UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BLD 202

Version 1: December 2008

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1: STRUTS
(1.1) Definition of a strut (1.1)
(1.2) Examples of Compression Members (1.1)

WEEK 2: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(1.3) Failure of struts (1.4)
(1.4) Euler’s Crippling Load (1.5 & 2.1)
(1.5) Equivalent length of column (1.3)

WEEK 3: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(1.6) End Fixity of Columns (1.2)

WEEK 4: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(2.1) Failure, Buckled Shape and Effective Length (2.2)
(2.2) Strength of columns (1.4 & 2.3)
(2.3) Slenderness ratio (2.1 & 2.3)

WEEK 5: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(2.4) Limitation of Euler’s Formula (2.3)

WEEK 6: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(2.5) Design of short axially loaded columns (2.3)

WEEK 7: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

(2.6) Compression Members Without Pinned Ends (2.3)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

WEEK 8: FRAMED STRUCTURES
(3.1) Trusses (3.1)
(3.2) Frames (3.1)
(3.3) Statical Determinacy (3.2)

WEEK 9: FRAMES STRUCTURES (CONTINUED)

(3.4) Resolution Methods (3.2)
(3.5) Resolution by the Method of Joints (3.2)
(3.6) Resolution by reciprocal Diagram Method (3.2)

WEEK 10: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

(4.1) Concrete (4.1)
(4.2) Reinforced Concrete Design (4.2)
(4.3) Objectives of Design (4.2)
(4.4) Design Methods (4.2)
(4.5) Partial Factors of Safety (4.1)
(4.6) Assumptions Made in Calculations (4.1)
(4.7) Analysis of the Section (4.2)
(4.8) Assumptions Made in Reinforced Concrete Design (4.2)

WEEK 11: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (CONTINUED)

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 (4.9) Slabs (4.1)
(4.10) Design Procedure (4.2)

WEEK 12: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (CONTINUED)

(4.11) Design of Beams (4.3)

WEEK 13: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (CONTINUED)

(4.12) Foundations (4.4)
(4.13) Design Procedure for Foundations (4.5)
(4.14) Design Procedure for a Simple Pad Footing (4.6)

WEEK 14: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (CONTINUED)

(4.15) Load Bearing Walls (4.6)
(4.16) Welded, Bolted and Riveted Connections (4.7)
(4.17) Welded Connections (4.7)

WEEK 15: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (CONTINUED)

(4.18) Bolted Connections (4.7)
(4.19) Riveted Connections (4.7)

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WEEK 1: STRUTS
1.1 Definition of a strut:
Any member structure subjected to axial or compressive loading is called a strut for a
small member as in a framed structure. It may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
But a vertical strut, used in a building is called a column, which serves as the main
support for a beam in a building. It is traditionally called a stanchion. They could be
of timber, steel, reinforced concrete, stone, etc.
While columns are primarily compression members, they may also have to resist
bending forces, i.e. they resist axial loading plus a bending moment. They are very
critical members in buildings as they carry the loads from the slabs and beams down
to the foundation.

1.2 Examples Of Compression Members

Figure 1.1: The end of a steel roof truss with a top member (rafter) in compression.

Beam

Column

Figure 1.2: Column carrying a beam.

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Figure 1.3 shows the end of a steel roof truss. The sloping compression member (or rafter) is
formed from two parallel angle sections fixed each side of the gusset plates. These are known
as back-to-back angles, and it can be seen that the two angles are also connected together at
regular intervals throughout their length. This increases the load carrying capacity of the
angles as they are less likely to buckle if joined together.

Figure 1.3: The end of a steel roof truss with

a top member (rafter) in compression

Figure 1.4 shows a typical universal column section at the corner of a steel-framed building.
Whereas beams are usually ‘I’ shaped for maximum efficiency, columns are ‘H’ shaped – the
aim being to get an approximately equal second moment of area (moment of inertia), and
hence stiffness in all directions. Otherwise the column would invariably fail by buckling
about its weaker axis.

Figure 1.4: Corner column of a steel-

framed building

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A particularly efficient shape for compression members is the hollow box section (Figure
1.5). This is available in steel, aluminium alloy and fibre composite. The only problem with
this is the difficulty of connecting to it than to open sections. The circular hollow section is
the most efficient shape of all, but the ratio of the overall tube diameter to the wall thickness
should be kept below about 40 to prevent local crushing.

Figure 1.5: Hollow Sections make efficient compression members

Figure 1.6 shows a reinforced concrete column with part of the concrete removed. The
compressive strength of the concrete is supplemented by the four corner steel reinforcing bars
tied together by links or stirrups at intervals to restrain the corner bars and prevent them from
bursting out of the concrete when fully loaded.

Figure 1.6: A Reinforced Concrete Column

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Figure 1.7 shows a brickwork column. As with all brickwork structures, the bricks must be
properly bonded so that there are no continuous vertical joints (a sign of weakness) between
two adjacent courses. Where concentrated loads from steel beams bear directly onto
brickwork, it is often necessary to provide concrete pad stones to spread the load.

Figure 1.7: A Brickwork Column

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WEEK 2: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

1.3 Failure Of A Column Or Strut

It has been observed, that when a column or strut is subjected to a compressive force,
the compressive stress induced is given as:

σ= ,
where P is the compressive force and A is the area of the cross section. A little
consideration will show that if the force or load is gradually increased, the column will
reach a stage when it will be subjected to ultimate crushing stress. Beyond this stage the
column will fail by crushing. The load corresponding to the crushing stress is called
crushing load.
However, it has also been experienced at other times that a compression member does
not fail entirely by crushing, but also by bending, i.e. buckling. This happens in the case
of long columns. It has also been observed that all short columns fail by crushing. If a
long column is subjected to a compressive load, it is subjected to a compressive stress.
If the load increases gradually, the column will reach a stage when it will start buckling.
The load at which the column just buckles is called buckling load, critical load or
crippling load and the column is said to have developed an elastic instability.
Further consideration will show that for a long column, the value of buckling load will
be less than the crushing load. Moreover, the value of buckling load is low for long
columns and relatively high for short columns.
1.4 Euler’s crippling load
Mr. Euler, a Swiss Mathematician, expressed the relationship between buckling of a
slender pin-ended column and its crippling load. The load at which a slender column
buckles is known as its critical buckling load, Pcrit.

Application:
Consider an object such as a plastic ruler under a small compressive load less than Pcrit
(Figure 1.1). If a small sideways load is applied in the middle (Figure 1.2), it will
deflect in the middle, but when the sideways load is removed it will spring straight
again (Figure 1.3). If the compressive load is steadily increased, the point will be
reached when the ruler does not spring back (Figure 1.4). This compressive load is Pcrit.

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 Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

The moment induced by the eccentricity of Pcrit just balances the restoring moment
from the curvature of the beam. If the load is increased beyond Pcrit collapse will
occur. The value of the critical buckling load for a slender pin-ended column is given
by the Euler Buckling Formula:
Pcrit = , Where
E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity;
I = Second moment of area;
Le = Effective length between pins.

Assumptions in the Euler’s Column Theory

The following simplifying assumptions are made in the Euler’s Column Theory:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight, and the load applied is truly axial in nature.

• The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.

• The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, and thus obeys
Hooke’s law.

• The length of the column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.

• The shortening of column due to direct compression (being very small) is neglected.

• The failure of column occurs due to buckling.

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1.5 Equivalent length of a column
The crippling load for the pin-ended column as derived by Euler can be modified for
various end conditions of columns, thus:

Pcrit =
Where C is a constant, representing the end conditions of the column or end fixity of
the column.

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WEEK 3: STRUTS (CONTINUED)

1.6 End Fixity of Columns

• The degree of positional and directional restraint of the ends of the column is among
the factors that affect the strength of a column.
• In the analysis of a column, it is necessary to classify it into one of the following
types:
¾ A braced column-where the lateral loads are resisted by walls or some other form
of bracing.
¾ An unbraced column-where the lateral loads are resisted by the bending action of
the column.
• Other factors that affect the strength of a column include:
¾ Strength and elasticity of the material(s).
¾ Shape and size of the cross section
¾ The length of the column (which is influenced by the end conditions of the
column).

The equivalent pin-ended length factor, C, must be determined for various rotational
and translational end restraint conditions.
C for various end conditions are given below:

Le = L Le = 0.5L Le = 0.7L

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 Le = 2L

Le = 1.2 – 1.8L

Table 2.1: Effective Column Height

Type of Column Effective Column Height
Braced column properly restrained in Le = CL = 0.75L
direction at both ends
Braced column imperfectly restrained in 0.75 ≤ C ≤ 1.0 A value C intermediate
direction at one or both ends depending upon the efficiency of the
directional restraint - usually taken as 0.85.
Unbraced or partially braced column, 1.0 ≤ C ≤ 2.0 This depends upon the
properly restrained in direction at one end efficiency of the directional restraint
but imperfectly restrained in direction at and bracing.
the other end

The effectiveness of the directional restraint will depend on the stiffness of the beams, which
connect to the column.
Note that buckling is principally influenced by stiffness, EI, and not strength and so to avoid
failure by buckling will mean ensuring that Pcrit is computed about the weaker axis.
As earlier seen, the values of the constant, C, for various end conditions are:
• C is 1 for a column with both ends hinged.
• C is 4 for a column with one end fixed and the other free.
• C is for a column with both ends fixed.

• C is for a column with one end fixed and the other hinged.

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Alternatively, the above could be summarized as follows in the table below:

S/No. End conditions Crippling load Relationship between equivalent

length and actual length
1. Both ends hinged. L=l

2. One end fixed and L = 2l

the other free.

3. Both ends fixed.

L=

4. One end fixed and

the other free. L=

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WEEK 4: STRUTS (CONTINUED)
2.1 Failure, Buckled Shape and Effective Lengths
As stated earlier, the negative feature of slender members is the tendency to vibrate on
load reversal and so slender columns will fail suddenly without warning if Pcrit is
exceeded. The capacity of a slender column also depends on the restraint supplied at
its ends. For example, a slender cantilever column – fixed at one end and free at the
other – will support a load that is one-fourth as large as that of an identical column
with two pinned end as earlier seen.
2.2 Strength of columns
Failure of a column depends on its nature and can occur in two principal ways:
• Short fat columns fail by crushing or splitting of the material and this is called a
strength criterion. Their capacity for axial load is high as its strength depends
solely on its cross sectional area and the material strength.

Figure 4.1: Short column

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 • Long slender columns fail by sideways buckling and this is called a stiffness
criterion. Their capacity for axial load is low as its length makes a significant
difference. A match stick is reasonably strong in compression compared to a
300mm long stick of the same cross sectional area.

Figure 4.2: Slender column Figure 4.3: Buckling of slender column

2.3 Slenderness ratio:

As we have seen, the general equation for the crippling load is:
Pcrit = , and we also know that the buckling of a column under the buckling load
will take place about the axis of least resistance.
Now substituting I = Ar2 (where A is the area and r is the least radius of gyration of
the section) in the above equation,
Pcrit = = ,

where is known as the slenderness ratio. This phenomenon has a negative

feature/effect on members with small cross sections as they are very flexible and tend
to vibrate easily under moving loads. That is why most building codes specify that
certain types of tension members have a minimum amount of flexural stiffness by
placing an upper limit on their slenderness ratio, l/r, where l is the length of the
member and r is the radius of gyration.
By definition, r = √I/A where I equals the moment of inertia and A equals the area of cross
section. If the direction of load suddenly reverses (a condition produced by wind or
earthquake), a slender tension member will collapse before it can provide resistance to the
load.

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Columns carry load in direct stress efficiently. The capacity of a compression member is a
function of its slenderness ratio.
The buckling of a column under the crippling load will take place about the axis of least
resistance as the vertical column has two moments of inertia. Because of this fact, the least
value of the two moments of inertia is used in all computations relating to buckling.
Note: It may be noted that the formulae for crippling load have been derived on the
assumption that the slenderness ratio is so large that the failure of the column occurs only

due to bending, the effect of direct stress (i.e. ) being negligible.

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WEEK 5: STRUTS (CONTINUED)
2.4 Limitation Of Euler’s Formula
Having derived the general equation for the crippling load, Pcrit = ,

Crippling Stress, σ = =
A little consideration will show that the crippling stress will be high when the
slenderness ratio is small. We already know that the crippling stress for a column
cannot be more than the crushing stress of the column material. It is thus obvious that
the Euler’s formula will give the value of crippling stress of the column (equal to the
crushing stress of the column material) corresponding to the slenderness ratio. Given
that the crushing stress for a mild steel is 33kN/mm2 and Young’s Modulus for mild
steel is 2.1 x 104 kN/mm2.
Now equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress,
= 33

= 33

= 6,282
= 79.27, say 80
Hence if the slenderness ratio is less than 80, the Euler’s formula for a mild steel
column fails to be valid.
Sometimes the columns, whose slenderness ratio is more than 80, are known as long
or slender columns; and those whose slenderness ratio is less than 80 are known as
short or fat columns. It is obvious that the Euler’s formula holds good only for
long/slender columns.
The Euler buckling formula works reasonably well for the slender struts, however, it
overestimates the strength of shorter compression members. It is in fact possible for
the formula to indicate a critical buckling load which would cause the stress in the
member to be above the yield stress for the material, and this is clearly not acceptable.
Also real struts cannot be assumed to be initially perfectly straight, or loaded perfectly
axially. In national standards, these factors are taken into account by using formulae
which are modified as a result of considerable empirical testing in the laboratory. The
Perry-Robertson formula is commonly used, and the results are usually presented in

the form of curves or tabulated values of compressive strength, σc, against

slenderness ratio.
Slenderness ratio = Effective length/radius of gyration = le/r.

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 For pin-ended member the effective length, le, is the distance between the pins. For
others, refer to previous lectures on End Fixity of columns.
We have defined the radius of gyration and is given in section tables for standard
section. Where more than one value for r is given in the tables, the minimum must be
used in the above formula. This is because a compression member will buckle about
its weak axis (remember the plastic ruler again).

σc

Figure 5.1: Design curves for compression members in Grade 43 mild steel and aluminium alloy 6082, based on
BS5950: Part 1: 1990 and BS 8118:1991.

The figure 5.1 above shows some buckling curves for steel and aluminium members.
It is easy to see how these curves compare with the buckling loads predicted by the

Euler formula. We must convert the Euler load to an equivalent stress, σE, by dividing
by A, the cross-sectional area of the member:

σE =
Now substituting for I = Ar2

σE = =

The above Euler equivalent stress can be plotted on the same axes as the other design
curves (figure 5.1)

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 It is important to note that buckling is principally influenced by stiffness and not
strength. The fact that we use stress to determine compressive strength is largely a
convenience. It does not imply that a slender buckled compression member has
reached the material yield stress. Note how the yield stress and the Euler equivalent
stress form a boundary to the design curves.
Also note the limits imposed on the maximum permissible slenderness ratios. If these
limits are exceeded, the members become too sensitive to small inadvertent error in
straightness, the point of load application and deflections due to selfweight.
Question: Explain why the buckling load for slender aluminium alloy is less than half
of that for mild steel, seeing that yield stress for aluminium is almost the same as that
for steel.
Answer: for slender struts the buckling load is dependent upon stiffness and not
strength. The modulus of elasticity for aluminium alloy is only about a third of that of
steel.
The design procedure for real compression members involves a trial-and-error
approach as follows:
o Estimate the compressive strength of the member (say 1200N/mm2), and evaluate the
approximate area requires:
Approximate area =

o Select a suitable section size from the tables and evaluate the slenderness ration
LE/rmin.

o Evaluate the compressive strength, σc, from the design curve, and compare it with the
actual stress on the member:
Actual stress =

o The actual stress from the last step should ideally be less than or equal to the
compressive strength obtained from the design curve. If it is higher, then the member
will buckle, and the process from step 2 is repeated using a bigger section. If it is
substantially lower, then the process can be repeated with a smaller section, in order
to improve economy.

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Problem:
A square reinforced concrete column of 230mm side is 4.5m high and fixed only at the
bottom. If E for reinforced concrete is given as 26kN/mm2, determine the crippling load for
the column.
Solution:
Pcrit = , Where
E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity = 26kN/mm2;
I = Second moment of area = mm4
Le = Effective length between pins = 2L.

=
= 738.98kN.

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Exercises/Practical:
1. A round mild steel bar of 50mm diameter is pin-ended at both ends. If the
crippling load, Pcrit is 860kN, determine the length of the bar, given that E is
210kN/mm2 for the steel.

2. A certain material of rectangular cross section has L = 2B. Given that the
crippling load is 450kN, E = 160kN/mm2, Le = 3.65m, determine the cross sectional
dimensions of the material.

3. A steel rod 5m long and 4cm diameter is used as a column, with one end fixed
and the other free. Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula. Take E as
210kN/mm2.

4. A timber column 15cm x 10cm in section is 3m long with both ends hinged.
Determine the safe load the column can carry just at buckling, given that E for timber
is 105.5kN/mm2.

Note: Students to Carry out tests on Euler’s Theory in the Laboratory

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WEEK 6: STRUTS (CONTINUED)
2.5 Design of Short Axially Loaded Columns
A rectangular column is described as ‘short’ when its height to minimum width ratio is
less than 15 if the top is restrained against lateral movement and less than 10 if
unrestrained. In practice, it is usually only reinforced concrete or brick/blockwork
columns that fall within this category.
The axial force in a column at the ultimate limit state may be calculated in the absence
of other rigorous analysis like shear from beam calculations, on the assumption that
beams and slabs transmitting force into it are simply supported.
When a column is axially loaded or axial force dominate, as in the case of column
supporting symmetrical arrangement of beams, only the design ultimate axial force
need be considered in the design. This is without prejudice to the consideration of a
nominal allowance for minimum eccentricity
The design procedure is similar to that adopted for tension members, i.e., ensure that
the cross-sectional area of the member is adequate to reduce the ultimate stress to an
acceptably low value.
Given a reinforced concrete column, we would expect the ultimate compressive load
capacity, N, to be the sum of the strengths of both the concrete and steel components:
N = fcuAc + fyAsc
Where
fcu = characteristic concrete cube crushing strength.
Ac = area of concrete
fy = characteristic yield stress of steel.
Asc = area of steel.
However, as with beams, the cube test overestimates the strength of the concrete
because the restraint provided by the steel platens of the testing machine. The
equation is therefore empirically modified to become:
N = 0.67fcuAc + fyAsc
We must now divide by the partial factors of safety for material strength, γm, where γm
=1.5 for concrete and 1.05 for steel reinforcement. The equation now becomes:
N = 0.45fcuAc + 0.95fyAsc
Finally an allowance must be made for the fact that the load may not be applied
purely axially. The equation is consequently reduced to:
N = 0.4fcuAc +0.8 fyAsc

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The steel reinforcement area must be between 0.4% and 6% of the concrete area. This
clearly gives considerable scope for variation in the overall dimensions of the column.
The designer could go for a small column with a large steel area or vice versa. In
practical terms, all the columns in a particular building are likely to have the same
external dimensions, but the area of steel can be varied to compensate for varying
loads.
The links shown should have a minimum diameter of one-quarter of that of the largest
longitudinal bars, and the maximum spacing of the links should be 12 times the
diameter of the smallest longitudinal bars.
Example:
A short reinforced concrete column is to support the following loads:
Characteristic dead load = 758kN
Characteristic imposed load = 630kN.
If the column is to measure 325mm x 325mm and the concrete characteristic strength
is 30N/mm2, determine the required size of high yield reinforcing bars and specify
suitable links.
Solution:
First we must find the ultimate design load by applying the partial factors of safety for
the load.
Design load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4 x 758 + 1.6 x 630
= 2069kN.
From: N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.8fyAsc
Hence 2069 x 103 = 0.4 x 30 x 3252 + 0.8fyAsc
80150 = 0.8 x 460 x Asc
Asc = 2323mm2
Using 4 bars area/bar = 581mm2
From table:
Area of 32mm diameter bar = 804mm2
Comment: this is clearly somewhat oversize, but the next bar down which is 25mm
diameter, only has an area of 491mm2 which is not adequate. An alternative solution
would be to use eight 20mm diameter bars which have a total area of 2513mm2.
Steel percentage = = 3.04%.

This is between 0.4% and 6% and therefore satisfactory.

Minimum diameter of links = 32mm/4 = 8mm.

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Maximum spacing of links = 32mm x 12 = 384mm.
Answer: Use 4 number 32mm diameter bars with 8mm diameter links at 350mm
spacing.

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Exercises/Practical:
1. A short reinforced concrete column measures 230mm x 230mm and contains four
16mm diameter high yield reinforcing bars ( fy = 410N/mm2). If the concrete grade is
25N/mm2, determine the ultimate axial design capacity of the column.

2. A column carries an axial load of 300kN including its own weight, design a 230 x 230
mm column assuming the column is short. Take fcu = 30N/mm2 and fy = 460N/mm2.
(Note that answer is negative so provide minimum reinforcement which 0.4% of the
area of concrete for columns).

3. A central short column, 300mm in diameter, supports approximately equal

arrangement of beams. The column carries an axial design load of 780kN. Design the
column using 25 grade concrete. (note that for circular columns a minimum of six
bars will be used).

25
WEEK 7: STRUTS (CONTINUED)
2.6 Compression Members Without Pinned Ends
Real life structures do not have compression members with pin ends. A strut with
welded end connections as shown in figure 7.1 will tend to have a higher compressive
load carrying capacity before buckling than a pin-ended strut of the same length. This
is because the welded connections provide some restraint against rotation.

Figure 7.1: An example of a compression member without pinned ends

Another interesting feature is that a column with a free end, such as in figure 7.3 will
buckle at a lower load than a pin-ended column of the same length.

Figure 7.2: A vertical cantilever as an example of a column with no pinned ends

The design of such cases is simply taken care of by modifying the effective length before
evaluating the slenderness ratio.

26
Table 7.1: Effective length, LE, for compression members.
End Conditions Effective length, LE
Both ends fully fixed in position and
direction (must be rigidly fixed to massive 0.7L
members at ends)
Both ends restrained in position and partially
restrained in direction (at least two bolts or 0.85L
welding at each end)
Fully fixed at one end and free at the other (a 2.0L
vertical cantilever)

Note: L is the actual length of the member and should be measures from the intersections of
the centroids of connecting members (Based on BS 5950: Part 1: 1990).
In applying the values in Table 7.1 to the two cases in figures 7.1 and 7.2, we would come
out with the following:
For the case in figure 7.1, LE = 0.85L (the same would apply if the weld was replaced by two
bolts).
For the case in figure 7.2, LE = 2.0L

27
Evaluating effective lengths often requires the use of ‘engineering judgment’, and often
seems rather arbitrary. It does simplify issues rather than the sophisticated computer analyses
that give compressive loads in members to about four decimal places. The estimation of the
effective length makes more difference to the final section size used.

Figure 7:3: Lifting Device

Example:
The figure 7.3 shows a simple lifting device outside a shop. It is fixed to a concrete wall. The
diagonal bracing shown in plan is to prevent any lateral movement of the point B, and does
not affect the forces in the main members.
a. If the dead load of the device is 3kN and the maximum imposed load is 45kN,
determine the forces in the members, assuming self-weight of members is negligible).

b. Design a suitable mild steel tie and strut, using 6mm thick flat bar for the ties and an
equal angle for the strut.

Solution:
Loading: Design load = (1.4 x 3) + (1.6 x 45) = 76.2kN

28
Analysis:
Resolve forces at joint B – figure 7.3b

(ΣV = 0) 76.2 = FABSinθ = FAB x 4 (note the 3:4:5 triangle)

5
Answer FAB = 95.25kN tension

(ΣH = 0) FBC = 95.25 x 3

5
Answer FBC = 57.15kN compression
Design:
Tie – The characteristic strength of mild steel is taken as 275N/mm2 and a partial factor of
safety for the material strength, γm of 1.05 is taken.
95.250 N
Net area required = = 334mm2
275 x1.02
334
Width of flat tie = + 18 = 74mm
6
Answer: Use 80mm x 6mm flat bar

Strut – Let us use the design curve in figure 5.1 in Week 5.

Effective length, LE = 0.85 x 3000mm = 2550mm.
Approximate area = 57.15 x 103/100 x 102 = 5.712cm2
Try 60 x 60 x 6 angle (A = 5.81cm2, rmin =1.37 cm)
Slenderness ratio = 2550/13.7 = 186 >180 (not good enough)
Try 80 x 80 x 60 angle (A = 9.35cm2, rmin =1.57 cm)
Slenderness ratio = 2550/15.7 = 162 (okay)
From figure 5.1:
Compressive strength, σc = 60N/mm2
Actual stress = 57.15 x 103/9.35 x 102 = 61.12N/mm2 › 60N/mm2 (not good still).
Try 90 x 90 x 6 angle (A = 10.6cm2, rmin =1.78 cm)
Slenderness ratio = 2550/17.8 = 143 ( okay)
From Figure 5.1,
Compressive strength, σc = 74N/mm2
Actual stress = 57.15 x 103/10.6 x 102 = 53.92N/mm2 < 74N/mm2 (Satisfactory)
Answer Use 90 x 90 x 6 angle.
Summary of key points on struts
¾ Any member structure subjected to axial or compressive loading is called a strut for a
small member as in a framed structure. It may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.

29
 But a vertical strut, used in a building is called a column, which serves as the main
support for a beam in a building.

¾ Some masonry and concrete columns are classed as ‘short’ and fail by compressive
crushing of the material.

¾ Most structural compressive members (struts) are slender or long and fail by sideways
buckling. The buckling load is related to the stiffness of the member rather than its
strength.

¾ For a slender pin-ended straight strut the Euler buckling load is given by

Pcrit = , Where

E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity;

I = Second moment of area or moment of inertia;
le = Effective length between pins.
¾ Real struts tend to be designed using design charts which take into account
imperfections in the member. The strength is based on the slenderness ratio of the
member given by: Slenderness ratio =

This is often a trial-and-error process as the radius of gyration, r, is not known until a
trial member has been selected.
¾ The effective length of compression members without pin ends must be adjusted
before the slenderness ration is calculated.

30
Exercises/Practical:
1. A square steel rod has cross-sectional dimensions of 10mm x 10mm. It is used as a
pin ended strut with an effective length of 0.9m. Determine its Euler buckling load.

2. A goal post type frame is used as a support for a hoist which is used by mechanics to
lift or unload heavy vehicles’ engine. The maximum characteristic imposed load is
250kN at mid-span. Neglecting all other loads, and that the columns are rigidly
connected at the base but unrestrained at the top, use the design curve from figure 5.1
to determine the dimensions of a suitable circular hollow section (CHS) for the
supporting column.

31
Week 8: FRAMED STRUCTURES
3.1 Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of a number of bars all lying in one plane and
hinged together at their ends in such a manner as to form a rigid framework.
• Usually, members of trusses are either in tensile or compressive stress, i.e. as a
and b tend to pull apart, they pull c along hence the ‘tension.’
• A truss is usually loaded at its joints and its members work either in tension or
compression. P

a b

c
Simple Truss

32
3.2 FRAMES
When two structural members (beam and column) are connected together in form of a
stiff joint, a new structural element, ‘a frame’ is obtained. The frame behaves
monolithically and is stronger than the beam-column system.
Trusses (or plane frames) are structures composed of a number of bars pin-connected
at their end. The following are assumed of trusses:
• Moments at joints = 0
• Members are subjected to axial forces only.
• Members extend from one joint to another only.
• The centroidal lines of members intersect at joints.
• All external forces are applied at joints.

Web Members Upper chord

Rise

Lower chord

3.3 Statical Determinacy: A truss is said to statically determinate if:

n = 2j-3
where n = number of members; and
j = number of joints.
A statically determinate structure is one for which it is possible to determine all the
member forces and support reactions using simple statics. All such structures possess
the minimum number of members and reactions required to enable them to carry
external loads. If one member or reaction is removed, they become unstable (they
become mechanisms), i.e. they are unable to support even arbitrarily small loads. This
makes them rather vulnerable to localized damage, and is the main reason why most
real structures are not statically determinate.

33
 A Girder Bridge

A Transmission Tower.

Practical/Exercise:
Students to write down further examples of frames around them and visit the
Workshop to see a model of a roof truss.

34
WEEK 9: FRAMES (CONTINUED)

3.4 Methods Of Resolution Of Trusses/Plane Frames

The analysis of trusses at this level is largely concerned with determining the
magnitude of the tensile and compressive forces in the truss members. Tensile
members are called ties and compression members are called struts.

3.5 Finding compression or tension by the Method of Resolving at Joints).

This method consists of resolving the resultant force at any point in a structure along
the members of the frame meeting at that joint. Only joints with not more than two
unknowns can be considered at a time.
The key is to imagine each member in turn to be cut or removed from the structure
while under load. This will produce an unstable structure or mechanism. If the nodes
at each end of the member would move closer together (and hence have to be pushed
apart to prevent collapse) then the member is in compression
i.e. pushing the nodes apart.
Conversely, if the nodes at each end of the member would move apart (and hence
have to be pulled together to prevent collapse), then the member is in tension
i.e pulling the nodes together.
2kN
F G H J K

4m

B
A C D E
RA 2kN 4 x 3m 6kN RB
Figure 9.1

Solution
1. Determine the reactions:
∑x = 0
∑y = 0 => RA + RB = 2kN + 2kN + 6kN = 10kN.
∑m = 0 => MB = 12RA – 2 x 9 – 2 x 6 – 6 x 3 = 0.
=>RA = kN = 4kN
From ∑y = 0, RB = 10 – 4 = 6kN.

Joint A: FAC = 0; FAF = 4kN (action and reaction are equal and opposite).
Joint F: = ; FFC = FAF x = 4kN x = 5kN.
= : Note that FFC = 5kN; therefore, FFG = x = 3kN.
Joint C: FGC = 2kN (action and reaction being equal and opposite).
Joint G: = ; therefore, FGD = x = 2.5kN
= ; => FGH = 2.5kN x = 1.5kN

35
At joint G, the 2.5kN force has a horizontal component of 1.5kN and in the same direction as
the 3kN component and so since joint G is in equilibrium, then a force of 4.5kN must act in
the opposite direction of 1.5kN component. The same applies to joint D. This makes joint D
to be in equilibrium making the member DJ redundant (having no force) since the vertical
forces balance each other and the same with the horizontal forces.
Joint E:

E
6kN

, therefore, FEK = kN = 7.5kN

3.6 Reciprocal Diagram Method.

The approach as the name implies is by graphical resolution using appropriate scales as
follows:
¾ Choose the length and force scales.

¾ Draw the truss to the chosen length scale.

¾ Starting from any of the supports, draw a reciprocal diagram of the truss.

Example: 1kN

Y z
1

a x c
RA 4.0m RB

36
x = space between reaction RA and RB
y = space between reaction RA and 1kN.
z = space between applied force 1kN and RB
Note that usually the spaces between forces are denoted by letters.
1
RA = RB = kN.
2
At joint (a)

y1 1kN

x1

At joint (b) y

1 1kN

Note: Where the lines y1 and z1 meet must be the point 1.

At joint (c) 1 x

Now putting all the joints in one diagram gives the reciprocal diagram for the loaded truss as
follows:

1
x

37
Exercise/Practical:
Find the forces in all the members of the given truss using graphical method.

C
600 2

600
1 3
A B
10kN
5.0m 5.0m

Solution:
Member Force (kN) Type
c2 5.77 Strut
b3 2.89 Tie
a1 2.89 Tie
c3 5.77 Strut
32 5.77 Tie
21 5.77 Tie
1c 5.77 Strut

38
WEEK 10: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

4.1 Concrete.

Concrete is a construction material that consists, in its most common form, of

Portland cement, construction aggregate (generally gravel and sand) and water.

Concrete does not solidify from drying after mixing and placement; the water reacts
with the cement in a chemical process known as hydration. This water is absorbed by
the cement, which hardens, bonding the other components together and eventually
creating a stone-like material.

Concrete is used more than any other man made material on the planet. It is used to
make pavements, building structures, foundations, motorways/roads, overpasses,
parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.

The composition of concrete is determined initially during mixing and finally during
placing of fresh concrete. The type of structure being built as well as the method of
construction determine how the concrete is placed and therefore the composition of
the concrete mix (the mix design).

Aggregate is the component of a composite material used to resist compressive stress.

For efficient filling, aggregate should be much smaller than the finished item, but
have a wide variety of sizes. For example, the particles of stone used to make concrete
typically include both sand and gravel.

The water and cement paste hardens and develops strength over time. In order to
ensure an economical and practical solution, both fine and coarse aggregates are
utilised to make up the bulk of the concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed
stone are mainly used for this purpose. However, it is increasingly common for
recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) to be used
as partial replacements of natural aggregates.

Grinding concrete exposes aggregate stones.

Cement: In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance
which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The
name "cement" goes back to the Romans who used the term "opus caementitium" to
describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with
burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives which were

39
 added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as
cementum, cimentum, cäment and cement

The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete - the
bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is
durable in the face of normal environmental effects.

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage, as it is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. The most common use
for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material
consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction
material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can
become a structural (load bearing) element.

Water: Potable water can be used for manufacturing concrete. The w/c ratio (mass
ratio of water to cement) is the key factor that determines the strength of concrete. A
lower w/c ratio will yield a concrete which is stronger, while a higher w/c ratio yields
a concrete with a lower strength. Cement paste is the material formed by combination
of water and cementitious materials; that part of the concrete which is not aggregate
or reinforcing. The workability or consistency is affected by the water content, the
amount of cement paste in the overall mix and the physical characteristics (maximum
size, shape and grading) of the aggregates

4.2 Reinforced Concrete:

Reinforced concrete, also called “ferro-concrete” in some countries, is concrete in

which reinforcement bars (rebars) or fibres have been incorporated to strengthen the
material that would otherwise be brittle.
Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcement that is designed and placed in
structural members at specific positions to cater for all the tensile stresses that the
member is required to accommodate.
Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties – firstly,
the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating
internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction; secondly,
when the cement paste within the concrete hardens this conforms to the surface details
of the steel, permitting stresses to be transmitted efficiently among the different
materials. Usually the steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the
bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel. Thirdly, the alkaline chemical
environment provided by calcium carbonate (lime) causes a passivating film to form
on the surface of steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in
neutral or acidic conditions.
In reinforced concrete, two major problems are considered and resolved, namely:
• The Analysis of the stresses existing in a given section of a structural member due to
the given load; and

• The Design which consists of determining the dimensions of the structural member to
carry the given load including the reinforcement.

Composite Action
The tensile strength of concrete is predicted to be only 10% of the compressive strength,
and for this reason, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed based on the
40
 assumption that concrete does not resist any tensile stress. Reinforcement is designed to
carry these tensile stresses, which are transferred by the bond between the interfaces of
the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the
concrete and there will be no composite action. Thus members should be well detailed so
that concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In
addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grip.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed that
there is perfect bond so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the
adjacent concrete. This ensures that there is what is known as “compatibility of strains”
across the section of the members.
4.3 Objectives of Design

A reinforced concrete design must satisfy the following functional objectives:

• Under the worst system of loading, the structure must be safe.

• Under the working load, the deformation of the structure must not impair the
appearance, durability and/or performance of the structure and

• The structure must be economical, that is, the factor of safety should not be too
large to the extent that the cost of the structure becomes prohibitive with no
additional major advantage except robustness.

These requirements call for good assessment of the intending loads, right choice of
materials and high quality workmanship. To ensure these, the various components
forming the reinforced concrete and the concrete itself must pass the various tests
detailed in the controlling codes of practice.
The determination of the size of the structural members and the amount of
reinforcement required to enable such members withstand the forces or other effects
to which they will be subjected is the object of design or detailed design.
4.4 Design Methods
The design philosophy of reinforced concrete has undergone various stages of
modifications as knew knowledge is obtained pertaining to materials and behaviour. The
three main ones are:
¾ The Modular Ratio Method in which the loads are assessed as the working (actual)
loads but limiting the permissible stresses in the concrete and the reinforcement to
fraction of their actual stresses in order to provide an adequate factor of safety. This is
guided by CP114:1957. It is also called the Elastic Theory Method or Working
Stress Design Method.

¾ The Load Factor Method in which the section is analysed at failure, the actual
strength of a section being related to the actual load causing failure, with the latter
being determine by applying a factor to the design load. In the load factor design
method, the ultimate strength of the materials is used in the calculation, hence, no
variations in materials strength is taken into account; for this reason, it cannot be used
for the serviceability states of deflection and cracking.

¾ The Limit State Design Method, which overcomes many of the disadvantages of the
earlier methods. In this method, the working loads are multiplied by partial factors of
safety and the ultimate materials strengths are divided by further partial factors of
safety. The objective of the limit state design is to achieve an acceptable probability

41
 that a structure will not become unserviceable in its life time. It therefore sets out to
examine all the ways in which a structure may become unfit for use.

The condition of a structure when it becomes unserviceable is called a limit state.

With this method, the design of each individual member or section of a member must
satisfy two separate criteria namely:
9 Ultimate limit state, which ensures that neither the whole structure nor any
part of the structure should collapse under foreseeable load, i.e., the
probability of failure is acceptably low.

9 The serviceability limit state, which ensures satisfactory behaviour under

service, (i.e. working) loads. The principal criteria relating to serviceability are
the prevention of excessive deflections and cracking, however, with certain
types of structures and in special circumstances other limit state criteria may
have to be considered (e.g. fatigue, vibration, durability, fire resistance,
earthquake, etc.)

4.5 Partial factors of safety for materials

Design strength, σ* = =
Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by the
partial factors of safety applied to the strength of materials and to the loading.
The following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for the partial factor
of safety for materials (γm)
o The strength of the material in actual member; this strength will differ from that
measured in a carefully prepared test specimen and it is particularly true for concrete
where placing, compaction and curing are so important to the strength. Steel on the
other hand is a fairly consistent material requiring a small partial factor of safety.
o The severity of the limit state being considered; thus higher values are taken for
ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state.

Table 10.1: Recommended values of Partial factors of safety applied to materials:

Material
Limit State Concrete Steel
Ultimate Limit State 1.5 1.05
Serviceability (Deflection) 1.0 1.0
Serviceability (Cracking) 1.3 1.0

For precast factory conditions, it may be possible to reduce the value for concrete at the
ultimate limit state.
Partial Factor of Safety for Loads (γf)
Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes such as:
ƒ Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation.
ƒ Possible unusual load increases.
ƒ Unforeseen stress redistributions
ƒ Constructional inaccuracies.

These cannot be ignored and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of safety (γf)
on the loadings, so that Design load = characteristic load x Partial Factor of Safety.

42
Table 10.2: Partial Factor of afety Applied to Loads:
Load Limit State
Combination Ultimate Serviceability
Dead Imposed(γQ) Wind(γW) Dead Imposed(γQ) Wind(γW)
(γG) (γG)
Dead + 1.4(or 1.6 - 1.0 1.0 -
Imposed 1.0)
Dead + 1.4(or - 1.4 1.0 - 1.0
Wind 0.9)
Dead + 1.2 1.2 1.8 1.0 0.8 0.8
Imposed +
Wind

The lower values applied to the dead load at the ultimate limit state should be used when
minimum loading is critical
4.6 Assumptions Made in Calculations
™ The design strength, σ* =
™ The value of σ* must be reduced, when necessary, to allow for fatigue, exceptional
wear or corrosion.
™ The value Qk, characteristic imposed load, must be increased, when necessary, to
allow for vibration or dynamic effects, unless special calculations are made.
™ Additional stresses, when significant, must be calculated and allowed for due to
The ultimate eccentricity of loads or thrusts;
The ultimate settlement of supports; and
Internal displacements due to temperature, shrinkage, creep and residual
strains due to non-recovery of creep or cracking.
™ The influence of age, temperature and bi-axial and tri-axial conditions of stress on the
value of σ* for concrete must be considered
™ The compatibility of stress and deformation must be satisfied, in addition to the
requirements of equilibrium.

43
4.7 Analysis of the Section
The three most important principles are:
¾ The stresses and the strains are related by the internal properties including the stress-
curves for concrete and steel.
¾ The distribution of strains must be compatible with the disturbed shape of the cross-
section.
¾ The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads for static
equilibrium.

4.8 Assumptions made in Reinforced Concrete Design

The design of reinforced concrete due to the ultimate limit state is based on the flowing
assumptions:
™ The designs are based on characteristic and design strengths of materials (concrete
and steel) used for statistical parameters.
™ The ultimate concrete strain is 0.0035, i.e. beam failure will not occur until the
concrete strain reaches 0.0035.
™ The strain in the steel and concrete is proportional to the distance from the neutral
axis.
™ Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural computation. The concrete in
tension usually cracks so that it is normal to assume that its tensile strength is zero.
™ The stress distribution in the concrete in compression by the analysis of sections are
permitted by BS8110 as parabolic-rectangular concrete stress block or a rectangular
with γm = 1.5 (The easiest form of the uses of a simplified stress diagram a rectangular
stress-block.
™ The stress distribution in the steel is determined from the tri-linear stress-strain
diagram with γm = 1.05

44
WEEK 11: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
(CONTINUED)

4.9 Slabs: This is a panel structure of relatively small thickness covering an area of
(usually) rectangular shape. When a slab is supported on two edges (with the two free
ends relatively short) it is referred to as a one-way slab, i.e., it is transferring its forces
in one direction. When a slab is supported along more than two sides, and transfers
the load in two directions, it is referred to as a two-way slab.

One-way spanning slab Two-way spanning slab

BS 8110: Part 1, 1997, Section 3.5.2.3 recommends that although a slab should be
designed to withstand the most unfavourable arrangements of design loads, a single load
case of maximum design load will suffice provided the following conditions are met:
• In one-way spanning slab, the area of each bay exceeds 30.0m2

• The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not
exceed 1.25.

• The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5kN/m2.

45
4.10 Design Procedure:
Before deriving the formulae, two terms have to be fully understood, namely:
ƒ Bending Moment, which is the moment produced by the external forces (applied
loads) of the structure.

ƒ Moment of Resistance, which is produced by the internal forces.

BM Compressive stress MR
C, compressive
diagram
a
T, tensile stress
A

Under equilibrium conditions, T = C, and similarly, applied

bending moment, BM = Internal moment of resistance, MR

However, the basic design procedure is as follows:

¾ Assess the dead load and imposed load and also obtain the design load by applying
the appropriate safety factors.

¾ Calculate the imposed bending moment.

¾ Estimate the effective depth, d, from: d =

.

¾ Calculate K-value from K =

¾ Find lever arm from: la = 0.5 + √0.25 -

¾ Calculate area of steel from: As =

¾ Calculate distribution bars and choose appropriate reinforcement from table.

¾ Check for deflection from: fs =

And modification factor = 2.0

¾ Redesign if deflection is excessive by increasing the depth of the slab.

Example:
Given a simply supported slab spanning 3.5m and 0.15m thickness, design for the slab, and
given that finishes are 1.8kN/m2, imposed load is 2.5kN/m2 and partition is say, 2kN/m2.
Design the slab if fcu = 25N/mm2 and fy = 410N/mm2.
Solution:
Load estimation:

46
Self-weight of slab 0.15m x 24kN/m3 = 3.6kN/m2
Finishes = 1.8kN/m2
Partitions = 2.0kN/m2
Characteristic Dead load, gk = 7.4kN/m2
Ultimate Design load (n) = 1.4gk + 1.6qk = 1.4 x 7.4 + 1.6 x 2.5 = 10.36 + 4 = 14.36kN/m2
Mid-span ultimate bending moment, Mu = wl2/8 = 14.36 x 3.52/8 = 22kNm.
Assuming diameter 10mm bar, d = 150 – 25(concrete cover) - (half diameter of bar) =
125mm.
K= = 22 x 106/25 x 1000 x 1252 = 0.056 < 0.156
La = 0.5 + (√0.25 – k/0.9)
= 0.5 + (√0.25 – 0.056/0.9)
= 0.94.
Z = lad = 0.94 x 125 = 117.5mm
Ast = = = 486mm2/m
Minimum reinforcement .0013 x 1000 x 150 =195mm2/m
Provide Y10 @ 150mm c/c (523mm2/m)
Provide Y10 @ 300mm c/c (261mm2) for distribution reinforcement.
Checking for deflection:
Basic span/Depth = 20 maximum.
Mu/bd2 = 22 x 106/1000 x 1252 = 1.41N/mm2
fs = 2 x fy x Ast required/3 x Ast provided = 2 x 410 x 486/3 x 523 254N/mm2
Modification factor = 0.55 + 2.0

Modification factor = 1.34

Drequired = 3500/20 x 1.34 = 131 125mm provided.
Redesign the slab using h = 175mm.
Cracking:
3d = 3 x 131 = 393mm
Clear distance between bars is 150 – (0.5 x 10 x 2) = 140mm
393mm 140mm Cracking is okay.
Practical/Exercise
Given a simply supported slab spanning 4.5m and 0.15m thickness, design for the slab, and
given that finishes are 1.8kN/m2, imposed load is 2.5kN/m2 and partition is say, 2kN/m2.
Design the slab if fcu = 30N/mm2 and fy = 460N/mm2.

47
WEEK 12: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
(CONTINUED)

4.11 Design of Beams:

The beams may be either rectangular or flanged (ell or tee) and the design procedure is as
follows:
¾ Locate the various beams position, spans and supports, all beams in frame structures
must necessarily be supported on columns.
¾ Assess the load on the beam based on:
• The self weight of the beam.
• The slab load on the beam if any
• Wall load on the beam if any.
• Roof load on the beam if any.
¾ Analyse the beam using any method of analysis.
¾ Calculate the K-value from: K = where K .

¾ Find lever arm from: la = 0.5 + √0.25 - or use the lever arm curve

¾ Calculate area of steel from: As = , where z = lad.

NOTE: Where K ≥ 0.156, the designer is open to the following options:

ƒ Increase the depth of the beam and design as a singly reinforced beam;
ƒ Increase concrete strength and design as singly reinforced beam.
ƒ Design the beam as doubly reinforced beam by providing both tension and
compression reinforcements, this can be done using the formula
=

and
Ast = +

¾ Provided reinforcement from steel table with respect to the calculated steel area
required to resist the moment generated as a result of the applied load.
¾ Design for shear, using υ = , where V = shear force. Calculate the value of 100As/bd
and determine the value of the permissible shear stress (υc) from Table 3.8 (BS 8110)
and design for stirrups/links as stipulated in Table 3.7 (BS 8110).
¾ Check for deflection using Table 3.9 (BS8110) and thus relate to the basic
span/effective ratio.

48
 NOTE: For flanged beams,
9 The flanged width is used when calculating K-value for span moment.
9 The rib width is used for support.
9 The flanged width is calculated using the formula below:
Tee beam = rib width + 0.2a
Ell beam = rib width + 0.1a,
where a = distance between zero moments and can be taken as 0.7 times the
centres of supports in continuous beams.

Example:
A roof beam spans 4.2m and is 450mm x 230mm in cross -section. A parapet wall of 1.5m
height is supported by the beam and also a lean-to roof of 4.0m width. If the ultimate total
roof load is 4.5kN/m2, estimate the load on the beam and design the beam for tension only.
Assume the beam to be simply supported with 20-250 concrete and weight of wall and
finishes to be 3.47kN/m2.
Loading: Roof load 4.5 x 4/2 = 9.0kN/m
Beam own weight 0.23 x 0.45 x 24 x1.4 = 3.48 “
Beam finishes, say, = 0.60 “
Wall and finishes 3.47 x 1.5 x 1.4 = 7.29 “
Total =20.37kN/m, say,
20.5kN/m

Figure 12.1a: Loading condition

Figure 12.1a: Loading condition

49
 Figure12.2: Structure

Design ultimate moment, M = wl2/8 = 45.20kNm.

b = 230mm, h = 450mm, assuming a 20mm diameter bar, d = 450 – 25 – 10 – 10 = 405mm
Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 x 20 x 230 x 4052 = 117.70kNm
Since M < Mu, hence, design beam as singly reinforced.
z = d(0.5 + √(0.25 – K/0.9); K = = 0.06; la = 0.928
z = 0.928 x 405 = 376mm and x = (d-z)/0.45 = 64.44mm
Ast = M/0.95fyz = = 507mm2
Provide 2 - R20mm bars (628mm2)
Provide 2 – R12mm bars top as hanger bars.
Practicals: Students to design Tee and Ell beams
Note that for continuous beams carrying slabs, the section at the support is designed as
rectangular while the mid-span section is designed as flanged (tee or ell).

50
WEEK 13: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
(CONTINUED)
4.12: Foundations
Introduction:
The load transfer from the superstructure to the bearing soil is obtained through the
use of appropriate foundation works. Foundations are horizontal or vertical members
supporting the entire structure and transmitting all the loads to the soil below. They
are substructures supporting the super-structures of columns, beams, slabs, walls and
roofs.
Generally, foundations can be classified as either shallow or deep. The choice between
shallow or deep foundations can be effected after thorough examination of the following
elements:
9 The magnitude of the transmitted loads from the super-structure.

9 Soil nature in terms of its bearing capacity and other properties.

9 The economic aspects of the elements of the foundation work and

9 Problems concerning foundation construction

Types of foundations in their order of complexity include:

• Shallow foundations:

o Strip foundation

o Wide strip foundation

o Pad foundation

o Strap foundation

o Raft foundation (slab, slab and beam and cellular).

• Deep foundations:

o Pile foundation

o Diaphragm walls

o Displacement foundations

The foundation type to be chosen for a particular structure or building depends largely on
the loads to be transmitted and the receiving soil strata and must satisfy the following two
fundamental and independent requirements:
ƒ The factor of safety against shear failure of the supporting soil must be adequate and

ƒ The settlement should neither cause any unacceptable damage nor interfere with the
function of the structure.

51
 In effect therefore, the bearing capacity of the soil must be determined through the
process of soil/geotechnical investigations prior to the design of the foundation.

4.13 The design procedure of the foundation for a structure comprises three stages:
o Determine from inspection of the site, the nature of the ground and having selected
the stratum upon which to impose the load, to decide the safe bearing pressure.

o Select the type of foundation and the suitability of one or more types may have to be
compared.

o Design the selected foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure
to the ground.

Fig.13.1:Wall footing Fig. 13.2:Isolated pad footing/independent

footing

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Fig.13.3: Combined footing Fig. 13.4:Beam and slab raft

Fig. 13.5:Solid Raft Fig. 13.6: Solid Raft with thickening at edge

Fig. 13.7: Box used for soil with very low bearing capacity.

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4.14 Design Procedure for Simple Pad Footing
™ For the serviceability limit state, obtain the unfactored axial load (1.0Gk + 1.0Qk).

™ Obtain the required base area using

™ For the ultimate design load, obtain the column axial load using (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk)

™ Obtain the effective depth, d, where d = total depth – concrete cover – 0.5(bar size).

™ Check for shear stress (vc), where vc = and vc should be less than
0.8fcu or 5N/mm2, whichever is smaller.

™ Check for punching shear: critical perimeter = (column perimeter + 8 x 1.5d)

Area within perimeter = (column width + 3 x d2)

™ Punching shear force, V = Design pressure x (Base area – Area within perimeter).
™ Punching shear stress, v =
™ Obtain moment using, M = 0.5Pbl2,

where P = design pressure; b = width of pad; l = length to face of column.

™ Obtain the ultimate moment, Mu = 0.156fcubd2 and (Mu > M)
™ Obtain K-value using the formula as previously used and the lever arm factor (la).
™ Compute the area of steel required, Ast = , where z = lad.

Example:
A 225mm by 450mm column supports an ultimate load including its own weight of 504kN.
The soil bearing capacity is estimated to be in the region of 105kN/m2. Design a simple pad
footing using a grade 25 concrete and high yield steel, fy = 410N/mm2.
Solution:

Assume a base thickness of 400mm and d = 400 – 50 – 10 = 340mm (assume 20mm diameter
bars will be used).

The base area required:

Areq = 504 x 1.1/1.46 x 150 = 2.532m2.

Provide 1600mm x 1600mm x 400mm square base (i.e. 2.56m2)

Net Pressure fnet = - 0.4(24)1.4kN/m2 = 203.123kN/m2

Check for punching shear

Critical perimeter (punching shear) taken as 1.5h from column faces.

Pcrit = column perimeter +3(π)h

= 2(450 + 225) + 3(π)400 = 5120mm

Area within critical perimeter:

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 Area = (a1 + 3h)(a2 + 3h) – (4 – π)(1.5h)2

= (450 + 3 x 400)(225 + 3 x 400) – (4 – π)(1.5 x 400)2

= 2,042,223mm2 or 2.042m2.

Load causing punching is the total load outside the critical perimeter.

V = fnet ( Base area – Area within critical perimeter)

= 203.123(1.6 x 1.6 – 2.042) = 105.218kN

vpunching = V/Perimeter x d = 105.218 x 103/5120 x 340N/mm2 = 0.06N/mm2

The base is safe against punching shear.

Computation for steel area:

Span = 575mm

Moment, M = 0.5 x 0.5752 x 203.123kNm = 33.579kNm.

K = 0.012; la = 0.95 Ast = 268mm2

Minimum steel area required = 0.13%bh = 600mm2.

Provide Y12mm @ 175mm c/c (646mm2).

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Exercise/Practical:
The footing is required to resist a characteristic axial load of 1028kN dead and 420kN
imposed from a 500mm square column with 25mm dowels. The safe bearing pressure on the
soil is 200kN/m2, Depth of bearing stratum = 1.8m.
Determine (using load combinations due to BS 8110) the following:
i. The base (plan size of the footing).
ii. Thickness, hf of the base in order to develop the critical serviceability and ultimate
limit state.
iii. The required reinforcement to resist bending moment.

(3m x 3m, hf = 950mm, R20mm@140mm c/c)

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WEEK 14: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
(CONTINUED)
4.15: Load Bearing Walls
There are two types of buildings as follows:
• Buildings supported on load bearing walls and

• Buildings supported on frames, otherwise called framed buildings.

A building supported on load bearing walls is limited to one-storey only, that is, a
building with rooms on the ground floor and one suspended floor (1st floor).
In addition to the number of storey limitation, the soil bearing pressure should be in the
region of 100kN/m2 or more, otherwise, the building must be framed. Columns can be
completely eliminated in building on load bearing walls provided there are enough
bearings for beams that may be required especially at balconies
When the soil bearing pressure is in order of 100kN/m2 and above, the building of not
more than one storey (ground floor and one upper floor) can be supported using load
bearing walls provided the blocks are machine made and with the total number of blocks
per 50kg bag of cement not exceeding 25; otherwise, it should be framed.
The method of analysis of the elements supported by load bearing walls follows the
procedures already presented.
4.7 Welded, Riveted and Bolted Connections
In this section, we shall consider how individual members are connected together to
form complete structures.
Research has shown that the second largest cause of structural failures (30%) is
defective detail design of the joints between members. (The largest of course being
collapse during construction). Therefore the need for sound connection design cannot
be toyed with.
4.17: Welded Connections: welds which are roughly triangular in cross-section are known as
fillet welds. Structural welding should only be carried out by qualified welders. It is
the most economic method of joining steel components in the fabrication shop, but
should only be used with caution on construction sites.

Figure 14.1: Fillet weld between two plates.

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Most structural welding is now done by the electric-arc method, where a welding rod
or electrode is fused to the parent metal by means of the heat generated by the high
current electricity.
There are two basic types of weld – fillet welds (figure 14.1) and butt welds (figure
14.2). from the design point of view, butt welds are easily dealt with. A weld which
passes through the whole thickness of the parent metal is a full-penetration butt
weld, and provided the correct electrodes are used, it can simply be assumed that the
weld is at least as strong as the parent metal.

Figure 14.2: Butt Weld

The fillet welds are specified in terms of leg length. This is the dimension shown the
diagram in figure 14.3 Leg
length
quote
Throat

450

Figure 14.3: Key dimensions for fillet welds

Also shown above is the throat size and this is the dimension that determines the
strength of the weld.
Throat size = leg length x cos450
= 0.7 x leg length
Because of the importance of the throat size, a finished weld should always be convex
in shape. The design strength of a fillet weld in grade 43 steel is 215N/mm2. This
figure already includes an allowance for the partial factor of safety for the material,
γm.

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WEEK 15: DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
(CONTINUED)
4.7 Bolted Connections
The figure (14.4) shows the equivalent connection by bolts of the fillet welded
connection. Bolts are preferable on the site. There are several types of bolted
connections

Figure 14.4: A bolted connection

There are two basic types of bolts and they each use a different basic principle to
support the load:
Ordinary bolts These depend for their strength on contact between the bolt shank and
the sides of the holes in the plates to be fixed.
Friction grip bolts. These are tensioned so that they clamp the plates together.
Friction develops between adjacent faces. This produces a very rigid connection and
is therefore better for fixing members subjected to load reversal, such as wind
bracing.
Bolt in tension

Figure 14.5: Clamping action of a friction-grip bolt

CONTACT

Torque applied to nut

Figure 14.6: Dowel-pin action ordinary bolt

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 Bolts are generally fitted into holes which are 2mm bigger than the bolt diameter.
This allows a certain amount of adjustment when the steel is erected, and fabrication
tolerances can thus be accommodated.
4.19: Riveted Connections: these were once popular in connecting structures but are now
rarely used. Examples include the Empire State Building in New York, railway
bridges. They are still widely used in the aircraft industry for fixing the aluminium
alloy skin to the wings and fuselage, as they are essentially resistant to vibration

Figure 14.7: A riveted connection

Practical Session: Students to participate in the producing these joints in the
Workshop.

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