chain software vendor Blue Yonder, is quoted as saying
that data preparation "is at the heart of ML."
Steps in the data preparation process
Data preparation is done in a series of steps. There's some variation in the data preparation steps
listed by different data professionals and software vendors, but the process typically involves the
following tasks:
Data collection. Relevant data is gathered from operational systems, data warehouses, data lakes
and other data sources. During this step, data scientists, members of the BI team, other data
professionals and end users who collect data should confirm that it's a good fit for the objectives
of the planned analytics applications.
Data discovery and profiling. The next step is to explore the collected data to better understand
what it contains and what needs to be done to prepare it for the intended uses. To help with that,

Created by Anu☺️
 59

data profiling identifies patterns, relationships and other attributes in the data, as well as
inconsistencies, anomalies, missing values and other issues so they can be addressed.
Data cleansing. Next, the identified data errors and issues are corrected to create complete and
accurate data sets. For example, as part of cleansing data sets, faulty data is removed or fixed,
missing values are filled in and inconsistent entries are harmonized.
Data structuring. At this point, the data needs to be modeled and organized to meet the
analytics requirements. For example, data stored in comma-separated values (CSV) files or other
file formats has to be converted into tables to make it accessible to BI and analytics tools.
Data transformation and enrichment. In addition to being structured, the data typically must
be transformed into a unified and usable format. For example, data transformation may involve
creating new fields or columns that aggregate values from existing ones. Data enrichment further
enhances and optimizes data sets as needed, through measures such as augmenting and adding
data.
Data validation and publishing. In this last step, automated routines are run against the data to
validate its consistency, completeness and accuracy. The prepared data is then stored in a data
warehouse, a data lake or another repository and either used directly by whoever prepared it or
made available for other users to access.
Data preparation can also incorporate or feed into data curation work that creates and oversees
ready-to-use data sets for BI and analytics. Data curation involves tasks such as indexing,
cataloging and maintaining data sets and their associated metadata to help users find and access
the data. In some organizations, data curator is a formal role that works collaboratively with data
scientists, business analysts, other users and the IT and data management teams. In others, data
may be curated by data stewards, data engineers, database administrators or data scientists and
business users themselves.

Created by Anu☺️
 60

What are the challenges of data preparation?

Data preparation is inherently complicated. Data sets pulled together from different source
systems are highly likely to have numerous data quality, accuracy and consistency issues to
resolve. The data also must be manipulated to make it usable, and irrelevant data needs to be
weeded out. As noted above, it's a time-consuming process: The 80/20 rule is often applied to
analytics applications, with about 80% of the work said to be devoted to collecting and preparing
data and only 20% to analyzing it.
● Inadequate or nonexistent data profiling. If data isn't properly profiled, errors,
anomalies and other problems might not be identified, which can result in flawed
analytics.
● Missing or incomplete data. Data sets often have missing values and other forms of
incomplete data; such issues need to be assessed as possible errors and addressed if so.
● Invalid data values. Misspellings, other typos and wrong numbers are examples of
invalid entries that frequently occur in data and must be fixed to ensure analytics
accuracy.
● Name and address standardization. Names and addresses may be inconsistent in data
from different systems, with variations that can affect views of customers and other
entities.
● Inconsistent data across enterprise systems. Other inconsistencies in data sets drawn
from multiple source systems, such as different terminology and unique identifiers, are
also a pervasive issue in data preparation efforts.
● Data enrichment. Deciding how to enrich a data set -- for example, what to add to it -- is
a complex task that requires a strong understanding of business needs and analytics goals.
● Maintaining and expanding data prep processes. Data preparation work often becomes
a recurring process that needs to be sustained and enhanced on an ongoing basis.

Univariate Analysis
It is a basic kind of analysis technique for statistical data. Here the data contains just one variable
and does not have to deal with the relationship of a cause and effect. Like for example consider a
survey of a classroom. The analysts would want to count the number of boys and girls in the
room. The data here simply talks about the number which is a single variable and the variable

Created by Anu☺️
 61

quantity. The main objective of the univariate analysis is to describe the data in order to find out
the patterns in the data. This is done by looking at the mean, mode, median, standard deviation,
dispersion, etc.
Univariate analysis is basically the simplest form to analyze data. Uni means one and this means
that the data has only one kind of variable. The major reason for univariate analysis is to use the
data to describe. The analysis will take data, summarise it, and then find some pattern in the data.
Types of Univariate Analysis
Summary Statistics
The most common method for performing univariate analysis is summary statistics. The
appropriate statistics are determined by the level of measurement or the nature of the information
contained within the variables. The following are the two most common types of summary
statistics:

● Measures of Dispersion: These numbers describe how evenly distributed the

values are in a dataset. The range, standard deviation, interquartile range, and
variance are some examples.
Range -the difference between the max value and min value in a dataset
Standard Deviation- an average measure of the spread
Interquartile Range- the spread of the middle 50% of values

● Measures of central tendency: These numbers describe the location of a dataset’s

center or the middle value of the data set. The mean and median are two
examples.
Frequency distribution table
Frequency means how often something takes place. The observation frequency tells the number
of times for the occurrence of an event. The frequency distribution table may show categorical or
qualitative and numeric or quantitative variables. The distribution gives a snapshot of the data
and lets you find out the patterns.
Bar chart
The bar chart is represented in the form of rectangular bars. The graph will compare various
categories. The graph could be plotted vertically or these could be plotted horizontally. In

Created by Anu☺️
 62

maximum cases, the bar will be plotted vertically. The horizontal or the x-axis will represent the
category and the vertical y-axis represents the category’s value. The bar graph looks at the data
set and makes comparisons. Like for example, it may be used to see what part is taking the
maximum budget?
Histogram
The histogram is the same as a bar chart which analysis the data counts. The bar graph will count
against categories and the histogram displays the categories into bins. The bin is capable of
showing the number of data positions, the range, or the interval.
Frequency Polygon
The frequency polygon is pretty similar to the histogram. However, these can be used to compare
the data sets or in order to display the cumulative frequency distribution. The frequency polygon
will be represented as a line graph.
Pie Chart
The pie chart displays the data in a circular format. The graph is divided into pieces where each
piece is proportional to the fraction of the complete category. So each slice of the pie in the pie
chart is relative to categories size. The entire pie is 100 percent and when you add up each of the
pie slices then it should also add up to 100.
Univariate data is a term used in statistics to describe data that consists of observations on only
one characteristic or attribute. There is only one variable in univariate data. The analysis of
univariate data is thus the most basic type of analysis because it deals with only one variable that
changes. It is uninterested in causes or relationships, and its primary objective is to explain the
data and detect patterns within it. The salaries of workers in an industry are a simple example of
univariate data.
The main characteristics of univariate data are as follows:
● Univariate data gathers data around a single, random variable. It describes each variable
separately.
● Univariate data describes the variable's response pattern.
Univariate Data Examples
The salaries of workers in a specific industry; the variable in this example is workers' salaries.
The heights of ten students in a class are measured; the variable here is the students' heights.
A veterinarian wants to weigh 20 puppies; the variable, in this case, is the weight of the puppies.

Created by Anu☺️
 63

Frequency Tables
Frequency means the number of times a value appears in the data. A table can quickly show us
how many times each value appears.
If the data has many different values, it is easier to use intervals of values to present them in a
table.
In statistics, a frequency table is a tabular representation that summarizes the distribution of a
categorical variable. It displays the frequency or count of each category or class within the
dataset. The purpose of a frequency table is to provide a clear and organized overview of the
data, enabling easy identification of patterns, trends, and insights.

Bar Charts
The pictorial representation of grouped data, in the form of vertical or horizontal rectangular
bars, where the lengths of the bars are equivalent to the measure of data, are known as bar graphs
or bar charts.
The bars drawn are of uniform width, and the variable quantity is represented on one of the axes.
Also, the measure of the variable is depicted on the other axes. The heights or the lengths of the
bars denote the value of the variable, and these graphs are also used to compare certain
quantities. The frequency distribution tables can be easily represented using bar charts which
simplify the calculations and understanding of data.
The three major attributes of bar graphs are:
● The bar graph helps to compare the different sets of data among different groups easily.
● It shows the relationship using two axes, in which the categories are on one axis and the
discrete values are on the other axis.
● The graph shows the major changes in data over time.
Types of Bar Graphs
The bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The primary feature of any bar graph is its length or
height. If the length of the bar graph is more, then the values are greater than any given data.
Bar graphs normally show categorical and numeric variables arranged in class intervals. They
consist of an axis and a series of labelled horizontal or vertical bars. The bars represent
frequencies of distinctive values of a variable or commonly the distinct values themselves. The
number of values on the x-axis of a bar graph or the y-axis of a column graph is called the scale.

Created by Anu☺️
 64

The types of bar charts are as follows:

1. Vertical bar chart
2. Horizontal bar chart
Vertical Bar Graphs
When the grouped data are represented vertically in a graph or chart with the help of bars, where
the bars denote the measure of data, such graphs are called vertical bar graphs. The data is
represented along the y-axis of the graph, and the height of the bars shows the values.
Horizontal Bar Graphs
When the grouped data are represented horizontally in a chart with the help of bars, then such
graphs are called horizontal bar graphs, where the bars show the measure of data. The data is
depicted here along the x-axis of the graph, and the length of the bars denote the values.
Properties of Bar Graph
● All the bars should have a common base.
● Each column in the bar graph should have equal width.
● The height of the bar should correspond to the data value.
● The distance between each bar should be the same.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bar Chart
Advantages:
● Bar graph summarises the large set of data in simple visual form.
● It displays each category of data in the frequency distribution.
● It clarifies the trend of data better than the table.
● It helps in estimating the key values at a glance.
Disadvantages:
● Sometimes, the bar graph fails to reveal the patterns, cause, effects, etc.
● It can be easily manipulated to yield fake information.

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph. The slices of pie show
the relative size of the data, and it is a type of pictorial representation of data. A pie chart
requires a list of categorical variables and numerical variables. Here, the term “pie” represents
the whole, and the “slices” represent the parts of the whole.

Created by Anu☺️
 65

The “pie chart” is also known as a “circle chart”, dividing the circular statistical graphic into
sectors or sections to illustrate the numerical problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part
of the whole. To find out the composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time. In
most cases, pie charts replace other graphs like the bar graph, line plots, histograms, etc.
Uses of Pie Chart
● Within a business, it is used to compare areas of growth, such as turnover, profit and
exposure.
● To represent categorical data.
● To show the performance of a student in a test, etc.
Advantages
● The picture is simple and easy-to-understand
● Data can be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole
● It helps in providing an effective communication tool for the even uninformed audience
● Provides a data comparison for the audience at a glance to give an immediate analysis or
to quickly understand information
● No need for readers to examine or measure underlying numbers themselves, which can be
removed by using this chart
● To emphasize a few points you want to make, you can manipulate pieces of data in the
pie chart
Disadvantages
● It becomes less effective if there are too many pieces of data to use
● If there are too many pieces of data. Even if you add data labels and numbers may not
help here, they themselves may become crowded and hard to read
● As this chart only represents one data set, you need a series to compare multiple sets
● This may make it more difficult for readers when it comes to analyze and assimilate
information quickly

Percentage
Per stands for “out of,” while cent is for “hundred.” As a result, percent denotes the quantity out
of one hundredth. The word percentage comes from the Latin phrase “per centum,” which means
“by hundred.” Percentages have a denominator of 100 , and they can be expressed in fractions. In

Created by Anu☺️
 66

other words, it’s a relationship between a component and the whole, with the whole always set to
100.
Examples of Use of Percentage
● The percentage is used to determine “how much” or “how many.” A percentage number
aids in calculating the exact amount or figure that is being discussed.
● Fractions are compared.
● Identifying a percentage increase or decrease
● Helps in finding profit and loss percentages.
Importance of Use of Percentage
● Percentages are extensively used in a variety of contexts. Discounts in stores, bank
interest rates, inflation rates, and numerous media data are expressed as percentages.
Percentages are essential for comprehending the financial aspects of daily living.
● Using percentages to express changes in observable factors like sales, losses, market
share, and take rate is a simple approach to convey changes to non-mathematically
oriented people.
● To calculate and use a percentage, you will need to do some basic arithmetic. You’ll also
need at least two numerical values representing the same thing, such as the total number
of units sold in the first and second years.

Bivariate analysis
Bivariate analysis is stated to be an analysis of any concurrent relation between two variables or
attributes. This study explores the relationship of two variables as well as the depth of this
relationship to figure out if there are any discrepancies between two variables and any causes of
this difference.
Types of Bivariate Analysis
The types of a bivariate analysis will depend upon the types of variables or attributes we will use
for analysing. The variable could be numerical, categorical or ordinal. If the independent variable
is categorical, like a particular brand of pen, then logit or probit regression can be used. If
independent and dependent both the attributes are ordinal, which means they have position or
ranking, then we can measure a rank correlation coefficient. If dependent attribute is ordinal,
then ordered logit or ordered probit can be utilised. Also, if the dependent attribute is either ratio

Created by Anu☺️
 67

or interval, like temperature scale, then we can measure regression. So based on these data, we
can mention the types of bivariate data analysis:
● Numerical and Numerical – In this type, both the variables of bivariate data, independent
and dependent, are having numerical values.
● Categorical and Categorical – When both the variables are categorical.
● Numerical and Categorical – When one variable is numerical and one is categorical.
Importance of bivariate analysis
Bivariate analysis is an important statistical method because it lets researchers look at the
relationship between two variables and determine their relationship. This can be helpful in many
different kinds of research, such as social science, medicine, marketing, and more.
● Bivariate analysis helps identify trends and patterns: It can reveal hidden data trends
and patterns by evaluating the relationship between two variables.
● Bivariate analysis helps identify cause and effect relationships: It can assess if two
variables are statistically associated, assisting researchers in establishing which variable
causes the other.
● It helps researchers make predictions: It allows researchers predict future results by
modeling the link between two variables.
● It helps inform decision-making: Business, public policy, and healthcare
decision-making can benefit from bivariate analysis.

Chi-square test
The chi-square test is a statistical method for identifying disparities in one or more categories
between what was expected and what was observed. The test’s primary premise is to assess the
actual data values to see what would be expected if the null hypothesis was valid.
Researchers use this statistical test to compare categorical variables within the same sample
group. It also helps to validate or offer context for frequency counts.
Cross-Tabulation
Cross-tab is a popular choice for statistical data analysis. Since it is a reporting/ analyzing tool, it
can be used with any data level: ordinal or nominal. It treats all data as nominal data (nominal
data is not measured. It is categorized). For example, you can analyze the relation between two
categorical variables like age and purchase of electronic gadgets.

Created by Anu☺️
 68

Testing hypothesis of association

Hypothesis tests are statistical tools widely used for assessing whether or not there is an
association between two or more variables. These tests provide a probability of the type 1 error
(p-value), which is used to accept or reject the null study hypothesis.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of
any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components
like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a
hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

● The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

● If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
● The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
● The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.

Sources of Hypothesis

● The resemblance between the phenomenon.

● Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.
● Scientific theories.
● General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Types of Hypothesis

● Simple hypothesis
● Complex hypothesis
● Directional hypothesis
● Non-directional hypothesis
● Null hypothesis
● Associative and casual hypothesis

Created by Anu☺️
 69

Simple Hypothesis

It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For
example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables
is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis

It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent
variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, and reduces the
risk of many diseases such as heart disease.

Directional Hypothesis

It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship
between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating
proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper
meal. This shows the effect and direction of the effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis

It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between
two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

Null Hypothesis

It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is
no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the
other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between
two or more variables.

Created by Anu☺️
 70

Examples of Hypothesis

● Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple

hypothesis.
● All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.
● If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less. It is
an example of a directional hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis

● Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

● It becomes the start point for the investigation.
● Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
● It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

In research, testing the hypothesis of association is a statistical analysis that aims to determine
whether there is a relationship or association between two or more variables. The hypothesis of
association typically states that there is a connection or correlation between the variables under
investigation.

Here is a general process for testing the hypothesis of association:

1. Formulate the research hypothesis: Based on the research question and existing literature,
you formulate a hypothesis that predicts the association between the variables. For example,
"There is a positive association between studying time and academic performance."

2. Select an appropriate statistical test: The choice of statistical test depends on the type of
variables being analyzed (e.g., categorical, continuous) and the specific research design.
Commonly used tests for testing association include chi-square test, t-test, correlation analysis,
ANOVA (analysis of variance), and regression analysis.

3. Collect and organize data: Collect data on the variables of interest from your sample or
population. Ensure the data is accurately recorded and organized for analysis.

Created by Anu☺️
 71

4. Set the significance level: Determine the desired level of confidence or significance level
(e.g., 0.05 or 0.01). This level represents the probability of obtaining a result as extreme as or
more extreme than the observed result, assuming the null hypothesis is true. It helps determine
the threshold for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.

5. Perform the statistical test: Apply the selected statistical test to the collected data. The test
will calculate a test statistic and a corresponding p-value. The test statistic measures the strength
and direction of the association, while the p-value represents the probability of observing the
association by chance alone if the null hypothesis is true.

6. Evaluate the results: Compare the obtained p-value with the significance level. If the p-value
is less than or equal to the significance level, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that
there is evidence of an association between the variables. If the p-value is greater than the
significance level, you fail to reject the null hypothesis, indicating insufficient evidence to
conclude an association.

7. Interpret the findings: Based on the results, interpret the findings in the context of your
research question and hypothesis. Discuss the direction and strength of the association, the
practical significance, and any limitations or potential confounding factors.

It's important to note that correlation or association does not imply causation. Even if a
statistically significant association is found, it does not necessarily mean that one variable causes
the other. Additional research and analysis are often needed to establish causal relationships.

Data Interpretation

Data Interpretation is the process of understanding, organising, and interpreting the given data,
for making sense of and getting a meaningful conclusion. The basic concept of data
interpretation is to review the collected data by means of analytical methods and arrive at
relevant conclusions. There are two methods to interpret the data:

Qualitative method – This method is used to analyse qualitative data or categorical data. The
qualitative data interpretation used texts instead of numbers or patterns to represent the data.

Created by Anu☺️
 72

Nominal and ordinal data are the two types of qualitative data. Ordinal data interpretation is
much easier than nominal data interpretation.

Quantitative method -This method is used to analyse quantitative data or numerical data.
Quantitative data interpretation uses numbers instead of texts to represent the data. The types of
quantitative data interpretation are discrete and continuous data. The quantitative method of data
interpretation requires statistical methods and techniques like mean, median, standard deviation,
etc. to interpret the data.

Basic Concept Of Data Interpretation

The basic concept of data interpretation refers to the procedures through which data is reviewed
by various analytical methods to arrive at an inference. The data to be interpreted can be
collected from various sources like data from the running of industries, census population etc.
The importance of data interpretation are:

● The well-analysed and well-structured data help the managing board to examine the data
before taking action to implement new ideas
● It helps in predicting upcoming trends and future competition
● The process of data interpretation provided the business with various cost benefits
● The data interpretation mostly helps in decision making
● Data interpretation helps you gain knowledge to achieve a competitive strategy
● The data interpretation helps to manipulate information in order to answer critical
questions
● It helps to evaluate consumer requirements

Types Of Data Interpretation

Bar Graphs – by using bar graphs we can interpret the relationship between the variables in the
form of rectangular bars. These rectangular bars could be drawn either horizontally or vertically.
The different categories of data are represented by bars and the length of each bar represents its
value. Some types of bar graphs include grouped graphs, segmented graphs, stacked graphs etc.

Created by Anu☺️
 73

Pie Chart – the circular graph used to represent the percentage of a variable is called a pie chart.
The pie charts represent numbers as proportions or percentages. Some types of pie charts are
simple pie charts, doughnut pie charts, and 3D pie charts.

Tables – statistical data are represented by tables. The data are placed in rows and columns.
Types of tables include simple tables and complex tables.

Line Graph – the charts or graphs that show information in a series of points are included in the
line graphs. Line charts are very good to visualise continuous data or sequence of values. Some
of the types of line graphs are simple line graphs, stacked line graphs etc.

Report Writing

A report is a well-written formal document that briefly describes the process and findings of a
research. It outlines the systematic investigation, recommendations, and gaps that need further
inquiry. A well-crafted research report tells you about all the main areas of a research process.

Importance of a report in research methodology

Knowledge transfer

A report contributes to the existing knowledge. Through this report, we can communicate
effectively with the findings of the investigation.

Identification of knowledge gaps

A research report identifies knowledge gaps that can be investigated further. The report shows
what and how much has been done.

presents information precisely

A research report makes you able to show research information in a concise and precise manner.

Time-efficient- A report is a time-efficient document because you don’t have to spend much
time detailing the findings. Rather, it is written briefly and you can send it through email to the
concerned people.

Created by Anu☺️
 74

You can write the report in the following structure:

● Title
The title of your research should point to the objectives, aims, and findings of your systematic
investigation.

● Table of contents
The table of contents will make the readers able to navigate your research report.

● Abstract
In the abstract section, the reader can have an overview of the important aspects of research such
as method, data collection, and findings. While writing the abstract you should follow the format
of 5ws and 1H; what, where, when, who, why, and how.

● Introduction
You can write aims and the problems that become the cause of your research. You should also
indicate whether you have achieved your objectives of the research or it requires further work.

● Literature review
In a literature review, you will write a survey that highlights existing knowledge about the
research topic. In the literature review, you can present the research hypothesis and its
implications.

● Investigation
In this portion of the investigation, write in-depth information briefly about the research process
that includes methodology, data collection, sample, research subjects, and analysis.

● Findings
In this portion, you are expected to show the results and findings of your systematic
investigation.

● Discussion
Now, you will further explain the results of the research that you outlined earlier. Justify for each
finding and show whether the outcomes are according to the hypothesis or not.

Created by Anu☺️
 75

● Conclusion
Finally, you will write a summary of your research in which you will talk about the whole report
of research methodology.

● Reference and appendices

In this section, mention all the primary and secondary sources used during research.

(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)(*)
##############################################################################
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑

THE END
❌❌❌
Created by Anu☺️