UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND CONSUMER SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE

DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY; YEAR II (DISTANCE)

DAM 201: CROP PESTS AND PEST MANAGEMENT

COURSE OUTLINE

 Introduction: Meaning of crop pests

 Classification of crop pests

 Causes of pest outbreak in crop fields

 Concept of integrated pest management

 Major crop pests and diseases and their management strategies

Course Instructor: Prof. Benjamin. K. Badii (0243503313), [email protected] …Nov 2023

Reference Materials

 Obeng- Ofori, D. Eds. (2007). Major pests of food and selected fruits and crops in West Africa

 NRI (1996). A guide to insect pests of Nigeria crops: identification, biology and control

 Dannis, S. H. (1994). Agricultural insect pests in the tropics and their control

 Metcalf, R. L. and Luckman, W.W. (1990). Introduction to insect pest management.

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1: MEANING OF CROP PESTS

What is a pest?
A pest is any animal or plant which has a harmful effect on crops, livestock or humans, their food or their
living conditions. esp by imposing itself when it is not wanted; nuisance

Pests include organisms which:

 carry disease-causing micro-organisms and parasites, eg, mosquitoes
 attack and consume vegetable and cereal crops, eg, grasshoppers.
 damage stored food. eg, rats and mice
 attack and eat farm and domestic animals. feral cats/dogs, foxes
 damage clothing. Eg Silverfish
 damage structures/buildings. eg, termites
 bite people. eg bed bugs
There are thousands of different kinds of pests which are harmful to humans. The great majority of these
are types of insects.

Crop pests
In all farming systems, many sorts of organisms compete with a man at both primary and secondary
stages of production. From man’s point of view, these organisms and the vectors that transmit some of
them are harmful organism, and in this context, we refer to them collectively as pests.

The term ‘crop pest’ is a human invention used to describe plants, animals and other agents which cause
significant damage to crops or occur where they are not wanted and whose activities are inimical to
productivity and the welfare of man.

From an agriculturist’s point of view, the definition of a pest is essentially economic, that is, whether or
not a particular agent is present, and is causing damage that is sufficient to justify or warrant its control so
as to avoid economic loss. It must be emphasized that the mere presence of an agent on a plant or animal
does not make that agent a pest unless it causes economic damage to justify its control

This idea of defining pest in terms of economic damage was first emphasized by Stern et al. (1959) who
defined economic threshold as ‘the density at which control measures could be determined to prevent an
increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level’. A more concise definition of Carlson
(1973) states economic thresholds as ‘levels of pest damage which calls for the use of plant protection
measures. Economic injury level is the lowest population density, which will cause economic damage i.e.
the amount of injury, which will justify the use of artificial control measures.

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UNIT 2: CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PESTS

SECTION 1: BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PESTS

Based on their biology

 Arthropods (insects, mites, ticks, millipedes and other arachnids).
 Vertebrates (rodents, birds, bats, amphibians, reptiles, mammals).
 Weeds, poisonous and other parasitic plants.
 Nematodes and other parasitic worms.
 Pathogens including fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, micro-plasmas and other harmful micro-
organisms.

Based on damage caused, abundance and frequency of occurrence

1. Minor pests usually do not cause damage of economic importance. Often their effect on the plant is
insignificant. Many minor pests are potential major pests. Minor pests are usually not the focus of
control strategies.
2. Major pests are perennial pests which cause serious and persistent economic damage to crop plants to
warrant their control. Capsids, shield bugs and cocoa mealybugs are major pests of cocoa.
3. Key pests are the most important or destructive of the major pests in a pest complex which are usually
perennial and dominate control measures. The cassava mealybug and the green spider mite are key
pests of cassava in Africa.
4. Potential pests are pest species that could become major pests following a change in the agro-
ecosystem such as indiscriminate use of pesticides. White flies have become major pests of several
vegetables in Ghana due to mis-use of pesticides to control vegetable pests.
5. Occasional/sporadic pests are species whose numbers are usually kept in check by biotic and abiotic
factors which occasionally breakdown, allowing them to build up populations to cause economic
damage to crops. Many lepidopterous defoliators such as armyworms occur at irregular intervals and
cause heavy damage to crops.
6. Migrant pests are pests capable of long distant migration or movement usually in large aggregations
to attack crop plants (e.g. locusts, armyworms, quelea birds, etc.).

Based on the plant part attacked

 Defoliators usually attack the foliage mainly the leaves (e.g. grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus)
 Stem borers feed inside the stem of plants (e.g. cereal stem borers and cocoa stem borer).
 Root feeders attack roots of plants (e.g. termites, grubs, nematodes).
 Fruit and seed borers attack fruits (e.g. fruit piercing moths, mango weevil, cocoa capsids).
 Flower bud borers feed on flower buds (e.g. bollworm on cotton).

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SECTION 2: INSECT PESTS
Insects are the most successful group within the Animal Kingdom because over 80% of all living animals
are insects. Insects belong to a group of animals known as arthropods. The body of an insect is divided
into three namely head, thorax and abdomen. Adult insects have six legs and four wings except flies,
which have two wings only. Insects are the most successful and destructive group of pests that attack our
crops. Some insects are, however, very useful to us because:
 Some insects produce many useful products such as honey, bees wax, silk (e.g. bees, silkworms).
 Certain insects pollinate our crops to produce fruits seeds (e.g. bees and butterflies). Such insects can
be used for biological control of pests and weeds.
 They attack and destroy other destructive insects and weeds (e.g. ants, wasps, beetles, flies).
 Some insects feed on dead or decaying plants or animals and convey them into humus to improve the
fertility of the soil for cultivated crops (e.g. ants, beetles, termites).
 Many types of insects such as termites, locust, grasshopper, caterpillar and some beetles serve as food
for people in many parts of Africa and South America. They are important source of protein in human
diet. Many fishes also feed on aquatic insects (insects that live in water).
 We obtain drugs from some insects (e.g. flies).
 Insects are used for scientific studies in Research Institutions and Universities (e.g. Drosophila)

Classification of insect pests

Insect pests can be classified based on several criteria. They can be classified into three main groups
based on their mode of feeding (feeding habits).
These are:
 Biting and chewing insects
 Piercing and sucking insects
 Boring insects
Biting and chewing insects
These insects possess strong mouthparts that enable them to bite and chew plant parts. They feed and
destroy leaves, young seedlings, tender stems, shoots, flowers, fruits and stored seeds. They attack
legumes (e.g. cowpea, groundnut and soybean), cereal (e.g. rice, maize, sorghum, millet, wheat), root and
tuber crops (e.g. yam, cassava, potato, sweet potato), oil palm, coconut and vegetables. Examples of some
common biting and chewing insects are locust, grasshopper, cockroaches, termites, army worms, leaf
worms, yam beetles, weevils, grain borers and caterpillars.

Piercing and sucking insects

The mouthparts of these insects are modified for piercing and sucking. These mouthparts resemble a long
needle which is called proboscis. They used it to pierce into the tissues of leaves, stems, and fruits and
suck in liquid materials called ‘Sap’. These insects are important vectors because they transmit viruses
that cause diseases in crop plants. Examples of piercing and sucking insects include whiteflies, capsids or
mirids (akate) in Akan language, aphids, mealy bugs, cotton stainers and scale insects.

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Boring insects
The adult and the larvae of these insects bore holes into stem, shoots, young seedlings, flowers, fruits and
seeds. They include fruit borers, stem borers, maize and rice weevils, grain borers, bean beetles and other
beetles. Boring insects cause damage to cereals, beans, groundnut, Bambara groundnut, sugarcane, kola,
garden eggs, cabbage and okra.

Economic importance of insect pests

Direct damage to field cops: Human society suffers tremendous losses from the feeding and other
activities of insect pests. Many insects feed on different parts of cultivated plants. All types of crop plants,
including cereals, root and tubers, plantains, grain legumes, fruit and industrial crops, are attacked and
injured by insects. The injury is caused by the insects’ feeding or oviposition on the plant or serving as
agents in the transmission of plant diseases. This injury may vary from a reduction in crop yields to the
complete destruction and death of the plant. A few insects injure plants when they lay their eggs,
particularly in the stem or fruit. Examples of such insects are tree crickets, tree hoppers, and certain
leafhoppers. Insects such as fruit flies which lay their eggs in fruits often cause fruit decay.

Insect vectors of plant diseases: The damage done by an insect feeding alone may not be severe, but a
disease vector can inoculate a plant with a pathogen which may reduce its productivity or even kill it.
Many types of insects transmit disease causing pathogens to plants. Over 200 plant diseases have been
shown to have insect vectors. About three-fourth of these diseases are caused by viruses.

Insects attacking stored products: After materials produced by plants and animals have been stored as
food or clothing or have been utilized in buildings or fabrics, they may be attacked and damaged by
insects. The damage is done by insects’ feeding or tunneling into this materials or contaminating them.
The possibility of insect attack greatly increases the expense of packing and storage. The annual damage
to stored products in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to be over 25%.

Pests of wood: Different types of wooden structures, such as buildings, furniture, fence posts, utility
poles, and materials such as pasteboard and paper are subject to attack by insects. One of the most
widespread and destructive pests of wood and wood products is termite. Termites eat out the interior
portion of beams, floors and joists and often build tunnels over or through foundations to reach the
wooden parts of buildings. Timbers attacked eventually collapse. Powderpost beetles and carpenter ants
tunnel into posts and timbers and weaken them.

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Pests of fabrics and clothing: Materials made from animal fibers, such as furs clothing, blankets rugs,
and upholstering, may be attacked and damaged by insects. The amount of material actually eaten may be
small, but the value of materials attacked may be greatly reduced. The most important fabric pests are
dermestid beetles and cloths moths.

Pests of stored foods: Many types of stored foods, particularly meat, cheese, milk products, flour, meal,
cereals, grain legumes, nuts, and fruits, may be attacked by insects. Considerable damage may be done by
the feeding or tunneling of the insects, or the actual damage may be slight and the effect of the insects
may be mainly due to contamination of the products. The important pests of this group are the Angoumois
grain moth, Indian meal moth, Mediterranean flour moth, grain borers, flour beetles, grain weevils,
Khapra beetles, saw toothed grain beetles, and flour mites. Some attack whole grain, and others feed
mainly on meal or flour. Bean pea weevils tunnel in and may completely destroy stored beans and peas.
Stored meat and cheese are attacked principally by the larder beetle, cheese skipper, and various mites.
Drugstore beetles attack a variety of high value products, including chocolate, spices and tobacco.

Insects attacking humans and animals: Insects affect human beings and animals in four principally
ways. (1) they may inject venom by their bites or stings; (2) they may be merely annoying; (3) they may
live in or on people or animals as parasites, or (4) they may serve as agents in the transmission of disease.

Annoyance of insects: Many people are bothered by insects that buzz around or crawl over their bodies.
Such effects are mainly psychological, but in some cases the ‘nuisance value’ of annoying insects may be
considerable. Bot flies and face flies, though they neither bite nor sting, cause great annoyance to cattle.
Many insects annoy humans and animals by their odours or secretions; others may get into one’s eyes or
ears. For some people, the mere presence of insects (or the thought of their presence) may evoke fear,
such entomophobia may sometimes be costly. Many homeowners have paid dearly to rid to rid homes of
insects that were quite harmless, simple because of their fear of insects in general.

Venomous insects: Many arthropods inject into humans animals toxins that cause irritation, swelling,
pain, and sometimes paralysis. Important arthropods that inject venom by their bite include various biting
flies, bugs, mites, ticks, centipedes and spiders. The bites of some of these are very painful, often resulting
in swelling or (for example, in the case of certain spiders) a necrotic ulcer, and in some cases may cause
death. Some tick bites result in paralysis. Those that inject venom by their sting include bees, wasps and
scorpions. Such stings may be very painful and often cause considerable swelling. The sting of some
scorpion may be fatal. Many people are particularly sensitive to bee or wasp stings and may suffer
anaphylactic shock or even death as a result. More people in the United States are killed by wasp or bee
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stings than by the bites of venomous snakes. A few caterpillars, such as saddleback, puss moth larvae, and
larvae of some moths, have stinging hairs that produce a type of dermatitis. Some of the blister beetles
have body fluids that are irritating to the skin. A few insects, such as rose chafers, are toxic when
swallowed accidentally.

Parasitic insects: Many insects and arthropods live in or on the bodies of people or animals as parasites
and cause irritation, damage to tissues, and in some cases even death. The chewing lice are external
parasites of and mammals, feeding on hairs, feathers, dermal scale, and other external structures. The may
cause considerable irritation and a general loss in condition in affected farm animals. The sucking lice are
external parasites of mammals and suck blood. The cause irritation, and bad sores often result from the
rubbing or scratching induced by their bites. Fleas, bed bugs, and other biting insects cause similar
irritation. The mange and scab mites that burrow into the skin of people and animals are often extremely
irritating. Many flies pass their larval stage as internal parasites of man and animals, causing a condition
known as myiasis. These animals may cause serious damage, even death, to the affected animals. The
larvae of the ox warble flies live under the skin of the host. They produce a general loss in condition in
cattle; reduce milk production, and the value of the hides for leather. The larvae of the sheep bot fly
burrow into the nasal passages of its host. The screw -worm fly lays its eggs in wounds and other exposed
tissues of the host. The larvae of horse bot flies develop in the alimentary tract of horses and cause
irritation and damage to mucous membranes.

Impact of insect pests in crop productivity

Insects are man’s chief competitors on earth and cause considerable losses to crops, livestock, forestry
and human health. A few examples of the importance of insect pests in agriculture and human health in
Africa are listed below:

 In Ghana cocoa capsids (mirids) cause 25-30% loss in cocoa production. The shield bug Bathycoelia
thalassina, is reported to cause an 18% loss in the yield of cocoa in the Eastern and Brong-Ahafo
regions of Ghana.
 West African governments spend annually large sums of money to control the swollen shoot disease
which is transmitted by mealy bugs. Since 1946 well over 150 million diseased cocoa trees have been
destroyed in the Eastern region of Ghana alone.
 The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, a native of Africa, has now been introduced to nearly
all parts of the tropics. In Brazil this pest has caused major crop losses and remains the most serious

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 pest of coffee in that country. In all the coffee growing countries of Africa and elsewhere large sums
of money are spent in controlling this and other pests of coffee.
 The oil-palm industry in Western Ghana, Cote d’ viore (Ivory Coast), parts of Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
Benin and the Cameroon is seriously affected by the activities of a leaf-miner whose infestation may
be so heavy that only the ‘spikes’ of the trees remain green. Attack by the leaf miner may result in 70-
90% loss to oil palms in Nigeria and Ghana.
 Vast areas of farm land, forest and natural pasture in many African countries have been devastated by
locust swarms including the African migratory locus (Locusta migratoria migratoriodes) and the
desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria). FAO estimated that about $ 100 million were required to
combat the recent locust outbreak in the Northern and Central Africa (Mauritania, Niger, Gambia,
Nigeria, Chad and other sahelian countries in 2014).
 The banana/plantain weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) causes about 20-70% of crop loss in West
Africa.
 The grain legumes such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), soybeans (Glycine max) and pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) provide green leaves, green pods and seeds which are important sources of high
quality protein in many African countries. One of the greatest limiting factors in attempts to increase
the productivity of grain legumes is the wide range of insect pests which attack the crop. Over 130
species have been recorded on grain legumes in Africa and they may attack virtually every part of the
crop-root, stem, leaves, flowers, and pods. In Northern Nigeria potential loss in yield of cowpea due to
insects is over 90%. Indeed, it is virtually impossible to obtain any meaningful harvest if cowpea is
grown as a sole crop without the use of insecticides to combat pests.
 Cereals crops in Africa are liable to attack by a variety of insect pests. A survey of the estimated
losses in yield in Tanzania and Kenya were as follows: stem borers, 18% in Kenya, 27% in Tanzania;
sorghum shoot fly, 20% in Kenya, 4% in Tanzania; grasshoppers, 10% in Kenya, 7% in Tanzania.
 In Ghana, out of a total annual harvest of 250,000-300,000 tones of maize about 20% are lost to insect
and rodent damage in storage. In Nigeria up to 27.7% losses have resulted from insect to maize stored
in cribs for 4 months without pest control. Direct and indirect losses of maize in the tropical countries
vary from 23-35% leading to an overall loss of about 2 million tones annually in developing Africa.
 Root and tuber crops which are very important carbohydrates foods in the African tropics are attacked
by at least 60 species of insect pests. The cassava mealy bug and the green spider mite cause an
average of 60% tuber loss of cassava in Africa. In severe infestation there can be 100% tuber loss.
Yields of cassava may be reduced by as much as 80% by the whitefly –transmitted cassava mosaic
disease.
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 Yam tubers in Nigeria are liable to attack by 48 different species of insects. Damage to tubers by yam
beetle ranges from 5% to 70% and is said to be always more than 20% in the main production areas.
 Post-harvest losses in Ghana and most other African countries due to insect pests are estimated at over
30% or more. In sub-Saharan regions of Africa, losses of food grains during storage at farm or village
level can amount to 25-40% of the harvested crop. This wastage of food cannot be tolerated when so
many people in Africa remain hungry.
 In the world, there are about 10,000 species of insect pests and, as Odhiambo has noted, tropical
Africa has the distinction of harbouring many of the major pests (the desert, migratory, red, and brown
locusts, the African and spotted army worms numerous termites and mealy bugs, aphids, thrips and
nearly 4000 other important insect pests of crops).

From this brief account it is clear that insects affect the welfare of human beings and their study involves
potential economic and social benefits to humans. No nation can afford to be complacent about the
problems posed by insects. In regards, the role of entomologists becomes extremely important since it is
they who are expected to manipulate and control insects in the biological environment. To do this, they
need much more information than is at the present available on the biology, ecology and behavior of
pests. When this is available, they may be able to formulate pest management systems to combat the pest
menace.

SECTION 3: MITE PESTS

Acarology is study of mites or acari. Mites are second in numbers only to insects and are tiny mostly
terrestrial arthropods that are best known as parasites of birds and mammals (including humans) and as
pests of plants. Less well known is that mites are among the most important organisms responsible for
recycling soil nutrients, and vectors of numerous plant and animal pathogens. They are also an important
source of parasites and natural enemies commonly associated with a wide variety of arthropods.

As arthropods, mites share a number of features with insects. These include the possession of exoskeleton
and jointed appendages, and the division of body into segments. They also possess cuticle which is shed
during moulting for growth to occur. As arachinids, however, mites differ from insects in having only two
body tagmata; an anterior podosoma (cephalothorax) composed of six fused segments and usually bearing
the four pairs of walking legs, and a posterior opisthosoma made up of thirteen fused segments and
bearing no legs. The first two segments of the podosoma bear the mouthparts are known as gnathosoma.

Important mites in crop production

The green spider mite is a major exotic pest of cassava throughout Africa, causing over 60% loss in
tubers. Similarly, mites of stored products exploit the inherent instability present in such system (absence

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of effective natural enemies). The flour mite, A. siro contaminates grains and flour, which acquire

unpleasant musty smells and taste. The pest also attacks oilseed rape, linseed, cheese and spices.
Important mites in agriculture are the phytophagous species, their natural enemies and species that recycle
nutrients in the soil. Most mite pests are found in the suborder Actinedida. Agricultural mites pests are
usually associated with highly managed agro-ecosystems such as orchards, greenhouses and cultivated
annuals were intensive agricultural practices destabilize the ecological balance. Often the conditions
found in these managed and thus becomes pests.

Many species of spider mites and eriophyid mites are found in economic proportions both where these
crops are grown as annual or perennial crops. Some species of spider mites appears as most important
economic pests both in tropical and temperate regions particularly under hot and dry conditions. Cereal
crops like rice, maize and sorghum, and pulse crops are all damaged by one or the other mite pest at
different crop stages.

Besides causing damage to plants, eriophyid mites are also vectors of wheat streak mosaic virus and
pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus disease. Ric yellow streak mosaic virus is also vectored by brown
wheat mite. Rice panicle mite infestation is concentrated on reproductive structures of plants during the
milky stage of development resulting in deformation of the inflorescence and discolouration of rice
hulls. Many mite species are considered as invasive pests and may prove troublesome in earlier
uninfested areas.

SECTION 4: WEED PESTS

Weeds are uncultivated plants growing where they are not wanted and which interfere with the growth of
crops and effective land use. A weed is essentially an unwanted and undesirable plant growing among
cultivated crops. Every farmer must work hard to prevent his/her crops from being invaded by weeds. If a
farmer fails to control weeds in his/her farm, crop yield will be reduced.

Classification of weed pests

Weeds are classified based on (a) life history (b) nature of leaf (c) growth habit. Based on the life history,
weeds can be grouped into three namely annuals, biennials and perennials. Annuals weeds complete
their life cycle from germination to production of seed within one year. Some examples of annual weeds
are Amaranthus, Tridax, goatweed, and Euphobia. Biennial weeds complete their life cycles within two
years. Only few plants fall within this group. An example of a biennial is Solanum nigrum. Perennial
weeds complete their life cycles in more than two years and may live indefinitely. Some common
perennial weeds include Cyperus, Guinea grass, elephant grass, Bermuda grass and Siam weed or
(‘Acheampong’ weed).
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Weeds may also be classified as narrow-leafed or broad-leafed weeds. The narrow-leafed weeds are
mainly the grasses and sedges. They include spear grass, elephant grass, carpet grass, Guinea grass and
Cyperus. Examples of broad leaf weeds are goat weed, Siam weed and Tridax.

Weeds can be classified as free-living or parasitic depending on their growth habit. Free-living weeds or
non-parasitic weeds are those that do not depend on crop plants for growth and development. Examples
are Siam weed, Tridax, giant star grass, goat weed. Parasitic weeds are those weeds that grow and derive
their food directly from crop plants. Examples of parasitic weeds are Striga, Dodder and Mistletoe.

Characteristics of weed pests

Some of the important characteristics of weeds that have made their control very difficult include the
following:

1. Fast growing weeds: Weeds generally grow very fast in different kinds of soils especially those types
of soils that supply their needs more than crops. They therefore establish themselves earlier than crop
plants.
2. Produce many seeds: Some weed species have the ability to produce very large numbers of viable
seeds per plant. This enables them to grow and spread easily and very fast in new areas.
3. Possess many forms of reproduction: Weeds may reproduce by means of several propagules such as
leaves, tubers, nuts, stems, corms and rhizomes. Propagules are any part of a plant that can reproduce
the plant.
4. Endure harsh conditions: Most weeds produce seeds that remain viable (alive) for many years in the
soil when conditions are unfavorable. This phenomenon is called dormancy. Dormancy is situation
where seeds or propagules will not germinate unless the environmental conditions are favourable.
Dormancy enables the weeds to survive unfavorable weather conditions such as drought, winter or
flood.
5. Efficient dispersal: Most weeds have very efficient means of dispersal that enables to spread quickly
to occupy vast areas of land. Dispersal of weeds is the movement of weed seeds or propagules from
one place to another. Agents such as wind, water, animals, man or explosive mechanism disperse
weed seeds and fruits to new areas. The various methods of dispersal of weed seeds are described
below.
6. Survival in varied environmental conditions: Certain weed seeds or propagules are able to survive
and reproduce in varied unfavorable environments such as high temperatures, very dry, or cold
conditions or in poor soils. For example, some weeds may store a lot of water or carbohydrates in their
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 leaves, stems, roots, etc. which they may rely on in dry conditions. Weeds thus occur in varied
environmental conditions where crops plants cannot even survive.

Harmful effects of weeds

Weeds are important because of the harm they cause to agriculture and therefore the need to control them.
The control of weeds is a major concern to farmers because of the following problems they to farmers,
domestic animals and agricultural land:

1. Competition with crop plants: Weeds compete with crop plants for air, space, sunlight, nutrients, and
soil moisture and therefore adversely affect their growth and development. Weeds also mar the beauty of
farms and gardens.

2. Decrease in crop yield: Weeds compete with crop plants for water, nutrients, air, light and space
therefore interfere with their normal growth. Where the weeds are abundant and grow faster than the
crops, they cause crop plants to grow tall, lean, weak and eventually give poor yield.

3. Reduction in crop quality: Weed seeds and other weed parts may get mixed up with crop seeds and
hence reduce the quality of crop seeds and their market value. The separation of weeds seeds or parts of
weeds from crops is extra work to the farmer. It is very common to see weed seeds or other weed parts in
rice, maize, beans etc. This is less desired by consumers.

4. Livestock poisoning: Some weeds such as Lantana camara are poisonous to livestock. If such
poisonous weeds get mixed up with feed they could poison grazing farm animals.

5. Disturbance of harvesting operation: weedy farms are difficult to harvest either by hand or by the
use of machines. Weeds make movement in the difficult for the farmers. Some weeds can cause skin
irritation on contact.

6. Weeds act as alternative hosts of pests and diseases: Weeds may act as host of pests and diseases
that affect crops. The pests and disease-causing organisms (pathogens) live and develop on weeds from
where they attack crop plants and domestic animals. For example, various stages of insects (e.g.
grasshoppers, army worms, aphids) and pathogens (fungi, viruses, or bacteria) survive on weed species
and attack the crops later. Other pests such as rodents (e.g. rats and grass – cutters may hide under weeds
and later feed on crops in the field).

7. Blockage of waterways: Some aquatic weeds like water hyacinth can block waterways or irrigation
channels and reduce the amount of water available for irrigation.
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8. Increase in cost of production: Farmer’s spend a lot of time, effort and money to control weeds in
order to minimize their adverse effects on crops. Weeds therefore increase the cost of producing crops and
therefore reduce the income of farmers.

SECTION 5: PLANT PATHOGENS

Plant pathogens are micro-organisms that cause disease in plants. Important plant pathogens are bacteria,
fungi and viruses.

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic unicellular organisms. They are found everywhere especially in the soil, water,
living and dead plants and animals. Some bacteria are ‘germs’ that cause disease in humans and livestock.
Fortunately, there are very few pathogenic bacteria that attack living plants. A large proportion of bacteria
are harmless and a lot of them are very useful. For example, many bacteria live as saprophytes on dead
organic matter and help in their decomposition to form humus. They are therefore useful in compost and
silage making. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium species fix nitrogen in the roots nodules of
legume crops (e.g. cowpea, groundnut, soybeans). Some group of bacteria is also useful in the cutting of
tobacco, butter and cheese making and brewing of wines and beers. Examples of plant diseases caused by
bacteria are leaf blight of cassava, bacteria blight of cotton, and vegetables, bacteria wilt of tomato, blight
of guinea corn and Galadema of oil palm.

Fungi

Fungi are a group of microscopic plants which lack special organs such as roots, stems or leaves. Their
bodies are collectively called mycelium and are made up of thread-like filaments referred to as hypha.
All fungi cannot manufacture their own food (through photosynthesis) because they lack chlorophyll.
They must therefore live as parasites on plants and animals or as saprophytes on dead organic matter.
Common diseases caused by fungi include fruit rot, leaf spot, gummosis, coffee rust, Tikka, rice blkast,
maize rust, maize smut, damping off, tomato wilt, black pod of cocoa and sigatoga disease of banana
(banana leaf spot).

Viruses

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Viruses are the smallest living organisms we know in the world. They are smaller than bacteria or fungi
and can only be seen using an electron microscope. They are minute particles that consist of protein
molecules. All viruses are parasites and can reproduce themselves only in living cells. Viruses cause the
most destructive plant diseases. Viruses are transmitted (spread) from one place to another through seeds,
vegetative organs (e.g. cutting, suckers, corms etc.), soil, and farm tools. Some sucking insects (e.g.
aphids, white flies, mealy bug) and other parasitic plants (dodder) can also spread virus diseases.
Common virus diseases include cocoa swollen shoot disease, cassava mosaic, tobacco mosaic, groundnut
rosette, maize streak, tristeza of citrus, Banana bunch top and tomato yellow leaf curl.

Algae

Algae are a large group of plants that range in size from single-celled (unicellular) organisms such as
diatoms, to large multi-cellular (many celled) seaweeds. Some algae live fresh water or sea water and
cause the water to appear green. Algae form the basic food of all animal life in water. A few species of
algae are pathogenic and cause disease to some crop plants. A common example is algal spot in oil palm.

Nematodes

Nematodes are worm-like organisms that live in the soil. They are also called eelworms. They feed
mainly on roots of crops. Nematodes cause damage to crops such as yams, cowpea, groundnut, Bambara
groundnut and many vegetables including tomato, okra, pepper and garden egg. One of the most
important groups of nematodes is the root-knot nematode. These nematodes cause numerous swellings or
galls (knots) to form on the roots of infected plants. Root knot nematodes can distort or destroy the whole
root system of crops. Affected plants cannot therefore absorb water and nutrients to manufacture their
food for growth and development. The lesion nematode attacks aerial parts of several crop plants. Plants
attacked by nematodes become stunted in growth and wilting may also occur.

Effects of diseases on crop production

Diseases are very important in crop production because of the following reasons:

1. Diseases can cause death to the whole crop so that no fruit or seed will be produced by the plant.

2. A disease may reduce the final yield or productivity of the crop. A disease can destroy the leaves,
flowers, stems or roots of crops and reduce the ability of the plant to manufacture food through the
process called photosynthesis. Diseased plants therefore produce less fruits and seeds than healthy crops.

14
This can lead to shortage of food in the country and country may have to use her scarce foreign exchange
to import food from other countries to her people.

3. Diseases can reduce the quality and market value of crops including fruits, seeds, and vegetables. For
example, disease spots on fruits and vegetables make them unattractive. Some diseases cause fruits and
vegetables to rot and become unhealthy for human consumption. Also fibres, grains and seeds that are
harvested can go mouldy. A disease can reduce the nutritional value of fruits, seeds and other grains.

4. Some diseases are a danger to livestock and human health. For example, a common disease of cereals
and grasses can poison and kill livestock and humans. Aflatoxin which is a toxin produced by fungus
(Aspergilus flavus) in cereals and groundnuts can cause cancer in humans.

5. Diseases increase the cost of producing crops because the farmer has to use labour and buy materials
such as traps, pesticides and spraying machines to prevent and control.

6. They can affect the growth and development of agro-industries using agricultural products. When
diseases destroy raw materials used by these industries, it can lead to unemployment in the country.

7. Diseases reduce the incomes and standard of living of farmers.

SECTION 6: RODENT PESTS

Rodents are the most successful group other than man and constitute the largest group of mammals both
in numbers, genera and species. Of the 4100 mammal species existing today, nearly 1700 are rodents.
Thus, the order Rodentia comprises nearly half of all mammalian species because they are highly
reproductive and widespread. Rodents are generally rapid breeding, short lived herbivores competing with
man for food crops, reducing supplies, damaging various structures and transmitting dangerous parasites
and diseases. They inhabit a wide variety of ecological niches mostly on land, often in burrows, but many
on tress and some in water. The types of plant cover and chemical cues are used for food selection.

Rodents are a key mammalian group and are highly successful in many in environments. The number of
rodent species worldwide is conservatively estimated to be over 2000, making up more than 42% of
mammalian species. Rodents have a bad reputation for destroying crops, and spreading diseases. While
this is certainly true for some species, most rodents are harmless, or become pests only under certain
conditions. Indeed, the importance of rodent diversity is being increasingly recognized, and in some cases
15
conservation measures are being undertaken to preserve the dwindling rodent populations. From
agricultural perspective, the impact of rodents, particularly on grain, is significant, both before and after
harvest. Shredding of nesting materials, carrying food for boarding and in grooming the fur. In addition,
they are effective weapons of defense and offence. The wide space between the incisors and the cheek
teeth, called the diastema, is typical of the rodent dentition.

Briefly, the order Rodentia comprises three main suborders, namely Myomorpha, Hystricomorpha and
Sciuromorpha. Myomorpha contains two major families. The Muridae with subfamily Murinae contains
important genera such as Mus, Rattus, Arvicanthis, Mastomys. The family Gerbillidae comprises the sahel
and desert types, the main general being Gerbillus, Taterillus and Tatera. The suborder Hystricomorpha
contains the supper family Octodontoidea and family Thryonomyidae. The main genus in this group is
Thryonomys (grass cutter or cutting-grass). The suborder Sciuromorpha contains the genus Oenomys
(squirrels).

Types of rodents

1. Field or wild types: They live in the field and feed on crops. Examples are the African grass rat,
Arvicanthis spp; the Nile rat, Arvicanthis niloticus; the multi-mammate shamba rat, Mastomys
natalensis and the Gambian giant rat, Cricetomys gambianus. Others are the grasscutter, Thryonomys
swinderianus; the porcupine, Hystrix spp. Squirrels, Oenomys spp. and Stochomys spp. All fall in
Africa. The Asia types include Nesokia spp.; Bandicota bengalensis; B. indica; B. gigantea, Leggaga
nagarum, L. booduga, Tatera indica and Mus booduga.

2. Peri-Domestic and Urban Rodents

They are found in human settlements, households and stored products. They include the roof/ship
rat/black rat, Rattus rattus; the Norway rat/brown rat Rattus norvegicus; the Gambian giant rat,
Cricetomys spp.; the African grass rat, Arvicanthis spp.; the house mouse, Mus musculus and the stripped
mouse, Hybomys spp. The most important rodents that attack stored products in Africa are the African
grass rat, the multi-mammate shamba rat and the Gambian giant rat.

Economic importance of rodents

Rodents are of considerable economic importance in agriculture, forestry and human health. Economic
losses due to rodents are so large and so widespread that they defy precise estimation. They destroy field

16
and stored products; contaminate products with droppings, fur and nesting materials; caused serious
structural and aesthetic damage, and some are vectors of diseases.

1. Damage to field crops: Rodents consume and destroy newly emerge seedlings of cereals and legumes
(maize, rice, sorghum, millet, wheat, rye, oats, cowpea, groundnuts, Bambara groundnuts, soybeans,
green gram, chick pea etc.); field crops (plantain, banana, sugar cane etc.); tree crops (cocoa, coffee,
cotton, shea butter, cashew nuts, oil palm etc.); fruit trees (citrus, mango, apples, grapes etc.); root and
tuber crops (cocoyam, yam, potatoes, cassava etc.), vegetables (tomato, egg-plant, okra, cucurbits etc.)
and forest trees. Sown seeds of these food crops are removed by various species of rats, mice, squirrels,
grass-cutter and prevent germination. Millions of hectares of artificially and naturally seeded forestlands
have failed to regenerate because of removal of seeds by rodents.

2. Damage in storage: Rodents consume different types of stored products including cereal grains and
grain products, grain legumes, cocoa, animal products etc. resulting in quantitative and qualitative loss.
Partially consumed grains become inedible and unsaleable. Seed viability and germination capacity may
be impaired. They also contaminate products with their droppings, urine, fur and nesting materials
causing loss in quality.

3. Structural damage: Rodents gnaw through almost any object in their path to obtain food and shelter,
and to wear off their incisors, which grow continuously. This gnawing often results in extensive structural
damage to numerous objects. By their gnawing activities, they destroy wooding materials, buildings, grain
containers, sacks, sheets, lead pipes, electrical wires, and cables, electronic equipment including
computers, bed-dings, clothes, books and paper, sewage systems etc. It has been estimated that 25% of
fires of unknown origin are started by rodent damage to electrical wiring.

4. Aesthetic damage and recreation: on the positive side, small mammals play important part in outdoor
recreation. They are hunted, trapped, photographed, tamed, or merely observe and enjoyed in their natural
state. They also add to human recreation indirectly in their roles as soil tillers and insect eaters. However,
rodents may also adversely affect human recreation by spreading diseases, preying upon game and other
desirable animals, creating fire hazards, draining fish ponds, or defacing lawns, parks, gardens and golf
courses. Some rodents also destroy bird nests, their food and cover. Rodent feeding also suppress forest
regeneration.

5. Disease transmission: Rodents are vectors of many debilitating and endemic diseases of humans and
domestic animals. Their close association with humans has long implicated commensal rats and mice in

17
the transmission of serious diseases to humans and their domestic animals. Historically, bubonic plague
and typhus were the most serious and dramatic of the many diseases transmitted to man by rats and mice,
of which millions of people died in vast epidemics. The two diseases are enzootic in wild rodent
populations in some areas, especially in the tropics. Other important diseases transmitted by rats and mice
to man are leptospirosis, rat bite fever, rabies and poisoning from Salmonella organisms. Wild rodents of
many kinds may be involved in disease transmission. Ground squirrels and wood rats transmit spotted
fever, tularemia, plague, typhus and other diseases. Rodents also transmit Lassa fever, histoplasmosis and
Chagas disease.

SECTION 7: BIRD PESTS

Birds cause considerable damage to growing crops and durable farm produce in many parts of the world.
The African continent has the distinction of harbouring flocks of birds numbering hundreds of millions,
which descend on cereals crops, in particular. These birds are largely Quelea species, weavers, sparrows,
pigeons and morning doves. Others are tree ducks, bishops, crows and cranes. A number of different types
of birds eat some vegetable matter as part of their natural diet; usually pecking pieces of leaf lamina, but
sometimes damaging roots and tubers near the soil surface. Examples are sparrows, pigeons, doves and
some cranes. Weaver birds may be locally troublesome to oil palm, plantain and banana fields through
stripping the leaf lamina from a wide area to make nests in adjoining trees. Parrots, vultures and crows
remove pipe palm fruits and scatter them about half eaten.

However, in grain fields in Africa and Asia, birds of the family Ploceidae (e.g. quelea, sparrows, weavers,
etc.) are the most important. These birds, collectively known as ‘rice birds’ or ‘grain eating birds’ migrate
annually when dense flocks follow the ripening rice and other small-grain crops such as millet and
sorghum across the continent and cause devastating damage. Maize is seldom damaged to any extent
because of their larger grain sizes.

Major types of birds in Africa

Black –faced quelea, Quelea quelea quelea (most important).
Red -headed quelea, Quelea erythrops.
Village weaver, Ploceus cuculiatus.
Black –headed weaver, P. capitalis.
Red –billed weaver, P. melanocephalis.

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Red or orange bishop, Euplectus oryx.
Napoleon bishop, Euplectus afra.
Pigeons, Passer spp., especially P. luteus.
Morning doves, Streptopelia spp.
Black –faced tree duck, Dendrocygna viduata.
Other bird pests found elsewhere in Europe and the Americas are waterfowls, pintails, Mallards,
American widgeons, blackbirds, water birds, starlings, juncos, golden eagles, towhees, grosbeaks, eagles.

Types of damage caused by birds

Several areas of conflict between humans and birds exist when birds consume or destroy food-stuffs;
jeopardize safety in air crafts; act as vectors of diseases affecting humans and domestic animals; and
cause nuisance to man’s comfort or negatively affect man’s aesthetics and sporting values.

Birds and foodstuffs: With the alarming increase in the world’s population and dwindling food
production, destruction of both field and stored foodstuffs by birds has become an acute problem. Bird
damage is most serious on cereals especially rice, millet, sorghum, wheat, oats, barley and corn. Bird
damage is the major constraint to rice cultivation in the entire rice belt in Africa where a total crop loss is
not uncommon during severe outbreaks of the Quelea quelea. Direct feeding of stored grains by birds and
contamination with their droppings and nesting materials and other debris causes quantitative and
qualitative loss in storage (Bruggers et al., 1984). In North America waterfowls, stubbling ducks and
blackbirds considerable damage to corn, wheat and rice where over 40% grain loss can occur in
unprotected fields.

At farm level the reduction in yield results from loss of plants and/or from the reduced leaf area and
photosynthetic activity. Plants growing vigorously in favourable weather conditions and soils of high
fertility can recover by quickly making up for loss leaf area with new growth. However, at critical stage of
grain formation this may not be possible. If damage is so severe that replanting is called for, later planting
also means that a reduced yield plus additional costs of seed and labour. The possibility of migrant pest
outbreaks and damage creates an atmosphere of risk uncertainty in which the farmer is reluctant to spend
resources on expensive inputs, which can increase yields and net income.

Soft fruits and vegetables are particularly vulnerable to birds. Tomatoes, melons, grapes, blueberries,
strawberries, lettuce and cherries are some of the main soft fruits and vegetables attacked by birds. Some
forage and truck crops are also eaten by waterfowls. Fish cultures in private and public hatcheries

19
occasionally suffer serious loss from such birds as herons, egrets and kingfishers, especially in Europe
and America.

Other economic loss to non-foodstuffs: Certain forest birds such as sparrows, juncos, blackbirds,
mourning doves feed on seeds, buds, twigs and leaves of forest trees, particularly coniferous, hardwood
and pine plantations. Roosting crows destroy lateral branches of older pine trees. Woodpeckers damage
wooden utility poles that are often hollowed for nesting sites, food storage or perhaps just for fun or as
‘play’ activity. Utility companies must replace damage electric or telephone poles should break during a
storm. Power companies are also plagued with short circuits caused by birds nesting on electric poles,
flying onto wires, perching on wires or by connecting wires with streams of droppings. Power failures are
financial burdens to industry and inconvenience to the public.

Birds and disease transmission: Wild birds and their role in the transmission of diseases to humans and
domestic animals are an old problem. One of world’s renowned microbiologists, Pasteur studied chicken
cholera and parrot fever in his Paris laboratory in 1980 and 1983, respectively. Infectious diseases that are
transmitted from wild birds to humans are referred to as zoonoses. Bird transmission of zoonoses can take
the following form:

Birds may produce aerosols (airborne particles) and excretions of pathogens. A good example of aerosol-
carried disease is the human respiratory ailment first referred to as parrot fever (psittacosis) but now
called ornithosis as many birds such as turkey, pigeons, star lings and other birds have been implicated in
its transmission. The aerosol may include dust-like particles of bird faeces. Bird faeces may also contain
Salmonella bacteria that cause serious intestinal upsets. Birds may also act as intermediate hosts for
certain infectious disease organisms, especially arthropod-borne pathogens. Through movement and
migration bird hosts may carry some of these pathogens to long distances. Certain birds may act as
reservoir of pathogens that cause disease in humans. These birds probably keep the pathogens alive and
available to the mosquito for short periods.

UNIT 4: CAUSES OF INSECT PEST OUTBREAK IN CROP FIELDS

Pests have arisen in two major ways: natural occurrence and alteration of the ecosystem. Crops cultivated
in certain areas can be attacked suddenly by pests such as locusts, armyworms or quelea birds. Such pests
are said to occur naturally. Pest situations may develop as a result of changes in the ecosystem. Such
pests’ populations arise as a result of several factors that interact to alter the natural ecosystem and
20
facilitate an agent build up to pest population. A thorough understanding of the operation of these factors
can contribute to effective management of pests. Some of the human activities which can alter the
ecosystem are detailed below:
1. Deforestation: Pest feeding on forest trees are forced to feed on cropped - Biomass/unit area more in
forests than agricultural land - Weather factors also altered - Affects insect development
2. Destruction of natural enemies: Due to excess use of insecticides, natural enemies are killed - This
affects the natural control mechanism and pest outbreak occurs, e.g. Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides
kill insect predators, parasites and parasitoids.
3. Intensive cultivation: In modern agriculture, vast areas of land are planted with a single crop such as
maize, cocoa or cotton. The natural balance of animal and plant communities, the result of prolonged
periods of evolution is disrupted. This results in drastic disturbance of the environment and a radical
reconstruction of the faunas injurious to useful plants. Thus, monocultures create conditions
favourable to specialized pest species, in the presence of abundant supply of their preferred food, to
multiply rapidly and become notorious pests. Monoculture (Intensive) leads to multiplication of pests
Extensive cultivation of susceptible variety in large area - No competition for food - multiplication
increases e.g. Stem borers in rice and sugarcane
4. Introduction of new varieties and crops: Breeding and selection for high performance crop plants
have resulted in the development of high yielding, early maturing and high-quality foodstuffs, usually
with larger seeds and fruits which are more nutritious than their wild progenitors. Selection for such
high-yielding crop varieties and breeds of animals can alter the genetic resistance level of the crop or
animal to attack by certain organisms and these may develop to new pests. Potential pest species are
also provided with virtually unlimited supply of high-quality food to build up rapidly to pest
proportions. Varieties with favourable physiological and morphological factors cause multiplication of
insects. e.g. Succulent, dwarf rice varieties favour leaf folder Combodia cotton favours stem weevil
and spotted bollworm Hybrid sorghum (CSH 1), cumbu (HB1) favour shoot flies and gall midges
5. Introduction of new pest in new environment: Pest multiplies due to absence of natural enemies in
new area. The transport of pests and disease from country to country is a common practice because of
the rather quick and efficient means of international transport. Infested seeds and planting materials
are being introduced to different parts of the world often disregarding quarantine regulations. The
recent accidental introduction of the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatas (Horn) (Coleoptera:
Bostrichidae) from its native Central America to Africa has added a new dimension to insect pest
problems in storage, through its remarkable ability to damage well-dried cassava and maize, even
when stored in the cob. This beetle is currently a more serious pest in parts of sub-Saharan Africa than
21
 its native Central America. The cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihotti (Hemiptera:
Pseudococcidae) and the cassava green spider mite, Mononychellus tanajoa (Tetranychidae) both
native of South America were introduced in to Africa in the 1970s and are now the two most serious
pests of cassava which have infested the entire cassava belt in Africa. Apple wooly aphid Eriosoma
lanigerum multiplied fast due to absence of Aphelinus mali (Parasit)
6. Accidental introduction of pests from foreign countries (through air/sea ports) e.g. a. Diamondback
moth on cauliflower (Plutella xylostella) b. Potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella c. Cottony
cushion scale Icerya purchasi on wattle tree d. Wooly aphid - Eriosoma lanigerum on apple e. Psyllid -
Heteropsylla cubana on subabul f. Spiralling whitefly - Adeyrodichus dispersus on most of
horticultural crops
7. Large scale storage of food grains: Serves as reservoir for stored grain pests
8. Urbanisation: With rapid population growth and the development of cities, large unplanned squatter
settlements grow within the periphery of these cities. There is often overcrowding, poor sanitation and
cramped living conditions in these settlements. These conditions favour the development and spread
of pests and disease vectors. In addition, the use of wood for construction of houses, storage structures
and furniture, cotton wool and leather products for clothing and furniture has increased considerably
over the years in the tropics. This provides opportunities for the organisms which normally attack
these products to develop to pest status.
9. Misuse of pesticides: Tremendous increase in pest population brought about by indiscriminate use of
insecticides despite good initial reduction in pest population at the time of treatment leads to
resurgence of pests. In the natural undisturbed habitats, parasites, predators, pathogens and other
natural enemies help to keep their hosts under control. However, modern agricultural practices, such
as the misuse and misapplication of pesticides, tend to upset this by killing these natural enemies
which regulate the populations of pests. Many insects that were of minor importance have become
serious pests in different parts of the world as result of massive application of pesticides to control
other major pests. A typical example is the shield bug, Bathycoelia thalassina which has become a
major pest of cocoa in Ghana because of the extensive use of pesticides to control cocoa capsids. The
Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, is not listed in any Ghanaian publication prior to 1990 as a pest of
vegetables and yet it is now probably the most serious pest. This is a classic man-made pest which has
developed as a result of the destruction of its natural enemies from the overuse of pesticides.
Deltamethrin, Quinalphos, Phorate - Resurgence of BPH in rice Synthetic pyrethroids - Whitefly in
cotton Carbofuran - Leaf folder in rice
10. Changes in climatic and weather conditions
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Local weather patterns have a significant impact on the abundance of insect pests on crops.
Components of weather, mainly temperature and moisture, can either promote insect population
growth or cause populations to decline. Changes in climatic conditions can affect the pest population
dynamics and the status of insect pests of crops. Global warming will probably lead to increased
numbers of structural, agricultural, and forest insect pests. Temperature is the driving force behind
insect development, growth and behaviour. Unlike many animals, insects are poikilothermic (“cold-
blooded”); that is, they are unable to regulate their body temperature and their internal temperature
varies along with that of the ambient environmental temperature. Therefore, when temperatures drop,
they must find a way to survive and they do this in different ways. Some insects hibernate during this
period by finding shelter in warmer places to wait out the cold weather. Some hide under fallen leaves
or tree trunks. They remain dormant during this times until temperatures warm up and then emerge
resulting in their build-up on crop farms as they search for food and water source.
Moisture also plays a critical role in insect development, especially in the desert. Many insect species
obtain water through their food supply. For instance, the Mediterranean fruit fly spend their entire egg
and larval stages inside the citrus fruit, extracting water and nutrients from plant tissue. the extra
moisture can also promote the growth of weeds and desert vegetation. This “additional “vegetation
can provide food and habitat source for insects such as aphids who then move to suitable crop species
leading to their build up on crop farms. Low humidity is often detrimental to insect development and
therefore causes reduction in insect populations. Rainfall can be quite deleterious to insects. Heavy
rains can cause significant mortality to aphids on legumes. Pest population reduce during heavy rains
since whiles low rainfall can cause the build-up of insect pests through their migration in search of
food and water. As a rule of thumb, cool, wet extremes in weather are the most detrimental to insects
because they can promote disease, slow growth rates and interrupt feeding activities.

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UNIT 5: INTEGRATED PEST MANAEMENT (IPM)

SECTION 1: WHAT IS IPM?

IPM is an approach to pest control that utilizes a combination of environmentally compatible and
economically efficient techniques or tactics to maintain pest population at densities below the economic
injury level to maximize crop yields (ESA, 1975).

IPM may be defined simply as a strategy or system that combines all available methods to ensure the
healthy growth of crop plants so that they produce high yields (Youdoewei, 2002)

One important aspect of the IPM strategy is the role of natural enemies or beneficial insects including
predators, parasites, micro-parasites etc.

IPM is a balanced, tactical approach to pest control.

It involves taking action to anticipate pest outbreaks and to prevent potential damage.
The goal of this strategy is to prevent pests from reaching economically damaging levels with the least
risk to the environment.
Almost all farmers do at least some IPM through normal crop production practices.
IPM programs are site-specific

IPM is based on correct identification, accurate measurement of populations, assessment of damage

levels, and knowledge of available management strategies

IPM aims to reduce pesticide use and ensure protection of the environment.

SECTION 2: WHY PRACTICE IPM?

Why have pest managers shifted to IPM when chemical pesticides so often succeed at controlling pests?

There are many reasons to broaden pest management beyond the use of chemicals.

1. IPM helps to keep a balanced ecosystem

Every ecosystem has a balance.

Introducing chemicals into the ecosystem can change this balance

Pesticides can kill beneficial insects that consume pests, leaving few natural mechanisms of pest control.

2. Pesticides can be ineffective

Chemical pesticides are not always effective.

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 Pests can become resistant to pesticides.

Pests may survive in situations where the chemical does not reach pests

3. IPM can save money

IPM can avoid crop loss caused by pests and prevent unnecessary pesticide expense.
Applicators can save on pesticide costs because the need for control, rather than routine
application triggered by the calendar, is the basis for applying pesticides.

4. IPM promotes healthy environment

We have much to learn about the persistence of chemicals in the environment and their effect on
living creatures
Using IPM strategies helps keep adverse effects to a minimum.

5. IPM maintains a good public image

IPM is now demanded by many sectors of our society.
IPM has been implemented to grow our food, and to protect humans, pets, and livestock health.
Components of an Integrated Pest Management Program
Planning is at the heart of an IPM program.
Every crop has pests that need to be considered.
If you wait until problems arise during a growing season, you’ll end up relying on pesticides more
and more.

SECTION 3: COMPONENTS OF IPM

A good IPM program has three components:

1) Identifying the pest problem

2) Monitoring pest problems
3) Selecting the best management tactics
4) Recordkeeping of control efforts
5) Evaluating the control program

By considering each of these components, applicators can set up an IPM program for insects, plant
diseases, weeds, and vertebrate pests.

1. Identify and Monitor Pests

Identification is important whether you are dealing with an insect, weed, plant disease, or
vertebrate
Never classify an organism as a pest until it is clearly determined to be one.

25
You should scout your crops often and on a regular basis to identify

Pests may leave signs of their presence or symptoms of characteristic damage on hosts and can
help you in pest identification
By scouting, you will be able to detect potential problems early.
The earlier you discover a problem, the better your chances are of avoiding economic losses.
The procedures for monitoring vary with the pest and the situation.
Weather and temperature data are particularly helpful in following a pest’s life cycle or in
predicting how long it takes a certain pest to develop.
Models have been developed for a number of insects and plant diseases to predict the need for and
timing of pesticide applications.
To scout effectively, you have to:
Know the crop’s growth characteristics to recognize abnormal or damaged plants.
Identify the cause of the problem to know what kind of pest you are dealing with. If you encounter
something you cannot identify, contact your country Extension educator.
Determine the stage of growth of the pest and the crop. This is essential for proper timing of
control methods.
Decide whether the infestation is increasing or decreasing.
Assess the condition of the crop.
Map problem areas. It may be possible to limit the area that needs treatment.
Use the right scouting method for the specific pest
Identification is important whether you are dealing with an insect, weed, plant disease, or
vertebrate.
Be certain any injury or observed damage is actually due to the identified pest and not some other
cause.
Misidentification and lack of information about a pest could cause you to choose the wrong
control method or apply the control at the wrong time—these are the most frequent causes of pest-
control failure.
Keep in mind that plants may be damaged by non-living agents, such as weather extremes, air
pollutants, road salt, and inadequate or excessive fertilization.
Sometimes this damage is mistaken for that caused by living pests.

The Four Main Groups of Pests

Weeds – undesirable plants.
Invertebrates – insects, mites, ticks, spiders, snails, and slugs.
Disease agents or pathogens –bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes mycoplasmas, and other
microorganisms.
Vertebrates – birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and rodents and other mammals

Once you have identified the pest and confirmed that it is causing damage, become familiar with
its life cycle, growth, and reproductive habits.

26
 Because IPM focuses not just on the pest, but also on underlying causes that increase pest
numbers, look at factors such as temperature, cultural practices, and soil moisture that may affect a
pest’s life cycle, behavior, or ability to reproduce.
The more you know about a pest, the easier and more successful pest management becomes.

Pests may leave signs of their presence or symptoms of characteristic damage on hosts and can
help you in pest identification.
Pest symptoms include such things as insect feeding indicators, discoloration from diseases, or
reduced plant growth due to competition with weeds for nutrients.
Pest signs are parts of the pest itself or other evidence of their presence.

Rodents and some other mammals dig distinctive burrows in the ground and often leave
identifying gnaw marks on tree trunks or other objects.
Insect and rodent droppings also are distinctive and important identification aids.
Fruiting bodies of some fungi are easily seen.
Weeds may have unique flowers, seeds, fruits, or growth habits.
Fungi and other pathogens often cause specific types of damage, deformation, or color changes in
host tissues.

Identification books, Extension bulletins, field guides, and reference materials are available that
contain pictures and biological information on pests and pest identification.

Another option is to have pests examined and identified by pest-management consultants or

specialists.

When having pests identified, always collect several specimens.

Have plastic bags, vials, or other suitable containers available when collecting samples in the field.
Be sure to include the location and date of the collection.
Often the pest’s host (the animal or plant on which an organism lives) and location are important
to making a positive identification.
Information on the environmental conditions at the collection site and the season of collection
provides additional clues to the pest’s identity.

Kill insects first and send them to the specialist in a manner that will not damage body parts that
aid in identification.
The small size of certain insects and most mites, nematodes, and plant pathogens poses a difficulty
in identifying them in the field.
Accurate identification often requires use of a hand lens or microscope, special tests, or careful
analysis of damage.

2. Select the Best Management Tactics

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Your goal in selecting pest management tactics is to use methods that are effective, practical, economical,
and environmentally sound.

To make a control practice profitable, or at least break even, it is necessary to set the economic threshold
(ET) below the economic injury level (EIL).

Some control methods will work only if they are used at the right time.

Decide whether the infestation is serious in terms of economic loss.

Compare the costs and benefits of various control methods.

Make plans for the future.

Not every part of an IPM program can be put into effect immediately.

Some tactics, such as planting resistant varieties or rotating crops, require long-range planning.

The presence of a pest does not always cause a loss in quality or quantity of an agricultural product.

To justify the cost of control, pest populations must be large enough to cause significant damage.

Using IPM can help agricultural producers to determine if the benefits of pesticides and other pest-
management tactics exceed the costs of control.

If benefits don’t exceed costs, time and money are wasted.

A number of economic concepts are helpful in determining the point at which it pays to use pesticides or
other treatment

Economic damage (ED) occurs when the cost of preventable crop damage exceeds the cost of control.

For example, if corn is worth $2.00 a bushel and an insecticide costs $14.00 an acre, then economic
damage occurs when insect damage causes a yield loss of seven or more bushels an acre (ED = cost of
treatment/crop value = $14/A/$2/bushel = 7 bushel).

Economic injury level (EIL) is the lowest pest population that will cause economic damage.

For many pests it is important to use control measures before this level is reached.

Economic threshold (ET) is the pest population level at which a control tactic should be started to keep
the pest population from reaching the EIL. (The ET is also called the action threshold.)

Economic thresholds have been established for a number of crop/pest systems, in particular those
involving insects.

This information is available from the University of Minnesota Extension.

Research is being done to develop ETs for weeds and diseases.

28
Economic thresholds are available for many pests and crops.

Several factors can influence an economic threshold.

These factors include the current value of the agricultural or ornamental product, its stage of development,
the degree of damage caused under various environmental conditions, the cost and effectiveness of
control measures, and the anticipated yield.

For example, even slight damage may reduce the value of certain fruits and vegetables, so the economic
threshold must be set low.

To make a control practice profitable, or at least break even, it is necessary to set the economic threshold
(ET) below the economic injury level (EIL).

3. Record your control efforts

It is very important to record your control efforts.

Keeping crop and pest records is easier than ever with the many factsheets, booklets, and software
programs now available.

4. Evaluate the Results

Evaluation means deciding how effective a program is and whether any changes are needed.

To evaluate an IPM program, you should Monitor your fields and keep records

Records should include dates, weather conditions, pest levels, application rates and timing, and costs.

Good records are a guide if the same problem occurs.

They are also a good legal safeguard.

Compare effectiveness.

Whatever control tactics are chosen, use a different method on some strips.

That way you can compare methods: which worked better, taking into account costs and environmental
impacts?

SECTION 4: IPM METHODS

The goal of most IPM programs is to maintain pest damage at economically acceptable levels while
protecting the environment and human health.

Prevention and suppression techniques are often combined in an effective IPM program.

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In rare instances, pest eradication may be needed.

The strategy for a sound IPM program is to coordinate the use of multiple tactics into a single integrated
system.

Pesticides are just one method for controlling pests, and this Section describes the various options.

Non-chemical methods may provide longer and more permanent control of a pest and should always be
considered when developing a pest management strategy.

Evaluate the costs, benefits, and liabilities of each control tactic.

Pest Control Goals

There are many tactics that are effective in controlling pests, and each one (or combinations) will give
pesticide applicators the best strategy for a specific goal.

Prevention, suppression, and eradication are three approaches to maintain pest damage below economic
levels.

Prevention

Includes planting weed- and disease-free seed, growing resistant varieties, sanitation, and choosing
planting/harvesting times that minimize pest problems.

Suppression

Suppressive pest-control methods are used to reduce pest population levels.

The methods chosen usually do not eliminate all pests, but reduce their populations to a tolerable level

Eradication

Eradication is the total elimination of a pest from a designated area.

Over larger areas eradication may be very expensive and often has limited success.

The combination of prevention and suppression techniques usually enhances a pest-management program

When implementing the IPM program, try to select the methods that are the most effective and the least
harmful to people and the environment.

When implementing the IPM program, try to select the methods that are the most effective and the least
harmful to people and the environment.

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Use several methods whenever possible, and be sure to use them correctly.

It is also important to observe all state and federal regulations regarding the methods chosen or combined
in an IPM program.

Natural controls

Natural controls are the measures that check or destroy pests without depending on humans for their
continuance or success.

Natural controls include climatic factors such as wind, temperature, sunshine, and rain.

Naturally occurring predators, parasites, and pathogens can regulate pest populations.

When natural controls have not held pests in check, humans must intervene and apply pest-management
controls

When natural controls have not held pests in check, humans must intervene and apply pest-management
controls.

Maintaining populations of natural enemies by avoiding damaging cultural practices or the indiscriminate
use of pesticides can be one of the most economical means of control.

If pesticides are part of your control program, select types that are known to be less toxic to natural
enemies or, if recommended, apply pesticides at lower-than-label rates to avoid harming natural enemies.

Sometimes it is possible to modify certain parts of the environment, such as by planting crops or ground
covers, to maintain or enhance natural enemies

Biological Control

Most pests have natural enemies that control or suppress them effectively in some situations.

Natural enemies, including pathogens and insects, are being used successfully as biological control agents
to manage certain insect, mite, fungus, animal, and weed pests.

Biological control is often directed against pests that are not native to a geographical area.

Introduced pests often cause problems in their new locations because they lack natural enemies to help
control them.

Laws have been enacted that strictly control the importation of all organisms, including biological control
agents, into the United States, to prevent these organisms from also becoming pests.

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Biological control also involves the mass release of large numbers of natural enemies into fields,
orchards, greenhouses, or other locations to control specific pests.

This method usually does not have long-term results, so these natural enemies must be released
periodically.

Several natural enemies are reared or cultured commercially.

Predatory mites are used to control plant-feeding spider mites.

Parasitic wasps and lacewings are used to control various insect pests.

Nematodes and fungi are being studied as biological control agents for certain weeds and some insects.

General predators, such as praying mantids and lady beetles, are sold with claims made for biological
control.

In many cases, however, their effectiveness has not been established.

Mechanical Control

Mechanical control involves the use of devices, machines, and other physical methods to control pests or
alter their environment.

Traps, screens, barriers, fences, and nets are examples of devices used to prevent pest activity or remove
pests from an area.

Cultivation is one of the most important methods of controlling weeds.

Cultivation is one of the most important methods of controlling weeds.

It is also used for some insects and other soil-inhabiting pests.

Devices such as plows, disks, mowers, cultivators, and bed conditioners physically destroy weeds or
control their growth and disrupt soil conditions suitable for the survival of some microorganisms and
insects.

Exclusion

Exclusion is a mechanical control technique that consists of using barriers to prevent pests from getting
into an area.

Window screens, for example, exclude flies, mosquitoes, and other flying insects.

Patching or sealing cracks, crevices, and other small openings in buildings can exclude insects, rodents,
bats, birds, or other pests.
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Fences and ditches make effective barriers against many vertebrate pests.

Wire or cloth mesh excludes birds from fruit trees.

Sticky material painted onto tree trunks, posts, wires, and other objects prevents crawling insects from
crossing.

Traps physically catch pests within an area or building.

Several types of traps are commonly used. Some kill animals that come in contact with the trap; others
snare animals so they can then be relocated or destroyed.

Traps are either mechanical devices or sticky surfaces.

Cultural Control

The goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the
pest to prevent or suppress an infestation.

It disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes the pest less likely to survive,
grow, or reproduce.

Cultural practices and sanitation are two examples of cultural control.

Many cultural practices influence the survival of pests.

In agricultural crops, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation
management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms,
insects, mites, and other pests.

Sanitation, or source reduction, involves eliminating food, water, shelter, or other necessities important to
the pest’s survival.

In crop production, sanitation includes such practices as removing weeds that harbor pest insects or
rodents, eliminating weed plants before they produce seed, destroying diseased plant material or crop
residues, and keeping field borders or surrounding areas free of pests and pest breeding sites.

Animal manure management is an effective sanitation practice used for preventing or reducing fly
problems in poultry and livestock operations.

Host Resistance

Sometimes plants can be bred or selected to resist specific pest problems.

33
For example, particular crop variety are selected for physical characteristics that prevent attack by some
pests or provide physiological resistance to disease or parasitic organisms.

Resistance also is enhanced by maintaining the host’s health and providing for its nutritional needs.

Certain plant varieties are naturally resistant to insects, pathogens, or nematodes.

Many plants actually repel various types of pests, and some contain toxic substances.

Plant resistance to insect pests can sometimes be achieved by transferring genetic material from certain
insect-destroying microorganisms to hybrid seed.

Genetic control has been widely used in the past and offers great promise for the future, especially when
combined with new gene-manipulation techniques.

Chemical Controls

Chemical controls are pesticides that are either naturally derived or synthesized.

Pesticides often play a key role in pest management programs and frequently may be the only control
method available.

Major benefits associated with the use of pesticides are their effectiveness, the speed and ease of
controlling pests, and, in many instances, their reasonable cost compared with other control options.

Usually pest damage stops or pests are destroyed within a few hours (for insects) to a few days (for
weeds) after application of a pesticide.

Using a fungicide may provide immediate, short-term protection against microorganisms.

A pesticide is defined as any material that is applied to plants, the soil, water, harvested crops, structures,
clothing and furnishings, or animals to kill, attract, repel, regulate or interrupt the growth and mating of
pests, or to regulate plant growth.

Pesticides include a wide assortment of chemicals with specialized names and functions.

They are commonly grouped according to the type of pest they control.

Avicides control birds

Bactericides control bacteria.
Disinfectants (antimicrobials) control microorganisms.
Fungicides control fungi.
Herbicides control weeds and other undesirable plants.
Insecticides control insects and related arthropods.
Miticides (acaricides) control mites.
Molluscicides control snails and slugs.

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Nematicides control nematodes (roundworms).
Predacides control predatory vertebrates.
Piscicides control pest fish.
Repellents repel insects, related invertebrates, birds, and mammals.
Rodenticides control rodents.
Defoliants cause leaves or foliage to drop from plants.
Desiccants promote drying or loss of moisture from plant tissues.
Growth regulators are substances (other than fertilizers or food) that alter the growth or development of a
plant or animal.

Each group of pesticide includes several classes or families.

For example, the classes of insecticides include, among others, the organophosphates, organochlorines,
carbamates, pyrethroids, botanicals, insecticidal soaps, and microbials.
The pesticides within a particular class have similar chemical structures or properties or share a common
mode of action.
The mode of action of a pesticide is how the pesticide works.
In other words, it is what specific system(s) in the pest are affected by the pesticide.
The various classes of chemicals work in different ways and present different risks and problems.
Pesticides also vary in their selectivity. Fumigants, for example, are non-selective, controlling a wide
variety of pests—fungi, insects, weeds, nematodes, etc.
Some non-selective herbicides control any plant given a sufficient dose.
In contrast, selective pesticides control only certain species of pests or affect only a certain stage of pest
development.
For example, certain herbicides control broadleaf weeds while not harming grasses, and ovicides kill only
the eggs of certain insects, mites, and related pests.
Pesticides may move in various ways after they come in contact with a host.
Systemic pesticides are absorbed through leaves or roots and then transported within the treated plant.
Similarly, systemic insecticides can be eaten by or injected into livestock to control certain pests.
By contrast, contact pesticides are not absorbed by treated plants or animals.
These pesticides must directly touch the pest or a site the pest frequents to be effective.
Pesticides also vary in their persistence, or how long they remain active to control pests.
Some residual pesticides control pests for weeks, months, or even years.
Others provide only short-term control, sometimes lasting only a few hours.
The production, sale, use, storage, and disposal of all pesticides are regulated at both the federal and state
levels.

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Regulatory Pest Control

Some pest problems cannot be controlled successfully at a local level.

These problems involve pests that seriously endanger public health or are likely to cause widespread
damage to agricultural crops, animals, forests, or ornamental plants.

Government agencies are authorized to destroy weeds and plants that cause fire hazards, harbor harmful
pathogens or animals, or are noxious to people or livestock in and around agricultural areas.

Similar authority applies to diseased or infected livestock or poultry and to weeds and nuisance plants in
residential, commercial, and industrial areas.

Mosquito abatement is an important pest-control function undertaken to protect public health.

Under the authority of mosquito abatement laws, state agencies drain or treat standing water that provides
breeding sites for mosquitoes.

Quarantine or eradication programs directed by governmental agencies according to state laws are used to
prevent the introduction and spread of such pests.

Quarantine

Quarantine is a pest-control process designed to prevent entry of pests into pest-free areas.

Some states maintain inspection stations at all major entry points to intercept pests or materials that might
harbor pests.

Regulatory agencies monitor airports and ocean ports.

Quarantine also prevents movement of designated pests within a state.

Produce and other identified items being shipped from a quarantine area must be fumigated to destroy
pests before shipment.

Nursery stock, plant cuttings, and budding and grafting material are also regulated to prevent the spread of
pests to non-infested areas.

Eradication

Eradication is the total elimination of a pest from a designated area; often, these pests are under
quarantine restrictions.

36
When eradication is required, the geographical extent of pest infestation is determined and control
measures are taken to eliminate this pest from the defined area.

Procedures may include an area-wide spray program, releasing sterile insects, using mechanical and
cultural practices, and intensive monitoring for pests within and around the borders of the infested area.

Effective Pest Management Programs

Sometimes a pesticide application fails to control a pest because

1. the pest was not identified correctly

2. wrong pesticide was chosen.

3. pesticide was not applied at the correct time- the pest may not have been in the area during the
application, or it may have been in a life-cycle stage or location where it was not susceptible to the
pesticide.

Successful pest-management programs depend on careful observation, a thorough knowledge of the pest
and the damage it causes, an understanding of all available pest control options, and a caring, professional
attitude.

Also, remember that the pests that are present may be part of a new infestation that developed long after
the chemical was applied.

Even non-chemical pest management tactics become ineffective if the pest and the susceptible stage(s) of
its life-cycle are not identified correctly.

Successful pest-management programs depend on careful observation, a thorough knowledge of the pest
and the damage it causes, an understanding of all available pest control options, and a caring, professional
attitude.

Pesticide Resistance

Pesticide resistance can be defined as the ability of the pest (an insect, fungus, weed, rodent, or other pest)
to tolerate a pesticide that once controlled it.

Resistance develops because

Intensive pesticide use kills the susceptible individuals in a population, leaving only the resistant ones to
reproduce.

Initially, higher labeled rates and more frequent applications are needed to control resistant pests.

Eventually, however, the pesticide will have little or no effect on the pest population
37
Resistance may develop to only a single insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, or rodenticide.

More often, however, pest populations become resistant to all chemically related pesticides in a class of
compounds.

It is also possible for a pest to develop resistance to pesticides in two or more classes of compounds with
unlike modes of action.

Continual use of pesticides from the same chemical class, such as all organophosphate or all pyrethroid
insecticides, increases the likelihood that resistance will develop in pest populations.

Frequent applications and persistence of the chemical further increase the chances of resistance occurring.

Finally, the spread of resistance through a pest population can occur much more rapidly in pests that have
many generations per year and many offspring per generation, such as insects, fungi, and rodents.

Management of Resistance

1. Use of new or reformulated pesticides.

Using new compounds with different modes of action will lessen the likelihood of resistance developing
in a population.

Unfortunately, new replacement products are often quite complex, difficult to synthesize, and very costly
to develop.

They have very specific modes of action, which can rapidly lead to the development of resistant pest
populations even after very limited use in the field.

2. Changing pesticide use patterns

When recommended dosages are used, fewer pests are killed, so the pressure to develop resistant pest
populations is decreased.

3. Applying pesticides over limited areas reduces the proportion of the total pest population exposed to
the chemical, thereby maintaining a large pool of individuals still susceptible to the pesticide.
4. Treating alternate generations of pests with pesticides that have different modes of action decreases
the selection pressure for resistance.
5. 5. Monitor pest populations carefully and treat only when necessary, rather than treating on a calendar
basis.
6. Good pesticide application records

7. Pesticide resistance is more effectively managed when treatment history is known.

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UNIT 6: MANAGING MAJOR CROP PESTS AND DISEASES

SECTION 1: MANAGING INSECT PESTS

Most of the tactics for managing insects require planning.

The goal is to avoid or minimize insect outbreaks.

Unfortunately, even with planning, some insect outbreaks may require short-term rescue tactics, such as
early harvest or insecticides.

But these short-term tactics also require planning because, with insects, timing is so important.

Cultural Control Methods

Sanitation removes existing infestations or the resources needed for a pest buildup.

Examples: cleaning grain bins and the surrounding area of infested grain and grain debris; removing
manure breeding sites for filth flies; controlling weeds to minimize seed production and dispersal.

Tillage directly affects survival of insects that live in soil or crop debris.

Indirectly it influences how attractive and suitable the environment is to insects. (Example: reduced tillage
systems suffer more frequent and severe damage from black cutworms).

Management of crop residues

Resistant varieties are a low-cost, highly effective control that has minimal impact on the environment.

Some varieties may prevent a pest from becoming established or may kill it (Example: young corn
contains a chemical that prohibits the European corn borer from feeding).

Some varieties may be less attractive than others to insects (Example: slower-growing varieties suffer less
damage from first generation European corn borers if they are near faster-growing varieties).

Some varieties may tolerate injury and still yield well

(Example: differences among varieties in strength of corn stalks or ear shanks can affect losses from
second- and third-generation European corn borers).

Crop rotation makes it harder for a pest to know when or where a crop will appear.

This strategy is very effective against pests that overwinter as eggs or larvae and against pests that have
limited ability to disperse (Example: crop rotation is extremely effective against corn rootworms that
overwinter as eggs).

Crop rotation is useless against insects that disperse readily during the growing season, such as potato
leafhoppers, armyworms, or European corn borers
39
Biological Control Methods

Protect natural enemies of insect pests by avoiding unnecessary insecticide use, targeting insecticides, and
using selective insecticides.

Example: thiodicarb (Larvin) is effective against various defoliating caterpillars of soybean but does not
affect many of the caterpillar’s natural enemies

Use natural enemies or their products the same way you would use an insecticide.

Example: the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin which in one strain is effective only against
caterpillars, while another strain is effective only against mosquitoes and black flies.

Release natural enemies from other areas.

This is a tactic that is used by entomologists (scientists who study insects)- Classical biological control

Most of the insect pests in this country were introduced from other areas, but not always with their natural
enemies.

Entomologists search the areas of origin for natural enemies that can be released successfully in the U.S.
and that can be controlled here.

Example: natural enemies have been introduced to help control alfalfa weevil and European corn borer

Mechanical and Physical Control Methods

These methods, which include cold or heat to kill insects or slow down activity, screens to keep insects
out

Chemical Control Methods

Insecticides are the main type of chemical used in insect control.

Other chemical control measures include use of pheromones, insect growth regulators, and sterilants.

These are sometimes thought of as biological controls, because they are related to the natural biology of
the insect.

The advantages and disadvantages of insecticides were discussed in the first part of this section on
Integrated Pest Management.

Despite their drawbacks, insecticides are often the only option available when insect outbreaks threaten
economic losses.
40
Remember, though, that scouting and using economic thresholds will help avoid unnecessary yield loss
and unnecessary insecticide use

SECTION 2: MANAGING PLANT DISEASES

• The main goal is to prevent plant diseases from occurring.

• Once a plant is infected, it is usually too late to prevent its death or to prevent serious
reductions in crop yields.
• When only part of a crop is diseased, eradication may prevent further spread.
• Eradication can be done with cultural as well as chemical methods.
• Always weigh the cost carefully before making treatment decisions.
• Chemical treatment, such as with fungicides, should be regarded as a last resort.
Cultural Control Methods
• Choose planting sites and dates of planting.
• Use resistant varieties.
• Use sanitation, crop rotation, and primordium tip-culture techniques fallowing fields.
• Use proper soil, water, pH, and fertilizer applications to ensure maximum plant vigor.
• Remove infected plants or plant parts.
Biological Control Methods
• Use organisms that are antagonistic to the disease, such as hyperparasites or
microorganisms.
• Use cross-protection techniques for viruses
Mechanical and Physical Control Methods
• Treat soil or plant parts with heat.
• Use proper storage or curing methods for plants and plant products.
Legal Control Methods
• Use certified disease-free seed and nursery stock.
• Obey quarantine regulations with inspections to prevent pathogens from being introduced
via plants or equipment into areas where they do not already exist.
Chemical Control Methods
• Use chemicals to protect the host plant before it is infected.
• Use the correct chemical for the pest: fungicides for fungi; antibiotics for bacteria;
viricides for viruses; nematicides for nematodes.
• The use of a pesticide to eradicate the pathogen after it has infected the host plant is not
common.

SECTION 3: MANAGING WEED PESTS

• The most effective ways to control weeds are through cultural and chemical means.
• Biological control methods, using natural enemies of weeds such as insects or diseases, have
not been highly successful.
• But this method offers some potential for the future.

41
 • Researchers continue to search for natural enemies and attempt to introduce them into areas
where a particular weed is prevalent.
• A weed-control program should be planned well in advance of the growing season.
• Your plan should be based on a thorough knowledge of weed problems, soil, soil
characteristics, future cropping plans, and all available methods of control.
• As crop production practices change—for example, tillage—so do weed problems; a good
weed-control program must be flexible.
• Control of a particular weed should be just one part of a total weed-control program.
• Annuals and biennials depend exclusively on seed for reproduction and survival.
• Therefore, an effective way to control them is by destroying the top of the plant—by
mowing, tillage, or herbicides.
• It is important to destroy the growing point to prevent seed production.
• Perennials are more difficult to control by simply destroying the top growth.
• It is more effective to destroy the underground parts of the plant, either through tillage or
with herbicides.
• Perennials have specialized underground parts that help the plant to survive and reproduce.
• Even simple perennials, such as dandelions (which reproduce only by seeding), store energy
for re-growth in the roots.
• Destroying the top growth can only be effective if it is done repeatedly or in conjunction
with other control methods
Cultural Control Methods
• Cultural control of weeds—hand weeding, plowing, harrowing, etc.—has been practiced
for centuries.
• Many of the methods of weed control used today have changed very little over the years.
They include:
Clean seed.
• It is often easier to prevent weeds from being introduced than it is to control them.
• Use only tested and tagged seed; certified seed ensures high-quality seed free of noxious
weeds.
Clean feed.
• Weed seeds in feed grains and forages survive and germinate after passing through farm
animals; manure spread on fields may be spreading weed seeds.
• Screenings containing weed seeds are sometimes used in mixed feeds; they must be finely
ground or heated or else the seeds will remain alive
Tillage.
• Burial of weeds can be effective for small annuals and biennials, but will not control most
perennials if it is done beyond the seedling stage, unless it is done repeatedly.
• For perennials, it is more effective to destroy underground parts, using sweeps, knives,
harrows, rotary hoes, and other shallow cultivation equipment.
• This type of control is most effective in dry soils where roots have little chance of becoming
established.
• One problem with tillage is that it brings weed seeds up near the soil surface, resulting in
germination of a new population of weeds.
• These can be controlled, especially if they are annuals, by cultivating a second time.
• Plant the crop immediately after the last cultivation to allow sufficient growth before weeds
again become a problem.

42
Mowing is effective only for tall-growing weeds.
• Certain tall perennials can be mowed to the point where regrowth is no longer possible, but
this requires repeated and frequent mowing.
• Crop competition means growing your crops so well that they crowd out the weeds.
• To make sure your crops compete effectively with weeds, always select the best variety and
use the best crop production methods.

• Rotating crops with different life histories or growth habits can control weeds associated
with a particular crop.
• For example, many summer annual weeds associated with corn will not do well under the
cultural practices of fall-planted small grains.
• Fallowing fields, or allowing intervals for chemical treatment, may partially solve some
special weed problems.
• Companion crops, usually annuals that germinate quickly and grow rapidly, can be planted
with a perennial crop to compete with weeds and allow the major crop to become
established.
• The companion (or nurse) crop is then removed to allow the perennial crop to take over.
• Example: oats are used as a companion crop in Minnesota to aid in establishing alfalfa
Chemical Control
• Chemical control through the use of herbicides is the most common method of weed control
in agriculture.
• Herbicides work in different ways.
• Here are the most common types of herbicides:
• Selective herbicides are herbicides that are more toxic to some kinds of plants than to
others.
• Selectivity depends on such things as plant age, rate of growth, and plant form
• Non-selective herbicides are toxic to all plants.
• Some non-selective herbicides can be made selective to certain plants by varying the dosage,
directing the spray to a specific site, or choosing spray additives such as wetting agents.
• Selective herbicides can be made non-selective by manipulating the same factors (for
example, by increasing the dosage to kill more types of plants).
• Systemic herbicides can be absorbed by leaves, stems, or roots and moved throughout the
plant. Root absorption and translocation take place in water-conducting tissues; leaf or stem
absorption and translocation take place mainly in food-conducting tissues.
• Contact herbicides are toxic to living cells upon contact.
• They do not translocate in a plant.
• Contact herbicides destroy only the above ground parts of plants and are only effective
against annual weeds.
• Soil sterilant herbicides are non-selective herbicides that kill all plants and prevent weeds
from becoming reestablished for a relatively long time.
• Herbicides can also be classified according to when they are applied:
• Before planting (pre-plant), before seedlings appear (pre-emergence), and after seedlings
appear (post-emergence).

Factors affecting herbicides include:

• Soil type

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 • Organic matter in soils limits herbicide activity. Soils with high organic matter content
require higher rates of herbicides.
• Most herbicide labels have charts showing the rates to be used on soils with varying levels
of organic matter.
• Soil texture may also affect herbicide activity.
• Fine soils (silts and clays) have more surface area than coarse soils and thus need higher
herbicide rates.
• Soil acidity can influence some herbicides. Chemicals such as atrazine and metribuzin
(Sencor or Lexone) are more active in soils that have a higher pH.
Environmental conditions
• Soil moisture allows herbicides to work most effectively.
• If the soil is too dry, the herbicide may evaporate.
• If it is too wet, the herbicide may not make contact with soil particles.
• Warm, moist soil may increase microbial and chemical activity, causing herbicides to break
down more rapidly.
• But dry soils may prevent chemical and microbial activity, reducing degradation and causing
the herbicide to remain in the soil the following year.
• Rainfall, irrigation and flooding may cause soluble herbicides to leach downward through
the soil.
• This may be desirable with relatively insoluble herbicides, but with more soluble herbicides,
leaching may cause crop injury.
• Heavy rainfall may result in poor weed control or possible crop injury, depending on the
solubility of the herbicide.
• With pre-emergence herbicides, water is needed to carry the chemical into the soil where the
weed seeds are germinating.
• Rain and irrigation also provides moisture to help the weed seeds germinate so that they can
absorb lethal amounts of herbicide.
• With post-emergence applications, rainfall may wash herbicides from leaf surfaces, resulting
in poor weed control.
• Humidity affects post-emergence herbicide penetration and absorption.
• High relative humidity indicates favorable soil moisture conditions for rapid plant growth, a
time when plants are very susceptible to herbicides.
• Dew on the weeds or crop when post-emergence herbicides are applied may increase or
decrease the activity of some herbicides, depending on how quickly the chemical is absorbed
by plants and how the chemical kills plants.
• The presence of dew can also increase crop injury with some post-emergence herbicides
• Temperature affects the rate of plant growth and plant susceptibility to herbicides.
• Some herbicides evaporate quickly at high temperatures.
• Sunlight may destroy some herbicides if they are left on the soil surface for long periods.
Differences among weeds
• Perennials are controlled more effectively with translocated herbicides, because these
chemicals move into all parts of the plants; contact herbicides kill only the above-ground
parts.
• Type of weed.
• Some herbicides are strictly for use with broadleaf (dicotyledon) weeds. Some are strictly for
grass (monocotyledon).
• A few herbicides can be used with both broadleaves and grasses.
• Plant species may respond to some herbicides differently.
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 • Moreover, within a single species there may be races of the weed that respond differently.
Growth rates.
• The age of the plant and the rate of growth also affect how weeds respond to herbicides.
Plant and leaf structure
Waxy and hairy surfaces are problematic.

Preventing herbicide carry over

• Some herbicides remain in the soil a long time, causing injury in the following year’s
crop.
• Herbicide carryover is more likely to occur with unusually low rainfall, because dry soils
limit the chemical and microbial activity needed to degrade herbicides.
• To keep herbicide carryover in soil to a minimum, follow these guidelines:
• Apply the lowest rate practical
• Apply uniformly.
• Avoid double coverage: shut off the applicator when turning.
• Select crop sequences that are tolerant to the herbicide used on the previous crop.
• Rotate herbicides, whether the same crop is grown continuously or different crops are
grown in rotation.
• Spot treat when using high rates of herbicide

SECTION 4: MANAGING RODENT PESTS

Fundamental Ideas to Get Rid of Rodents

Basically, these commensal rodents depend upon three important factors for its surveillance: Food, water
and shelter (harborage). If you can take care of these, then it is almost simple to get rid of rat rid of mice
and rats easily. With proper cleaning, trapping the rodents that are already in and sealing up the entry
points can get you complete rodent free living space.

#1 Stop feeding rodents

First of all, you have to eliminate the sources of food to those rodents. Possibly, the bird seed left out and
ripen fruits in your trees. Then, use metal containers with tight shield to store food if you have any pets.
Make sure you are emptying your trash bins often and covering when not in use. Store your food items in
tightly-closed containers.

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#2 Destroy rats or rodents, anything you catch!

By the way, how to catch a rat? How to kill rats? You will see that in next section. For now, use any of
rodent control products destroy the rodents that have already entered your house. You can either use
mouse traps, rodenticides, etc.

#3 Eliminate its shelters

Once you have washed out and disposed all the rats from your house, then you will have prevent further
rodents entry. Hence, close all the openings. This may not be possible. Then, possibly reduce the openings
size to be less than ¼ inch. Repair the damaged vents, gaps in the roofing joints, hole in the roof tiles, etc.
Don’t stack wooden pieces on the ground near your house; better avoid thick vegetation that can be a
comfortable place for rodents to stay. Then trim the tree branches if it falls on your roof or it grows near
your window openings.

Only if you are done with these, you can get rid of rodents completely. If you fail to seal up your
openings, then the rodents keep entering your house and you will have keep hunting.

Various Rodent Control Methods You Can Try

Already, we have seen the steps to get rid of rodents as a whole (in the above section). In which, the
second thing is about destroying rats or mice that you have. Let’s see different rodent control measures, or
rodent control methods; to catch a rat or mice or to kill them.

#1 Trapping

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Trapping is the most commonly used rodent control measures or ideas for indoor. There are different sizes
of rodent traps available. The smaller one would be for mice trapping and other bit larger one for rats.
Choosing the right trap size is crucial for trapping rodents.

Inspect and identify the areas where rodents are active. Place the specific trap (for rats or mice) and
remember the spot. Since, to prevent odor issues once rodents are caught. The place where you place
rodent traps must be accessible to dispose the caught rodents.

Furthermore, there are multiple types of rodent traps available in the market. It includes snap trap,
electronic trap, live-animal trap, multiple-catch mouse trap, and glue trap. Each has its unique capability
for different varieties of rats and mice.

#2 Rodent Baits

To illustrate, using some chemicals to eliminate rodent food and harborage refers to rodents baiting. Rats
or any rodents will revisit the place if its finds some food over there. Therefore understanding this, you
may use some rat poisons or rodenticides that have anti-coagulant agents to kill it. Unfortunately, this
method is not highly recommendable. Since, children or any of your pets can taste the poisoned food
items and that is too dangerous.

If you are not confident about the chemicals to use, or feeling uncomfortable to use rodent baits (having
children or other pets that are more sensitive to such toxic agents), then go for professional rodent control
professionals.

#3 Natural Predators

Living organisms like snakes, owls that eat rats and mice are the natural predators. Sheltering snakes is
not safe and nearly impossible to do so. But, you can install nest boxes for owls and night hawks to stay in
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and around your area. But make sure you are not using any baits over there, if you are nesting owls or
hawks.

Tips if you Hire A Professional Rodent or Pest Control Service

Here are the few ideas to remember of you are about to hire any professional pest control or rodent
control services to handle. In the first place, make sure the hiring agent or individual are doing all these –

 Thorough inspection to ensure rodents activities and infestations

 Provides pictographic report or text to explain
 Prescribes the proper chemical baits or trap size based on the needs
 Suggests sealing up the vents and openings to stop rodent’s entry
 Completely removed the baits used

Before calling or hiring a rodent control service, know about their services. They will do complete rodent
control or mice removal service or only inspects and provide consultation to get rid of rats and mice.

Finally, Rodent-free House Or Farms

Rodent problems might seem to be immaterial. But, you are wrong. It can bring severe diseases
contaminating your food, damage your house holding by gnawing, or even disturbs you often with
unpleasant sounds.

Not only for house rodent control, even your farms, pets or birds shelter, in cars or car sheds, anywhere;
the rodent control measures or steps are similar. Eliminate its food and shelter, clean up or destroy the
rodents and prevent furthermore rodent entry. Make sure you disposed the trapped rats or any rodents, and
removed the poisoned food items or rat baits.

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And finally, try these rodent control measures and tips: Get rid of rodents – rats and mice. Live peacefully
and healthy.

MANAGING BIRD PESTS

1. Visual Bird Deterrents

Visual deterrents are a great way to scare off birds and prevent them from landing or roosting although the
efficacy depends on the bird species and type of deterrent.

You’ll find a huge range of visual bird control options. Here are the ones that work the best.

Optical Gel by Bird Barrier combines three bird repellent solutions in one: when the pre-loaded discs are
applied to surfaces like window sills and ledges, they repel birds by sight, scent, and touch. Optical Gel:

 Looks like fire to a bird thanks to its reflective surface

 Helps to deter birds with the scent of peppermint oil
 Feels sticky if birds land on it
Visual scares like fake owls and plastic snakes usually don’t work for long. Birds will adapt and learn that
the object isn’t a threat. Birds are most likely to overcome their fear if they’re returning to a preferred
feeding or roosting site. This drawback has been known for decades yet it’s still used by homeowners and
business owners across the country. With pigeons, you may get weeks or even months of pigeon control
before the pigeons realize the owl isn’t moving.

2. Owl Scarecrow Bird Deterrent

While not the most effective solution, visual deterrents do have their place. To get the most benefit,
choose a realistic predator for the bird species you’re trying to get rid of such as a fake owl bird repeller.
Hanging a bird balloon can also scare birds away.

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3. Reflective Anti-bird Spirals

Something highly reflective that moves in the wind like reflective anti-bird spirals. Assume birds are
keeping an eye on your property. Don’t get complacent when the bird repeller works initially; move the
devices around and sometimes take them down completely to trick birds into believing there’s a real
threat.

Bird Exclusion Devices

After addressing food sources, it’s time to stop birds from nesting in unwanted areas. The trick is making
your property inhospitable so they go elsewhere rather than actively trying to get the birds to leave.

There is a range of bird exclusion devices that are effective at keeping birds away such as:

 Spike to prevent birds from landing

 Wire to keep birds away
 Bird coils to prevent birds from landing
 Slike to cause birds to slip
 Nets to keep birds away
Bird spikes, wire, coils, and slides all work by preventing birds from even landing on off-limit areas. The
right product depends on the type of bird you want to deter and the area you want to protect. Let’s go over
how to keep birds from making nests in unwanted places.

4. Bird Spikes

Bird spikes are narrow spikes that can be attached to your window sills, roof, eaves, and any other area
large enough for birds to land or roost. These spikes can be attached to concrete, wood, and other surfaces
safely with screws or glue tracks. There are two types of bird spikes: metal and plastic. While plastic bird
spikes are more budget-friendly, they don’t last as long. For long-lasting results, choose stainless steel
spikes like Remiawy bird spikes.

When using bird spikes, keep in mind they won’t stop all types of birds. Spikes are most effective against
pigeons, crows, and gulls. In fact, they’re one of the best forms of pigeon deterrence. Small birds like
sparrows and starlings won’t necessarily be deterred, especially when they’re mating or nesting. These

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birds are feet designed for clutching objects. They are capable of holding on to the side of a building or
the spikes themselves and they can build a nest on top of the spikes to cover them.

5. Bird Coils

Bird coils work a lot like bird spikes: they’re great as pigeon deterrents but they won’t stop sparrows,
starlings, and other small birds. If you want to know how to keep pigeons away from ledges and window
sills without unsightly spikes, bird coil can be a good choice.

Bird coil is essentially an extendable stainless steel coil that’s stretched along a ledge to deter birds from
landing. When a larger bird lands on the coil, it moves and makes the bird feel unstable. The design also
makes it harder for debris to build up on and between the springs and make them stable and ineffective, a
problem that happens with spikes. There are also deterrent strips that can prevent birds from landing.

6. Bird Wire

Bird wire is a tension wire system that creates an unstable landing area to deter birds. The wire is a
popular choice because it’s low-profile and hard to see, unlike spikes. It can be used on exposed ledges as
well as beams and pipes. Bird wire is usually used for getting rid of pigeons on commercial properties but
it can be used anywhere.

The downside of bird wire is it’s not the best DIY bird control method as it’s time-consuming and
complicated to install.

7. Bird Netting

Do you have birds stealing food from your fruit trees or garden? Bird netting is a great solution. Anti-bird
netting is a low-cost and effective solution that can also be used under a roof, around eaves, and other
places birds nest or land.

When installing bird netting around a roof or other structures, take care that you don’t cut sections out of
the next to fit it around obstructions. To install the netting around a pipe, for example, cut an X or slit in
the net below the object and slide it through, sealing the mesh netting back up above the object.

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There is one downside of bird netting to keep in mind: it isn’t unheard of for birds to get stuck in the net.
A bird’s legs can become trapped when the bird tries to land on the surface. This can cause the bird to die
or leave you with the challenge of getting the bird free.

8. Control Bird Food Sources

Want to know how to keep birds away from the patio and house? Start by eliminating or reducing sources
of food and water. Don’t feed pest birds and get rid of bird feeders if they only seem to attract pests. Once
house sparrows or starlings move in, for example, they’ll run off beneficial bird species and take control
of your bird feeders.

Pigeons happily eat human food, including trash. House sparrows prefer grains but they’ll also eat
livestock feed and whatever you have growing in your garden. Starlings love ripe fruit, caterpillars, and
spiders.

Once you identify what the birds are eating, you can take appropriate steps like:

 Adding a bird net over the garden

 Keeping trash cans covered
 Cleaning the gutters to prevent standing water
 Stop using bird feeders during the warm months
 Change the food in your bird feeder. To prevent house sparrows and starlings
avoid suet and corn. Instead, use whole peanuts, safflower seeds, sunflower seeds in the shell, and Nyjer.

9. Cover House Openings

While bird spikes or wire works very well for getting rid of pigeons, what about smaller birds? Keep
house sparrows and starlings away by carefully sealing any openings the bird can use to get into an attic.
A starling only needs a 1″ opening and a sparrow can get inside through a 3/4″ opening.

You should also block openings to eaves and vents with 1/4″ wire mesh or sturdy netting. This bird guard
dryer vent cover has a metal screen that keeps out small birds like house sparrows. Don’t let birds get into
your roof and dryer vents where their nests can block ventilation and cause serious damage.

10. Destroy Nests or Eggs

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Watch your property for nests of pest birds like pigeons and starlings in your gutters, on the downpipe, or
in your eaves. It’s perfectly fine to destroy or remove the nests but this won’t necessarily get the birds to
move on. Many birds will simply rebuild their nest, especially in an area that offers everything they need.

While it takes more time than tearing down the nest, an even better solution is leaving the nest in place
and destroying the eggs. Simply poke the eggs in the nest with a pin or shake them vigorously to destroy
them. The birds will continue brooding and they won’t make a new nest and lay more eggs.

This method, called an incubation fake-out, can be effective. The eggs won’t be viable and the female will
probably spend longer than usual incubating them. There’s a drawback, though; the birds will
eventually lay new eggs. This will only work as a temporary stop-gap.

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