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Locus Diagrams, Resonance AND Magnetic Circuits

Electrical Circuit Analysis (Gujarat Technological University)

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LOCUS DIAGRAMS, RESONANCE AND MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

 Locus Diagrams with variation of various parameters

 Series RC and RL circuits
 Parallel RLC circuits
 Resonance
 Series and Parallel circuits
 Concept of Bandwidth and Quality factor
 Magnetic circuits
 Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
 Concepts of Self and Mutual Inductance
 Dot convention
 Coefficient of coupling
 Composite Magnetic circuits
 Analysis of Series and Parallel Magnetic circuits
 Summary of important concepts and Formulae
 Illustrative Examples

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Locus Diagrams with variation of various parameters:

Introduction: In AC electrical circuits the magnitude and phase of the current vector depends
upon the values of R,L&C when the applied voltage and frequency are kept constant. The path
traced by the terminus (tip) of the current vector when the parameters R,L&C are varied is
called the current Locus diagram . Locus diagrams are useful in studying and understanding the
behavior of the RLC circuits when one of these parameters is varied keeping voltage and
frequency constant.
In this unit,Locus diagrams are developed and explained for series RC,RL circuits and Parallel LC
circuits along with their internal resistances when the parameters R,L and C are varied.
The term circle diagram identifies locus plots that are either circular or semicircular. The
defining equations of such circle diagrams are also derived in this unit for series RC and RL
diagrams.
In both series RC,RL circuits and parallel LC circuits resistances are taken to be in series with L
and C to highlight the fact that all practical L and C components will have at least a small value
of internal resistance.

Series RL circuit with varying Resistance R:

Refer to the series RL circuit shown in the figure (a) below with constant XL and varying R. The
current IL lags behind the applied voltage V by a phase angle Ɵ = tan-1(XL/R) for a given value of
R as shown in the figure (b) below. When R=0 we can see that the current is maximum equal to
V/XL and lies along the I axis with phase angle equal to 900. When R is increased from zero to
infinity the current gradually reduces from V/XL to 0 and phase angle also reduces from 900 to
00. As can be seen from the figure, the tip of the current vector traces the path of a semicircle
with its diameter along the +ve I axis.

Fig(a): Series RL circuit with Fig(b): Locus of current vector IL with variation of R
Varying Resistance R

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The related equations are:

IL = V/Z Sin Ɵ = XL/Z or Z = XL/ Sin Ɵ and Cos Ɵ = R / Z
Therefore IL = (V/XL) Sin Ɵ
For constant V and XL the above expression for IL is the polar equation of a circle with diameter
(V/XL) as shown in the figure above.

Circle equation for the RL circuit: (with fixed reactance and variable Resistance):

The X and Y coordinates of the current IL are

IX = IL Sin Ɵ IY = IL Cos Ɵ
From the relations given above and earlier we get
IX = (V/Z )( XL/Z) = V XL/Z2 -------- (1)
and IY = (V/Z )( R/Z) = V R/Z2 -------- (2)
Squaring and adding the above two equations we get

IX2 + IY2 = V2(XL2+R2) / Z4 = (V2Z2 )/ Z4 = V2/Z2 -------- (3)

2
From equation (1) above we have Z = V XL / IX and substituting this in the above equation (3)
we get :
IX2 + IY2 = V2/ (V XL / IX ) = (V/XL) IX or
IX2 + IY2 − (V/XL) IX = 0
Adding (V/2XL)2 to both sides ,the above equation can be written as
[IX − V/2XL ]2+ IY2 = (V/2XL)2 ----------- (4)
Equation (4) above represents a circle with a radius of (V/2XL) and with it’s coordinates of the
centre as (V/2XL , 0)

Series RC circuit with varying Resistance R:

Refer to the series RC circuit shown in the figure (a) below with constant X C and varying R. The
current IC leads the applied voltage V by a phase angle Ɵ = tan-1(XC/R) for a given value of R as
shown in the figure (b) below. When R=0 we can see that the current is maximum equal to −
V/XC and lies along the negative I axis with phase angle equal to − 900. When R is increased
from zero to infinity the current gradually reduces from −V/XC to 0 and phase angle also
reduces from −900 to 00. As can be seen from the figure, the tip of the current vector traces the
path of a semicircle but now with its diameter along the negative I axis.

Circle equation for the RC circuit: (with fixed reactance and variable Resistance):

In the same way as we got for the Series RL circuit with varying resistance we can get the circle
equation for an RC circuit with varying resistance as :
[IX + V/2XC ]2+ IY2 = (V/2XC)2

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whose coordinates of the centre are (−V/2XC , 0) and radius equal to V/2XC

Fig: Series RC circuit with Fig: Locus of current vector I C

Varying Resistance R with variation of R

Series RL circuit with varying Reactance XL:

Refer to the series RL circuit shown in the figure (a) below with constant R and varying XL. The
current IL lags behind the applied voltage V by a phase angle Ɵ = tan-1(XL/R) for a given value of
R as shown in the figure (b) below. When XL =0 we can see that the current is maximum equal
to V/R and lies along the +ve V axis with phase angle equal to 00. When XL is increased from
zero to infinity the current gradually reduces from V/R to 0 and phase angle increases from 0 0
to 900. As can be seen from the figure, the tip of the current vector traces the path of a
semicircle with its diameter along the +ve V axis and on to its right side.

Fig(a): Series RL circuit with varying XL Fig(b) : Locus of current vector IL with variation of XL

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Series RC circuit with varying Reactance XC:

Refer to the series RC circuit shown in the figure (a) below with constant R and varying XC. The
current IC leads the applied voltage V by a phase angle Ɵ= tan-1(XC/R) for a given value of R as
shown in the figure (b) below. When XC =0 we can see that the current is maximum equal to
V/R and lies along the V axis with phase angle equal to 0 0. When XC is increased from zero to
infinity the current gradually reduces from V/R to 0 and phase angle increases from 00 to −900.
As can be seen from the figure, the tip of the current vector traces the path of a semicircle with
its diameter along the +ve V axis but now on to its left side.

Fig(a): Series RC circuit with varying XC Fig(b): Locus of current vector IC with variation of XC

Parallel LC circuits:
Parallel LC circuit along with its internal resistances as shown in the figures below is considered
here for drawing the locus diagrams. As can be seen, there are two branch currents IC and IL
along with the total current I. Locus diagrams of the current IL or IC (depending on which arm is
varied)and the total current I are drawn by varying RL, RC , XL and XC one by one.

Varying XL:

Fig(a): parallel LC circuit with Internal Resistances RL and RC in series with L (Variable) and C
(fixed) respectively.

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The current IC through the capacitor is constant since RC and C are fixed and it leads the voltage
vector OV by an angle ƟC = tan-1 (XC/RC) as shown in the figure (b). The current IL through the
inductance is the vector OIL . It’s amplitude is maximum and equal to V/RL when XL is zero and it
is in phase with the applied voltage V. When X L is increased from zero to infinity it’s amplitude
decreases to zero and phase will be lagging the voltage by 900. In between, the phase angle will
be lagging the voltage V by an angle ƟL = tan-1 (XL/RL). The locus of the current vector IL is a
semicircle with a diameter of length equal to V/RL. Note that this is the same locus what we got
earlier for the series RL circuit with XL varying except that here V is shown horizontally.
Now, to get the locus of the total current vector OI we have to add vectorially the currents I C
and IL . We know that to get the sum of two vectors geometrically we have to place one of the
vectors staring point (we will take varying amplitude vector IL)at the tip of the other vector (we
will take constant amplitude vector IC)and then join the start of fixed vector IC to the end of
varying vector IL. Using this principle we can get the locus of the total current vector OI by
shifting the IL semicircle starting point O to the end of current vector OI C keeping the two
diameters parallel. The resulting semicircle I CIBT shown in the figure in dotted lines is the locus
of the total current vector OI.

Fig (b): Locus of current vector I in Parallel LC circuit when X L is varied from 0 to ∞

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Varying XC:

Fig.(a) parallel LC circuit with Internal Resistances RL and RC in series with L (fixed) and C
(Variable) respectively.

The current IL through the inductor is constant since RL and L are fixed and it lags the voltage
vector OV by an angle ƟL = tan-1 (XL/RL) as shown in the figure (b). The current I C through the
capacitance is the vector OIC . It’s amplitude is maximum and equal to V/RC when XC is zero and
it is in phase with the applied voltage V. When XC is increased from zero to infinity it’s amplitude
decreases to zero and phase will be leading the voltage by 900. In between, the phase angle will
be leading the voltage V by an angle ƟC = tan-1 (XC/RC). The locus of the current vector I C is a
semicircle with a diameter of length equal to V/R C as shown in the figure below. Note that this
is the same locus what we got earlier for the series RC circuit with X C varying except that here V
is shown horizontally.
Now, to get the locus of the total current vector OI we have to add vectorially the currents I C
and IL . We know that to get the sum of two vectors geometrically we have to place one of the
vectors staring point (we will take varying amplitude vector I C)at the tip of the other vector (we
will take constant amplitude vector I L) and then join the start of the fixed vector IL to the end of
varying vector IC. Using this principle we can get the locus of the total current vector OI by
shifting the IC semicircle starting point O to the end of current vector OI L keeping the two
diameters parallel. The resulting semicircle ILIBT shown in the figure in dotted lines is the locus
of the total current vector OI.

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Fig(b) : Locus of current vector I in Parallel LC circuit when X C is varied from 0 to ∞

Varying RL:

The current IC through the capacitor is constant since RC and C are fixed and it leads the voltage
vector OV by an angle ƟC = tan-1 (XC/RC) as shown in the figure (b). The current I L through the
inductance is the vector OIL . It’s amplitude is maximum and equal to V/XL when RL is zero. Its
phase will be lagging the voltage by 900. When RL is increased from zero to infinity it’s
amplitude decreases to zero and it is in phase with the applied voltage V. In between, the phase
angle will be lagging the voltage V by an angle ƟL = tan-1 (XL/RL). The locus of the current vector
IL is a semicircle with a diameter of length equal to V/RL. Note that this is the same locus what
we got earlier for the series RL circuit with R varying except that here V is shown horizontally.

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Fig.(a) parallel LC circuit with Internal Resistances RL (Variable) and RC (fixed) in series with L
and C respectively.
Now, to get the locus of the total current vector OI we have to add vectorially the currents I C
and IL . We know that to get the sum of two vectors geometrically we have to place one of the
vectors staring point (we will take varying amplitude vector I L)at the tip of the other vector (we
will take constant amplitude vector I C)and then join the start of fixed vector IC to the end of
varying vector IL. Using this principle we can get the locus of the total current vector OI by
shifting the IL semicircle starting point O to the end of current vector OI C keeping the two
diameters parallel. The resulting semicircle ICIBT shown in the figure in dotted lines is the locus
of the total current vector OI.

Fig(b) : Locus of current vector I in Parallel LC circuit when RL is varied from 0 to ∞

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Varying RC:

Fig.(a) parallel LC circuit with Internal Resistances RL (fixed) and RC (Variable) in series with
L and C respectively.

The current IL through the inductor is constant since RL and L are fixed and it lags the voltage
vector OV by an angle ƟL = tan-1 (XL/RL) as shown in the figure (b). The current IC through the
capacitance is the vector OIC . It’s amplitude is maximum and equal to V/XC when RC is zero and
its phase will be leading the voltage by 900 . When RC is increased from zero to infinity it’s
amplitude decreases to zero and it will be in phase with the applied voltage V. In between, the
phase angle will be leading the voltage V by an angle ƟC = tan-1 (XC/RC). The locus of the current
vector IC is a semicircle with a diameter of length equal to V/XC as shown in the figure below.
Note that this is the same locus what we got earlier for the series RC circuit with R varying
except that here V is shown horizontally.

Now, to get the locus of the total current vector OI we have to add vectorially the currents I C
and IL . We know that to get the sum of two vectors geometrically we have to place one of the
vectors staring point (we will take varying amplitude vector I C)at the tip of the other vector (we
will take constant amplitude vector I L) and then join the start of the fixed vector I L to the end of
varying vector IC. Using this principle we can get the locus of the total current vector OI by
shifting the IC semicircle starting point O to the end of current vector OI L keeping the two
diameters parallel. The resulting semicircle I LIBT shown in the figure in dotted lines is the locus
of the total current vector OI.

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Fig(b) : Locus of current vector I in Parallel LC circuit when R C is varied from 0 to ∞

Resonance :

Series RLC circuit:

The impedance of the series RLC circuit shown in the figure below and the current I through the
circuit are given by :
Z = R + jωL +1 /jωC = R + j ( ωL − 1/ωC)
I = Vs/Z

Fig: Series RLC circuit

The circuit is said to be in resonance when the Inductive reactance is equal to the Capacitive
reactance. i.e. XL = XC or ωL = 1/ωC. (i.e. Imaginary of the impedance is zero) The frequency

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at which the resonance occurs is called resonant frequency. In the resonant condition when XL
= XC they cancel with each other since they are in phase opposition(1800 out of phase) and net
impedance of the circuit is purely resistive.In this condition the magnitudes of voltages across
the Capacitance and the Inductance are also equal to each other but again since they are of
opposite polarity they cancel with each other and the entire applied voltage appears across the
Resistance alone.
Solving for the resonant frequency from the above condition of Resonance : ωL = 1/ωC
2πfrL = 1/2πfrC
2 2
fr = 1/4π LC and fr = 1/2π√LC
In a series RLC circuit, resonance may be produced by varying L or C at a fixed frequency or by
varying frequency at fixed L and C.

Reactances, Impedance and Resistance of a Series RLC circuit as a function of frequency:

From the expressions for the Inductive and capacitive reactances we can see that when the
frequency is zero, capacitance acts as an open circuit and Inductance as a short circuit. Similarly
when the frequency is infinity inductance acts as an open circuit and the capacitance acts as a
short circuit. The variation of Inductive and capacitive reactances along with Resistance R and
the Total Impedance are shown plotted in the figure below.
As can be seen, when the frequency increases from zero to ∞ Inductive reactance XL (directly
proportional to ω) increases from zero to ∞ and Capacitive reactance XC (inversely proportional
to ω) decreases from −∞ to zero. Whereas, the Impedance decreases from ∞ to Pure
Resistance R as the frequency increases from zero to fr ( as capacitive reactance reduces from
−∞ and becomes equal to Inductive reactance ) and then increases from R to ∞ as the
frequency increases from fr to ∞ (as inductive reactance increases from its value at resonant
frequency to ∞ )

Fig : Reactance and Impedance plots of a Series RLC circuit

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Phase angle of a Series RLC circuit as a function of frequency:

Fig : Phase plot of a Series RLC circuit

The following points can be seen from the Phase angle plot shown in the figure above:

 At frequencies below the resonant frequency capacitive reactance is higher than the
inductive reactance and hence the phase angle of the current leads the voltage.

As frequency increases from zero to fr the phase angle changes from -900 to zero.
 At frequencies above the resonant frequency inductive reactance is higher than the
capacitive reactance and hence the phase angle of the current lags the voltage.
 As frequency increases from fr and approaches ∞, the phase angle increases from zero
and approaches 900

Band width of a Series RLC circuit:

The band width of a circuit is defined as the Range of frequencies between which the output
power is half of or 3 db less than the output power at the resonant frequency.These
frequencies are called the cutoff frequencies, 3db points or half power points. But when we
consider the output voltage or current, the range of frequencies between which the output
voltage or current falls to 0.707 times of the value at the resonant frequency is called the
Bandwidth BW. This is because voltage/current are related to power by a factor of √ 2 and
when we are consider √ 2 times less it becomes 0.707. But still these frequencies are called

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as cutoff frequencies, 3db points or half power points. The lower end frequency is called lower
cutoff frequency and the higher end frequency is called upper cutoff frequency.

Fig: Plot showing the cutoff frequencies and Bandwidth of a series RLC circuit

Derivation of an expression for the BW of a series RLC circuit:

We know that BW = f2 – f1 Hz
If the current at points P1 and P2 are 0.707 (1/√ 2) times that of I max ( current at the resonant
frequency) then the Impedance of the circuit at points P 1 and P2 is √ 2 R ( i.e. √ 2 times the
impedance at fr )
But Impedance at point P1 is given by: Z = √ R2 + (1/ω1C – ω1L )2 and equating this to √ 2 R
we get : (1/ω1C) – ω1L = R ------ (1)
Similarly Impedance at point P2 is given by: Z = √ R + (ω2L – 1/ω2C )2 and equating this to
2

√ 2 R we get: ω2L – (1/ω2C) = R ------ (2)

Equating the above equations (1) and (2) we get:
1/ω1C – ω1L = ω2L – 1/ω2C
Rearranging we get L( ω1+ ω2) = 1/C [( ω1+ ω2)/ ω1ω2] i.e ω1ω2 = 1/LC
But we already know that for a series RLC circuit the resonant frequency is given by ωr2 = 1/LC
Therefore: ω1ω2 = ωr2 ---- (3) and 1/C = ωr2L ------ (4)
Next adding the above equations (1) and (2) we get:
1/ω1C – ω1L+ ω2L – 1/ω2C = 2R
(ω2 – ω1)L + (1/ω1C – 1/ω2C) = 2R
(ω2 – ω1)L + 1/C[(ω2 – ω1)/ω1ω2) = 2R ------ (5)
Using the values of ω1ω2 and 1/C from equations (3) and (4) above into equation (5) above
we get: (ω2 – ω1)L + ωr2L [(ω2 – ω1)/ ωr2) = 2R
i.e. 2L (ω2 – ω1) = 2R i.e. (ω2 – ω1) = R/L and (f2 – f1) = R/2πL ----- (6)
Or finally Band width BW = R/2πL ----- (7)

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Since fr lies in the centre of the lower and upper cutoff frequencies f1 and f2 using the above
equation (6) we can get:
f1 = fr – R/4πL ------ (8)
f2 = fr + R/4πL ------ (9)
Further by dividing the equation (6) above by fr on both sides we get another important
relation : (f2 – f1) / fr = R/2π fr L or BW / fr = R/2π fr L ------- (10)
Here an important property of a coil i.e. Q factor or figure of merit is defined as the ratio of
the reactance to the resistance of a coil.
Q = 2π fr L / R ------- (11)
Now using the relation (11) we can rewrite the relation (10) as
Q = fr / BW ------- (12)

Quality factor of a series RLC circuit:

The quality factor of a series RLC circuit is defined as:
Q = Reactive power in Inductor (or Capacitor) at resonance / Average power at Resonance

Reactive power in Inductor at resonance = I2XL

Reactive power in Capacitor at resonance = I2XC
Average power at Resonance = I 2R
Here the power is expressed in the form I X (not as V2/X) since I is common through R.L and C
2

in the series RLC circuit and it gets cancelled during the simplification.
Therefore Q = I2XL / I2R = I2XC / I2R
i.e. Q = XL / R = ωr L/ R ------ (1)
Or Q = XC / R = 1/ωr RC ------ (2)
From these two relations we can also define Q factor as :
Q = Inductive (or Capacitive ) reactance at resonance / Resistance
Substituting the value of ωr = 1/√LC in the expressions (1) or (2) for Q above we can get the
value of Q in terms of R, L,C as below.
Q = (1/√LC ) L/ R = (1/R) (√L/C)

Selectivity:
Selectivity of a series RLC circuit indicates how well the given circuit responds to a given
resonant frequency and how well it rejects all other frequencies. i.e. the selectivity is directly
proportional to Q factor. A circuit with a good selectivity (or a high Q factor) will have maximum
gain at the resonant frequency and will have minimum gain at other frequencies .i.e. it will have
very low band width. This is illustrated in the figure below.

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Fig: Effect of quality factor on bandwidthVoltage Magnification at resonance:

At resonance the voltages across the Inductance and capacitance are much larger than the
applied voltage in a series RLC circuit and this is called voltage magnification at Resonance. The
voltage magnification is equal to the Q factor of the circuit. This is proven below.
If we take the voltage applied to the circuit as V and the current through the circuit at
resonance as I then
The voltage across the inductance L is: VL = IXL = (V/R) ωr L and
The voltage across the capacitance C is: VC = IXC = V/R ωr C
But we know that the Q of a series RLC circuit = ωr L/ R = 1/R ωr C
Using these relations in the expressions for VL and VC given above we get
VL = VQ and VC = VQ
The ratio of voltage across the Inductor or capacitor at resonance to the applied voltage in a
series RLC circuit is called Voltage magnification and is given by
Magnification = Q = VL/V or VC / V

Important points In Series RLC circuit at resonant frequency :

 The impedance of the circuit becomes purely resistive and minimum i.e Z = R
 The current in the circuit becomes maximum
 The magnitudes of the capacitive Reactance and Inductive Reactance become equal
 The voltage across the Capacitor becomes equal to the voltage across the Inductor at
resonance and is Q times higher than the voltage across the resistor

Bandwidth and Q factor of a Parallel RLC circuit:

Parallel RLC circuit is shown in the figure below. For finding out the BW and Q factor of a
parallel RLC circuit, since it is easier we will work with Admittance , Conductance and
Susceptance instead of Impedance ,Resistance and Reactance like in series RLC circuit.

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Fig: Parallel RLC circuit

Then we have the relation: Y = 1/Z = 1/R + 1/jωL + jωC = 1/R + j ( ωC − 1/ωL)

For the parallel RLC circuit also, at resonance, the imaginary part of the Admittance is zero and
hence the frequency at which resonance occurs is given by: ωrC − 1/ωrL = 0 . From this
we get : ωrC = 1/ωrL and ωr = 1/√LC
which is the same value for ωr as what we got for the series RLC circuit.

At resonance when the imaginary part of the admittance is zero the admittance becomes
minimum.( i.e Impedance becomes maximum as against Impedance becoming minimum in
series RLC circuit ) i.e. Current becomes minimum in the parallel RLC circuit at resonance ( as
against current becoming maximum in series RLC circuit) and increases on either side of the
resonant frequency as shown in the figure below.

Fig: Variation of Impedance and Current with frequency in a Parallel RLC circuit

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Here also the BW of the circuit is given by BW = f2-f1 where f2 and f1 are still called the upper
and lower cut off frequencies but they are 3db higher cutoff frequencies since we notice that at
these cutoff frequencies the amplitude of the current is √2 times higher than that of the
amplitude of current at the resonant frequency.
The BW is computed here also on the same lines as we did for the series RLC circuit:
If the current at points P1 and P2 is √ 2 (3db) times higher than that of Imin( current at the
resonant frequency) then the admittance of the circuit at points P 1 and P2 is also √ 2 times
higher than the admittance at fr )
But amplitude of admittance at point P1 is given by: Y = √ 1/R2 + (1/ω1L - ω1C )2 and equating
this to √ 2 /R we get
1/ω1L − ω1C = 1/R ------- (1)
Similarly amplitude of admittance at point P2 is given by: Y = √ 1/R2 + (ω2C − 1/ω2L)2 and
equating this to √ 2 /R we get
ω2C − 1/ω2L = 1/R ------- (2)
Equating LHS of (1) and (2) and further simplifying we get
1/ω1L − ω1C = ω2C − 1/ω2L
1/ω1L + 1/ω2L = ω1C + ω2C
1/L [(ω1 + ω2)/ ω1ω2] = (ω1 + ω2)C
1/L C = ω1ω2
Next adding the equations (1) and (2) above and further simplifying we get
1/ω1L – ω1C + ω2C − 1/ω2L = 2/R
(ω2C – ω1C) + (1/ω1L – 1/ω2L) = 2/R
(ω2 – ω1)C + 1/L [(ω2 – ω1)/ ω1ω2] = 2/R
Substituting the value of ω1ω2 = 1/LC
(ω2 − ω1)C + LC/L [(ω2 − ω1)] = 2/R
(ω2 − ω1)C + C [(ω2 − ω1)] = 2/R
2 C [(ω2 − ω1)] = 2/R
Or [(ω2 − ω1)] = 1/RC
From which we get the band width BW = f2-f1 = 1/2π RC
Dividing both sides by fr we get : (f2-f1)/ fr = 1/2π fr RC ------(1)
Quality factor of a Parallel RLC circuit:

The quality factor of a Parallel RLC circuit is defined as:

Q = Reactive power in Inductor (or Capacitor) at resonance / Average power at Resonance
Reactive power in Inductor at resonance = V2/XL
Reactive power in Capacitor at resonance = V2/XC
Average power at Resonance = V2/R
Here the power is expressed in the form V2/X (not as I2X as in series circuit) since V is common
across R,L and C in the parallel RLC circuit and it gets cancelled during the simplification.
Therefore Q = (V2/XL) / (V2/R) = (V2/XC) / (V2/R)

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i.e. Q = R/ XL = R /ωr L ----- (1)

Or Q = R/ XC = ωr RC ----- (2)
From these two relations we can also define Q factor as :
Q = Resistance /Inductive (or Capacitive ) reactance at resonance
Substituting the value of ωr = 1/√LC in the expressions (1) or (2) for Q above we can get the
value of Q in terms of R, L,C as below.
Q = (1/√LC ) RC = R (√C/L)
Further using the relation Q = ωr RC ( equation 2 above ) in the earlier equation (1) we got in
BW viz. (f2-f1)/ fr = 1/2π fr RC we get : (f2-f1)/ fr = 1/Q or Q = fr / (f2-f1) = fr / BW
i.e. In Parallel RLC circuit also the Q factor is inversely proportional to the BW.

Admittance, Conductance and Susceptance curves for a Parallel RLC circuit as a function of
frequency :
 The effect of varying the frequency on the Admittance, Conductance and Susceptance of
a parallel circuit is shown in the figure below.
 Inductive susceptance BL is given by BL = - 1/ωL. It is inversely proportional to the
frequency ω and is shown in the in the fourth quadrant since it is negative.
 Capacitive susceptance BC is given by BC = ωC. It is directly proportional to the
frequency ω and is shown in the in the first quadrant as OP .It is positive and linear.
 Net susceptance B = BC - BL and is represented by the curve JK. As can be seen it is zero
at the resonant frequency fr
 The conductance G = 1/R and is constant
 The total admittance Y and the total current I are minimum at the resonant frequency
as shown by the curve VW

Fig: Conductance,Susceptance and Admittance plots of a Parallel RLC circuit

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Current magnification in a Parallel RLC circuit:

Just as voltage magnification takes place across the capacitance and Inductance at the resonant
frequency in a series RLC circuit , current magnification takes place in the currents through the
capacitance and Inductance at the resonant frequency in a Parallel RLC circuit. This is shown
below.
Voltage across the Resistance = V = IR
Current through the Inductance at resonance IL = V/ ωr L = IR / ωr L = I . R/ ωr L = I Q
Similarly
Current through the Capacitance at resonance IC = V/ (1/ωr C ) = IR / (1/ωr C ) = I(R ωr C) = I Q
From which we notice that the quality factor Q = IL / I or IC / I and that the current through the
inductance and the capacitance increases by Q times that of the current through the resistor at
resonance. .

Important points In Parallel RLC circuit at resonant frequency :

 The impedance of the circuit becomes resistive and maximum i.e Z = R

 The current in the circuit becomes minimum
 The magnitudes of the capacitive Reactance and Inductive Reactance become equal
 The current through the Capacitor becomes equal and opposite to the current through
the Inductor at resonance and is Q times higher than the current through the resistor

Magnetic Circuits:
Introduction to the Magnetic Field:

Magnetic fields are the fundamental medium through which energy is converted from one form
to another in motors, generators and transformers. Four basic principles describe how
magnetic fields are used in these devices.
1. A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
Explained in Detail by Fleming’s Right hand rule and Amperes Law.
2. A time varying magnetic flux induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that
coil.
(basis of Transformer action)
Explained in detail by the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
3. A current carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced in it
( Basis of Motor action)
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it ( Basis of
Generator action)
We will be studying in this unit the first two principles in detail and the other two principles in
the next unit on DC machines.

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Two basic laws governing the production of a magnetic field by a current carrying conductor :
The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current carrying conductor is given by the
Flemings Right hand rule and its’ amplitude is given by the Ampere’s Law.

Flemings right hand rule: Hold the conductor carrying the current in your right hand such that
the Thumb points along the wire in the direction of the flow of current, then the fingers will
encircle the wire along the lines of the Magnetic force.

Ampere’s Law : The line integral of the magnetic field intensity H around a closed magnetic
path is equal to the total current enclosed by the path.

This is the basic law which gives the relationship between the Magnetic field Intensity H and
the current I and is mathematically expressed as
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = I net
where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet and dl is a differential
element of length along the path of integration. H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.

Important parameters and their relation in magnetic circuits :

 Consider a current carrying conductor wrapped around a ferromagnetic core as shown
in the figure below .

 Applying Ampere’s law, the total amount of magnetic field induced will be proportional
to the amount of current flowing through the conductor wound with N turns around the
ferromagnetic material as shown. Since the core is made of ferromagnetic material, it is
assumed that a majority of the magnetic field will be confined to the core.

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 The path of integration in this case as per the Ampere’s law is the mean path length of
the core, lC. The current passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since the
coil of wire cuts the path of integration N times while carrying the current i. Hence
Ampere’s Law becomes : Hlc = Ni
Therefore H = Ni/lc

 In this sense, H (Ampere turns per meter) is known as the effort required to induce a
magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also
depends on the material of the core. Thus: B = µH where
B = magnetic flux density [webers per square meter, or Tesla (T)]
μ= magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
 The constant µ may be further expanded to include relative permeability which can be
defined as below:
µ r = µ /µo
where µo = permeability of free space (equal to that of air)
 Hence the permeability value is a combination of the relative permeability and the
permeability of free space. The value of relative permeability is dependent upon the
type of material used. The higher the amount permeability, the higher the amount of
flux induced in the core. Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the
magnetizability of materials.
 Also, because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the majority of
the flux in an iron core remains inside the core instead of travelling through the
surrounding air, which has lower permeability. The small leakage flux that does leave
the iron core is important in determining the flux linkages between coils and the self-
inductances of coils in transformers and motors.
 In a core such as shown in the figure above
B = µH = µ Ni/lc
Now, to measure the total flux flowing in the ferromagnetic core, consideration has to
be made in terms of its cross sectional area (CSA). Therefore:

Φ = ∫ 𝑩. 𝒅𝑨 where: A = cross sectional area throughout the core.

Assuming that the flux density in the ferromagnetic core is constant throughout hence
the equation simplifies to: Φ = B.A
Taking the previous expression for B we get Φ = µ NiA/lc

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Electrical analogy of magnetic circuits:

The flow of magnetic flux induced in the ferromagnetic core is analogous to the flow of electric
current in an electrical circuit hence the name magnetic circuit.

The analogy is as follows:

(a) Electric Circuit (b) Electrical Analogy of Magnetic Circuit

 Referring to the magnetic circuit analogy, F is denoted as magnetomotive force (mmf)

which is similar to Electromotive force in an electrical circuit (emf). Therefore, we can
say that F is the force which pushes magnetic flux around a ferromagnetic core with a
value of Ni (refer to ampere’s law). Hence F is measured in ampere turns. Hence the
magnetic circuit equivalent equation is as shown:
F = Ø.R (similar to V=IR)
We already have the relation Φ = µ NiA/l and using this we get R = F / Φ = Ni/ Φ
R = Ni /( µ NiA/l) = l/ µ A
 The polarity of the mmf will determine the direction of flux. To easily determine the
direction of flux, the ‘right hand curl’ rule is applied:
When the direction of the curled fingers indicates the direction of current flow the
resulting thumb direction will show the magnetic flux flow.
 The element of R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in concept to the electrical
resistance. It is basically the measure of material resistance to the flow of magnetic flux.
Reluctance in this analogy obeys the rule of electrical resistance (Series and Parallel
Rules). Reluctance is measured in Ampere-turns per weber.
 The inverse of electrical resistance is conductance which is a measure of conductivity of
a material. Similarly the inverse of reluctance is known as permeance P which
represents the degree to which the material permits the flow of magnetic flux.

 By using the magnetic circuit approach, calculations related to the magnetic field in a
ferromagnetic material are simplified but with a little inaccuracy.

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Equivalent Reluctance of a series Magnetic circuit : Reqseries = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….

Equivalent Reluctance of a Parallel Magnetic circuit: 1/Reqparallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ….

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday’s law – Induced Voltage from a Time-Changing

Magnetic Field:
Faraday’s Law:
Whenever a varying magnetic flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be
induced in the turn of the wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change of the flux
linkage with the turn of the coil of wire.
eind ∝ −dØ/dt
eind = −𝒌. dØ/dt
The negative sign in the equation above is in accordance to Lenz’ Law which states:
The direction of the induced voltage in the turn of the coil is such that if the coil is short
circuited, it would produce a current that would cause a flux which opposes the original change
of flux.
And k is the constant of proportionality whose value depends on the system of units chosen. In
the SI system of units k=1 and the above equation becomes:
eind = − dØ/dt
Normally a coil is used with several turns and if there are N number of turns in the coil with the
same amount of flux flowing through it then: eind = − 𝑵 dØ/dt

Change in the flux linkage NØ of a coil can be obtained in two ways:

1. Coil remains stationary and flux changes with time (Due to AC current like in
Transformers and this is called Statically induced e.m.f )
2. Magnetic flux remains constant and stationary in space, but the coil moves relative to
the magnetic field so as to create a change in the flux linkage of the coil ( Like in
Rotating machines and this is a called Dynamically induced e.m.f.

Self inductance:
From the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction we have seen that an e.m.f will be
induced in a conductor when a time varying flux is linked with a conductor and the amplitude of
the induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate of change of the varying flux.
If the time varying flux is produced by a coil of N turns then the coil itself links with the time
varying flux produced by itself and an emf will be induced in the same coil. This is called self
inductance .
The flux Ø produced by a coil of N turns links with its own N turns of the coil and hence the
total flux linkage is equal to NØ = (μ N2 A / l) I [using the expression Φ = µ NiA/l we already

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developed] Thus we see that the total magnetic flux produced by a coil of N turns and linked
with itself is proportional to the current flowing through the coil i.e.
NØ ∝ 𝑰 or NØ = L 𝑰
From the Faradays law of electromagnetic Induction, the self induced e.m.f for this coil of N
turns is given by:
eind = − 𝑵 dØ/dt = −L dI/dt
The constant of proportionality L is called the self Inductance of the coil or simply Inductance
and its value is given by L = (μ N2 A / l). If the radius of the coil is r then:
L = (μ N2 πr2 / l) i
From the above two equations we can see that Self Inductance of a coil can be defined as the
flux produced per unit current i.e Weber/Ampere (equation1) or the induced emf per unit rate
of change of current i.e Volt-sec/Ampere (equation 2 )
The unit of Inductance is named after Joseph Henry as Henry and is given to these two
combinations as :
1H = 1WbA-1 = 1VsA-1
Self Inductance of a coil is defined as one Henry if an induced emf of one volt is generated when
the current in the coil changes at the rate of one Ampere per second.
Henry is relatively a very big unit of Inductance and we normally use Inductors of the size of mH
( 10-3 H) or μH (10-3H)

Mutual inductance and Coefficient of coupling:

In the case of Self Inductance an emf is induced in the same coil which produces the varying
magnetic field. The same phenomenon of Induction will be extended to a separate second coil
if it is located in the vicinity of the varying magnetic field produced by the first coil. Faradays
law of electromagnetic Induction is equally applicable to the second coil also. A current flowing
in one coil establishes a magnetic flux about that coil and also about a second coil nearby but of
course with a lesser intensity. The time-varying flux produced by the first coil and surrounding
the second coil produces a voltage across the terminals of the second coil. This voltage is
proportional to the time rate of change of the current flowing through the first coil.
Figure (a) shows a simple model of two coils L1 and L2, sufficiently close together that the flux
produced by a current i1(t) flowing through L1 establishes an open-circuit voltage v2(t) across
the terminals of L2.Mutual inductance,M21, is defined such that
v2(t) = M21di1(t)/dt ------[1]

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Figure (a) A current i1 through L1 produces an open-circuit voltage v2across L2. (b) A current
i2 through L2 produces an open-circuit voltage v1 across L1.

The order of the subscripts on M21 indicates that a voltage response is produced at L2 by a
current source at L1. If the system is reversed, as indicated
in fig.(b) then we have
v1(t) = M12di2(t)/dt ---------------[2]
It can be proved that the two mutual inductances M12 and M21 are equal and thus, M12 = M21 =
M. The existence of mutual coupling between two coils is indicated by a double-headed arrow,
as shown in Fig. (a )and (b)
Mutual inductance is measured in Henrys and, like resistance, inductance, and capacitance, is a
positive quantity. The voltage M di/dt, however, may appear as either a positive or a negative
quantity depending on whether the current is increasing or decreasing at a particular instant of
time.
Coefficient of coupling k : Is given by the relation M = k√L1 L2 and its value lies between 0 and
1. It can assume the maximum value of 1 when the two coils are wound on the same core such
that flux produced by one coil completely links with the other coil. This is possible in well
designed cores with high permeability. Transformers are designed to achieve a coefficient of
coupling of 1.

Dot Convention:

The polarity of the voltage induced in a coil depends on the sense of winding of the coil. In the
case of Mutual inductance it is indicated by use of a method called “dot convention”. The dot
convention makes use of a large dot placed at one end of each of the two coils which are
mutually coupled. Sign of the mutual voltage is determined as follows:
A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces an open circuit voltage with a
positive voltage reference at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Thus in Fig(a) i1 enters the dotted terminal of L1, v2 is sensed positively at the dotted terminal of
L2, and v2 = M di1/dt .

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It may not be always possible to select voltages or currents throughout a circuit so that the
passive sign convention is everywhere satisfied; the same situation arises with mutual coupling.
For example, it may be more convenient to represent v2 by a positive voltage reference at the
undotted terminal, as shown in Fig (b). Then v2 = −M di1/dt . Currents also may not always enter
the dotted terminal as indicated by Fig (c) and (d). Then we note that:
A current entering the undotted terminal of one coil provides a voltage that is positively
sensed at the undotted terminal of the second coil.

Figure : (a) and (b) Current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces a voltage that is
sensed positively at the dotted terminal of the second coil. (c) and (d) Current entering the
undotted terminal of one coil produces a voltage that is sensed positively at the undotted
terminal of the second coil.

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Important Concepts and formulae:

Resonance and Series RLC circuit:

ωr2 = ω1ω2 = 1/LC ∴ ωr = √ω1ω2 = 1/√LC

BW = R/2πL

Q = ωr L / R = 1/ ωr RC and in terms of R,L and C = (1/R) (√L/C)

Q = fr / BW i.e. inversely proportional to the BW

Voltage magnification Magnification = Q = VL/V or VC / V

Important points In Series RLC circuit at resonant frequency :

 The impedance of the circuit becomes purely resistive and minimum i.e Z = R
 The current in the circuit becomes maximum
 The magnitudes of the capacitive Reactance and Inductive Reactance become equal
 The voltage across the Capacitor becomes equal to the voltage across the Inductor at
resonance and is Q times higher than the voltage across the resistor

Resonance and Parallel RLC circuit:

ωr2 = ω1ω2 = 1/LC ∴ ωr = √ω1ω2 = 1/√LC same as in series RLC circuit

BW = 1/2π RC

Q = R /ωr L = ωr RC and in terms of R, L and C = R (√C/L) [ Inverse of what we got

in Series RLC circuit]
Q = fr / BW In Parallel RLC also inversely proportional to the BW

Current Magnification = Q = IL/I or IC / I

Important points In Parallel RLC circuit at resonant frequency :

 The impedance of the circuit becomes resistive and maximum i.e Z = R

 The current in the circuit becomes minimum
 The magnitudes of the capacitive Reactance and Inductive Reactance become equal
 The current through the Capacitor becomes equal and opposite to the current through
the Inductor at resonance and is Q times higher than the current through the resistor

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Magnetic circuits :

Ampere’s Law: ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = I net and in the case of a simple closed magnetic

path of a ferromagnetic material it simplifies to Hl = Ni or H = Ni/l

Magnetic flux density: B = μH

Magnetic field intensity: H = Ni/l
Total magnetic flux intensity: Ø = BA = μHA = μ Ni A / l
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit: R = mmf/Flux = Ni/ Ø = l/μA

Faradays law of electromagnetic Induction:

Self induced e.m.f of a coil of N turns is given by: eind = − 𝑵 dØ/dt = −L dI/dt where L is the
inductance of the coil of N turns with radius r and given by L = (μ N2 πr2 / l) i
Equivalent Reluctance of a series Magnetic circuit: Reqseries = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
Equivalent Reluctance of a Parallel Magnetic circuit: 1/Reqparallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ..
Coefficient of coupling k Is given by the relation: M = k√L1 L2

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Illustrative examples:
Example 1: A toroidal core of radius 6 cms is having 1000 turns on it. The radius of cross section of the
core 1cm.Find the current required to establish a total magnetic flux of 0.4mWb.When

(a) The core is nonmagnetic

(b) The core is made of iron having a relative permeability of 4000

Solution:

This problem can be solved by the direct application of the following formulae we know in magnetic
circuits: B = Φ/A = µH and H = Ni/l

Where

B = magnetic flux density (Wb/mtr2 ) Φ = Total magnetic flux (Wb))

A = Cross sectional area of the core(mtr2) µ = µrµ0 = Permeability (Henrys/mtr)

µr = Relative permeability of the material ( Dimensionless)

µ0 = free space permeability = 4π x 10-7 Henrys/mtr

H = Magenetic field intensity AT/mtr N = Number of turns of the coil

i = Current in the coil (Amps) l = Length of the coil (mtrs)

from the above relations we can get i as

i = H l/N = (1/ µ )(Φ/A ) l / N = (1/ µ )(Φ/ N) l / A = (1/ µ )(Φ/ N) [ 2πrT / π rC2 ] = [ 2rT Φ / µ N rC2 ]

Where rT is the radius of the toroid and rC is the radius of cross section of the coil

Now we can calculate the currents in the two cases by substituting the respective values.

(a) Here µ = µ0. Therefore i = ( 2 x 6 x 10-2 x 4 x 10-4 )/ (4π x 10-7 x 1000 x 10-4) = 380 Amps
(b) Here µ = µrµ0. Therefore i = ( 2 x 6 x 10-2 x 4 x 10-4 )/ (4000 x4π x 10-7 x 1000 x 10-4) = 0.095 Amps

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Ex.2: (a) Draw the electrical equivalent circuit of the magnetic circuit shown in the figure below. The
area of the core is 2x2 cm2 .The length of the air gap is 1cm and lengths of the other limbs are shown in
the figure. The relative permeability of the core is 4000.

(b) Find the value of the current ‘i’ in the above example which produces a flux density of 1.2 Tesla in
the air gap . The number f turns of the coil are 5000.

Solution: (a)

To draw the equivalent circuit we have to find the Reluctances of the various flux paths independently.

The reluctance of the path abcd is given by: R1 = length of the path abcd /µrµ0A

= (32x10-2) / (4π x 10-7 x 4000 x 4 x 10-4) =1.59 x 105 AT/Wb

The reluctance of the path afed is equal to the reluctance of the path abcd since it has the same length,
same permeability and same cross sectional area. Thus R1 = R2

Similarly the reluctance of the path ag (R3) is equal to that of the path hd (R4) and can be calculated as:
R3 = R4 = (6.5 x 10-2) / (4π x 10-7 x 4000 x 4 x 10-4) = 0.32 x 105 AT/Wb

The reluctance of the air gap path gh RG can be calculated as : RG = length of the air gap path gh/µ0A

( Here it is to be noted that µ is to be taken as µ0 only and µr should not be included)

RG = (1 x 10-2) / (4π x 10-7 x 4 x 10-4 ) = 198.94 x 105 AT/Wb

The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in the figure below with the values of the reluctances as given
below the circuit diagram.

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R1 = R2 = 1.59x105 AT/Wb R3 = R4 = 0.32x105 AT/Wb RG = 198.94x105 AT/Wb

Solution: (b) This problem is solved in the following steps:

1. First the flux through the air gap ΦG is found out. The flux in the air gap ΦGis given by the product
of the Flux density in the air gap B and the cross sectional area of the core in that region A . Hence
ΦG = B.A = 1.2 x 4 x 10-4 = 0.00048 Wb
It is to be noted here that the same flux would be passing through the reluctances R3,RG & R4
2. Next,the Flux in the path afed Φ2 is to be found out . This can be found out by noticing that the
mmf across the reluctance R2 is same as the mmf across the sum of the reluctances R3,RG, and R4
coming in parallel with R4 . Hence by equating them we get

ΦG ( R3 + RG + R4 ) = Φ2 R2 from which we get Φ2 = ΦG (R3 + RG + R4 ) / R2

Hence Φ2 = [0.00048 x ( 0.32 + 198.94 + 0.32)x105 ] / 1.59x105 = 0.06025 Wb

3. Next , the total flux Φ flowing through the reluctance of the path abcd R1 produced by the
winding is to be found out. This is the sum of the air gap flux ΦG and the flux in the outer limb of
the core Φ2 : i.e Φ = ΦG + Φ2 = (0.00048 + 0.06025) = 0.0607 Wb
4. Next , The total mmf F given by F = Ni is to be found out . This is also equal to the sum of the
mmfs across the reluctances R1 and R2 [or (R3 + RG + R4 )] = Φ R1 + Φ2 R2 from which we can get
‘i’ as : ‘i’ = (Φ R1 + Φ2 R2 ) / N = [0.0607 x 1.59x105 + 0.06025 x 1.59x105]/5000 = 3.847 Amps

is = 3.847 Amps

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