 What are drugs?

A drug is a substance that is used to modify (or) explore physiological systems (or)
pathological states for the benefit of the recipient.
Drugs are used for the purpose of diagnosis, prevention, cure/relief of a disease.
 What is therapeutic index?
The medicinal value of a drug is measured in terms of its therapeutic index.
It is defined as the ratio between the maximum tolerated dose and the minimum curative
dose of the drug.
Maximum tolerated dose
Therapeutic index ( T i ) =
Minimum curative dose
Higher the value of therapeutic index, safer is the drug.
 How do Enzymes acts as drug targets? Explain.
§ In all living systems, the biochemical reactions are catalysed by enzymes. If their normal
enzyme activity is inhibited, then the system will be affected. This principle is usually
applied to kill many pathogens.
§ The substrate molecule binds to the active site of the enzyme.
§ When a drug molecule that has a similar geometry as the substrate is administered, it can
also bind to the enzyme and inhibit its activity.
§ Thus, the drug acts as an inhibitor to the enzyme catalyst. These type of inhibitors are of
en called competitive inhibitors.
Example:
§ Many bacteria need PABA in order to produce an important coenzyme called folic acid.
The sulphanilamide (antibiotic) is structurally similar to PABA.
§ When sulphanilamide is administered, it acts as a competitive inhibitor to the enzyme di
hydro pteroate synthase (DHPS) in the bacteria. It leads to the folic acid deficiency which
retards the growth of the bacteria and can eventually kill them.
 What are allosteric inhibitors?
In certain enzymes, the inhibitor molecule binds to a different binding site, which is
commonly referred to as allosteric site, and causes a change in its active site geometry
(shape).As a result, the substrate cannot bind to the enzyme. This is type of inhibitors are
called allosteric inhibitors.
 How do Receptor acts as drug targets? Explain.
 Many drugs exert their physiological effects by binding to a receptor. The role of a
receptors is to trigger a response in a cell.
 Most of the receptors are integrated with the cell membranes in such a way that their
active site is exposed to outside region of the cell membrane.
 The chemical messengers which carry messages to cells, bind to the active site of these
receptors. This brings about the transfer of message into the cell.
 These receptors show high selectivity for one chemical messenger over the others.
 If we want to block a message, a drug that binds to the receptor site should inhibit its
function. Such drugs are called antagonists.
 For example, when adenosine binds to the adenosine receptors, it induces sleepiness. On
the other hand, the antagonist drug caffeine binds to the adenosine receptor and makes
it inactive. This results in the reduced sleepiness.
 The drugs which mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor are called
agonists. They are used when there is a lack of chemical messenger.
For example: The agonist drug, morphine, which is used as a pain killer, binds to the
opioid receptors and activates them. This supress the neuro transmitters that causes
pain.
 How the tranquilizers work in body. Mention their uses.
Tranquilizers are neurologically active drugs. They act on the central nervous system by
blocking the neurotransmitter (dopamine) in the brain.
Examples: Haloperidol, Diazepam
Uses :
They are used to treat stress, anxiety, depression, sleep disorders and severe mental
diseases like schizophrenia.
 Explain the types of analgesics with suitable examples.
The drug which reduce the pain without causing impairment of consciousness is called an
Analgesic.
a) Anti inflammatory drugs:
They alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses. They are used for short-
term pain relief and for modest pain like headache, muscle strain, bruising or arthritis.
Examples: Paracetamol, Aspirin, Acetaminophen
b) Antipyretics:
These drugs are used to reduce fever (antipyretic) and to prevent platelet coagulation.
Aspirin used to prevent of heart attack. Example: Paracetamol, Aspirin, Acetaminophen.
c) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
They reduces fever by causing the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin-induced
increase in temperature.Example: Ibuprofen
d) Opioids (Narcotic Analgesics)
They relive pain and produce sleep. These drugs are addictive. In poisonous dose, these
produces coma and ultimately death. Used for relief of severe pain such as post-
operative pain, pain of terminal cancer. Example: morphine, codeine
 What are Antacids? Give some Examples.
 The substances that are used to neutralize the acid in the stomach are called antacids.
They are used to relieve burning sensation caused by acid reflux.
 Examples: Milk of Magnesia, Al(OH)3, Ranitidine, omeprazole, rabeprazole.
 Explain the types of anaesthetics with suitable examples.
 Local anaesthetics:
The substance which causes loss of sensation, in the area in which it is applied without
losing consciousness is called local anaesthetic. They are used during minor surgical
procedures. Examples: Procaine, Lidocaine
They block pain perception that is transmitted via peripheral nerve fibres to the brain.
 General anaesthetics:
 The substance which causes a controlled and reversible loss of consciousness by affecting
central nervous system is called a general aesthetic. They are used for major surgical
procedures. Examples: Propofol, Isoflurane
 What are antihistamines? Give examples.
A drug which blocks histamine release from histamine-1 receptors is called as antihistamine.
It is used relive allergic effect. Examples: Cetirizine, levocetirizine.
 What are Antiseptics? Give examples.
The substance which can Stop or slow down the growth of microorganisms, and are applied
to living tissue is called antiseptic. They are used to reduce the risk of
infection during surgery. Examples: H2O2, povidone-iodine, benzalkonium chloride.
 What are Disinfectants? Give examples.
The substance which can stop or slow down the growth of microorganisms and are used on
inanimate objects is called a disinfectant. Examples: H2O2, alcohol,.
 How do antiseptics differ from disinfectants?
Antiseptic can be applied to living tissue, but disinfectant can be used on inanimate objects
only.
 What are antifertility drugs? Give examples.
The synthetic hormones that suppress ovulation / fertilisation are called antifertility drugs.
They are used in birth control pills.
Example:
Synthetic oestrogen - Ethynylestradiol, Menstranol
Synthetic Progesterone - Norethindrone, Norethynodrel
 Explain the types of antimicrobials.
1. Beta-Lactams
They Inhibits bacterial cell wall biosynthesis
Examples: Penicillin, ampicillin.
Uses: They are used to treat skin, dental, ear, respiratory tract, urinary tract infections,
pneumonia and gonorrhoea.
2. Macrolides
They attack bacterial ribosomes and prevent protein production.
Examples Erythromycin, azithromycin
Uses: they are used to treat respiratory tract infections, genital, gastrointestinal tract and
skin infections.
3. Fluoroquinolones
They inhibit bacterial enzyme DNA gyrase
Examples: ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin
Uses: They are used to treat urinary tract, skin, and respiratory infections such as
sinusitis, pneumonia, bronchitis., pulmonary infections in cystic fibrosis
4. Tetracycline
They inhibit the bacterial protein synthesis via interaction with the 30S subunit of the
bacterial ribosome.
Examples: oxytetracycline, Doxycycline, minocycline,
Uses: They are used to treat peptic ulcer, respiratory tract infections, cholera, acne
vulgaris.
 5. Aminoglycosides
They inhibit the bacterial protein synthesis via interaction with the 30S subunit of the
bacterial ribosome.
Examples: Kanamycin, gentamicin, neomycin
Uses: they are used to treat infections caused by gram-negative bacteria

Points to remember:
Important categories of food additives
• Aroma compounds • Food colours • Preservatives • Stabilizers
• Artificial Sweeteners • Buffers • Antioxidants • Vitamins and minerals

 List the advantages of food additives.

1. Preservatives reduce the spoilage and extend the shelf-life of food.
2. Addition of vitamins and minerals reduces the mall nutrients.
3. Flavouring agents enhance the aroma of the food.
4. Antioxidants prevent the formation of potentially toxic oxidation products of lipids and
other food constituents
 What are food preservatives? Give some examples.
 The substances which are capable of inhibiting, arresting the process of fermentation,
decomposition of food by growth of microorganisms is called Preservatives.
 Benzoic acid, sorbic acid and their salts are potent inhibitors of a number of fungi, yeast
and bacteria.
 Acetic acid is used as a preservative for pickles and vegetables.
 Sodium met sulphite is used as preservatives for fresh vegetables and fruits.
 What are Antioxidants?
A substance which retard the oxidative deteriorations of food is called an Antioxidant. These
substances readily undergo oxidation by free radicals, thereby stop the chain reaction of
oxidation of food.
Examples: BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene) , BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
 What is Sugar Substituent? Give two examples.
The substance that is used like sugar for sweetening, but are metabolised without the
influence of insulin are called sugar substituents.
Examples: Sorbitol, Mannitol.
 What are artificial sweetening agents? Give two examples.
Synthetic compounds which imprint a sweet sensation and possess no nutritional value are
called artificial sweeteners.
Example. Saccharin, Aspartame, sucralose.

 What is Total fatty matter (TFM)?

 It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter that can be separated from a sample after
splitting with mineral acids.
  As per BIS standards
Grade-1 soaps should have minimum 76% TFM,
Grade-2 soaps should have minimum 70% TFM
Grade-3 soaps should have minimum 60% TFM
 Explain the mechanism of cleansing action of soaps and detergents.
 The cleansing action of soap is directly related to the structure of carboxylate ions
(palmitate ion) present in soap. The palmitate ion exhibits dual polarity.
 The hydrocarbon portion is non polar and hydrophobic. The carboxyl portion is polar and
hydrophilic.
 The hydrophobic portion is soluble in oils and greases. But, the hydrophilic carboxylate
group is soluble in water.
 When the soap is added to an oily (or) greasy part of the cloth, the hydrocarbon part of
the soap dissolve in the grease, leaving the negatively charged carboxylate end exposed
on the grease surface.

 At the same time the negatively charged carboxylate groups are strongly attracted by
water, thus leading to the formation of small droplets called micelles and grease is
floated away from the solid object.
 When the water is rinsed away, the grease goes with it. As a result, the cloth gets free
from dirt and the droplets are washed away with water.
 The micelles do not combine into large drops because their surfaces are all negatively
charged and repel each other.
 The cleansing ability of a soap depends upon its tendency to act as a emulsifying agent
between water and water insoluble greases.
 What are detergents? Mention their types.
Synthetic detergents are either sodium salts of alkyl hydrogen sulphates (or) sodium salts of
long chain alkyl benzene sulphonic acids. Detergents are superior to soaps as they can be
used even in hard water and in acidic conditions. There are three types of detergents
Sodium Lauryl sulphate (SDS)

Anionic detergent

n-hexaadecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride

Cationic detergent
 Pentaerythrityl stearate.

Non-ionic detergent

 Why do soaps not work in hard water?

Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. When soaps are dissolved in hard water,
these ions form insoluble calcium or magnesium salts of fatty acids. These insoluble salts
separate as scum. This is the reason why soaps do not work in hard water.

 What is polymerisation? Explain their types.

The process of forming a very large molecule with high molecular mass from small structural
units is called polymerisation. Polymerisation occurs in the following two ways
i. Addition polymerisation (or) chain growth polymerisation
ii. Condensation polymerisation (or) step growth polymerisation
 What are Addition polymers? Give an example.
The polymers which are formed by simple addition of many monomer units without the
elimination of any byproduct are called addition polymers. Examples: Polyethene, PAN,
Teflon etc.,
 Explain the mechanism of Free radical polymerisation.
When alkenes are heated with free radical initiator such as benzyl peroxide, they undergo
polymerisation reaction.
Example: styrene polymerises to polystyrene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide.
Mechanism:
Step:1
initiation – formation of free radical

Step:2
Propagation step

The stabilized radical attacks another monomer to give an elongated radical. Chain growth
will continue with the successive addition of several thousands of monomer units.
 Termination
The above chain reaction can be stopped by stopping the supply of monomer (or) by
coupling of two chains or reaction with an impurity such as oxygen.

Preparation of some important addition polymers

 Write a note on different types of Polythene.
It is an addition polymer of ethene. There are two types of Polyethene.
 LDPE (Low Density polyethylene).
It is prepared by heating ethene at with oxygen as a catalyst. The
peroxides formed from oxygen acts as a free radical initiator.

Uses: It is used as insulation for cables, making toys etc…

 HDPE (High Density Polyethylene)
 It is prepared by heating ethene at and at 6-7 atm pressure using Ziegler– Natta
catalyst.

 Uses: it is used to for making bottles, pipes etc..,

 How is Teflon prepared?
Teflon is prepared by heating tetrafluroethylene in the presence of oxygen under high
pressure.

Uses: It is used for coating articles and preparing non – stick utensils.
 How is Orlon (Polyacrylonitrile – PAN) prepared?
Orlon is prepared by the addition polymerisation of vinylcyanide (acrylonitrile) using a
peroxide initiator.

Uses: It is used as a substitute of wool for making blankets, sweaters etc…

 What are Condensation polymers? Give an example.
The polymers which are formed by the condensation of two or more monomers with the
elimination of simple molecules like H 2O, NH3 etc., are called condensation polymers.
Examples : Terylene, Nylon 6,6 etc.,
 How is Terylene (Dacron) prepared?
Terylene is prepared by mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid at 500K in the presence
of zinc acetate and antimony trioxide catalyst.

Uses:
1. Terylene is used in blending with cotton or wool
2. Terylene is used as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets.
 How is Nylon – 6,6 prepared? Mention its uses.
 Nylon – 6,6 can be prepared by mixing equimolar Adipic acid and Hexa methylene
diamine to form a nylon salt, which on heating gives nylon-6,6 by eliminating water
molecules
 Nylon-6,6 contains monomer units linked by amide bonds.
Uses: It is used in textiles, manufacture of cards etc…
 How is Nylon – 6 prepared? Mention its uses.
Nylon-6 is a polymer of Caprolactum (monomer).
When caprolactum is heated to 533K in an inert atmosphere with traces of water it gives ∈-
aminocarproic acid, which polymerises to give nylon – 6.

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of tyre cards, fabrics etc.,

 How is Bakelite prepared? Mention its uses.
 Bakelite is obtained by the condensation polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde in
presence of either an acid or a base catalyst.
 Phenol reacts with formaldehyde to form ortho or para hydroxyl methyl phenols, which
on further reaction with phenol gives linear polymer called Novolak.
  Novolak on further heating with formaldehyde gives a cross linked polymer Bakelite.

Uses:
 Navolac is used in paints.
 Soft Bakelite : Glue for binding laminated wooden planks and in varnishes.
 Hard Bakelite : Combs, pens etc..
 What are Melamine resins? How are they prepared? Mention their uses.
Melamine formaldehyde resins are obtained by the condensation of melamine and
formaldehyde.

Uses: It is used for making unbreakable crockery.

 Write a note on Urea formaldehyde polymer
It is formed by the condensation polymerisation of the monomers urea and formaldehyde.

 What are copolymers? Give an example.

A polymer containing two or more different kinds of monomer units is called a copolymer.
For example: Buna-Rubbers, Nylon6,6 etc

 Write a note on vulcanization of rubber

 Natural rubber is a polymer of cis isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene).It is not so strong
(or) elastic.
 The process in which natural rubber is mixed with 3-5% sulphur and heated at
100−150℃ is called vulcanisation. It causes cross linking of the cis-1,4-polyisoprene
chains through disulphide (-S-S- ) bonds.
 The physical properties of rubber can be altered by controlling the amount of sulphur.
 Vulcanised rubber containing 1 to 3% sulphur is soft and stretchy.
 Vulcanised rubber containing 3 to 10% sulphur hard but flexible.

 What are synthetic rubbers?

Polymerisation buta-1,3-diene (or) its derivatives gives rubber like polymer with desirable
properties. Such polymers are called synthetic rubbers. They have greater stretching ability.
 Write a note on Neoprene rubber.
The free radical polymerisation of 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene (chloroprene) gives neoprene. It is
superior to rubber and resistant to chemical action.
 Uses: It is used in the manufacture of chemical containers, conveyer belts.
 Write a note on Buna rubbers.
Buna-N: It is a co-polymer of buta-1,3-diene and acrylonitrile.

It is used in the manufacture of hoses and tank linings.

Buna-S:
It is a co-polymer of buta-1,3-diene and styrene. These monomers nixed in the ratio 3:1 in
the presence of sodium.

 What are bio degradable polymers? Give examples.

 A polymer which can be decomposed by soil microorganism are called biodegradable
polymer. They are used in surgical sutures, plasma substitute etc…
 They are decomposed by enzyme action.
 They are either metabolized or excreted from the body.
 Examples
1. Polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB)
2. Polyhydroxy butyrate-co- - hydroxyl valerate (PHBV)
3. Polyglycolic acid (PGA)
4. Poly-∈-caprolactone (PCL)
 What is PHBV? How is it prepared? Mention its uses.
 PHBV is a copolymer of 3 – hydroxy butanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid.
 In PHBV, the monomer units are joined by ester linkages.
Uses :It is used in orthopaedic devices, and in controlled release of drugs.
 How is Nylon–2– Nylon–6 prepared?
 It is a co – polymer of glycine and - aminocaproic acid.
 In this polymer monomer units are linked together by polyamide linkages.

 Differentiate thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.

Thermoplastics:
They become soft on heating and hard on cooling. They can be remoulded.
Examples: polythene, PVC, polystyrene.
Thermosetting polymers:
They do not become soft on heating but changed to an infusible mass.
Examples: Bakelite, melamine formaldehyde.
1. Which of the following is an analgesic?
a) Streptomycin b) Chloromycetin
c) Asprin d) Penicillin
2. Dettol is the mixture of
a) Chloroxylenol and bithionol b) Chloroxylenol and α-terpineol
c) phenol and iodine d) terpineol and bithionol
3. Antiseptics and disinfectants either kill or prevent growth of microorganisms. Identify which
of the following statement is not true.
a) dilute solutions of boric acid and hydrogen peroxide are strong antiseptics.
b) Disinfectants harm the living tissues.
c) A 0.2% solution of phenol is an antiseptic while 1% solution acts as a disinfectant.
d) Chlorine and iodine are used as strong disinfectants.
4. Saccharin, an artificial sweetener is manufactured from
a) cellulose b) toluene
c) cyclohexene d) starch
5. Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called
a) antagonists b) agonists
c) enzymes d) molecular targets
6. Aspirin is a/an
a) acetylsalicylic acid b) benzoyl salicylic acid
c) chlorobenzoic acid d) anthranilic acid
7. Which one of the following structures represents nylon 6,6 polymer?

a) b)

c) d)

8. Natural rubber has

a) alternate cis- and trans-configuration b) random cis- and trans-configuration
c) all cis-configuration d) all trans-configuration
9. Nylon is an example of
a) polyamide b) polythene
c) polyester d) poly saccharide
10. Terylene is an example of
a) polyamide b) polythene
c) polyester d) polysaccharide
11. Which is the monomer of neoprene in the following?
 a) b)

c) d)

12. Which one of the following is a bio-degradable polymer?

a) HDPE b) PVC
c) Nylon 6 d) PHBV
13. Non stick cook wares generally have a coating of a polymer, whose monomer is
a) ethane b) prop-2-enenitrile
c) chloroethene d) 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane
14. Assertion: 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene is the monomer of natural rubber
Reason: Natural rubber is formed through anionic addition polymerisation.
a) If both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
b) if both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of
assertion.
c) assertion is true but reason is false.
d) both assertion and reason are false.
15. An example of antifertility drug is
a) novestrol b) seldane
c) salvarsan d) Chloramphenicol
16. The drug used to induce sleep is
a) paracetamol b) bithional
c) chloroquine d) equanil
17. Which of the following is a co-polymer?
a) Orlon b) PVC
c) Teflon d) PHBV
18. The polymer used in making blankets (artificial wool) is
a) polystyrene b) PAN
c) polyester d) polythene
19. Regarding cross-linked or network polymers, which of the following statement is incorrect?
a) Examples are Bakelite and melamine
b) They are formed from bi and tri-functional monomers
c) They contain covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains
d) They contain strong covalent bonds in their polymer chain
20. A mixture of chloroxylenol and terpinecol acts as
a) antiseptic b) antipyretic
c) antibiotic d) analgesic