Protective Relays

Introduction
• In a power system consisting of generators,
transformers, transmission and distribution
circuits, it is inevitable that sooner or later
some failure will occur somewhere in the
system. When a failure occurs on any part of
the system, it must be quickly detected and
disconnected from the system.
 Introduction
• The proper operation of the power system requires an
efficient, reliable and fast acting protection scheme, which
basically consists of protective relays and switching devices.
• A protective relay, acting as a brain behind the whole system,
senses the fault, locates it, and sends a command or signal to
appropriate circuit breaker to isolate only the faulty section,
thus keeping the rest of the healthy system functional.
• It detects abnormal conditions on a power system by
constantly monitoring the electrical quantities of the system,
which are different under normal and abnormal (fault)
conditions.
• The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change
during abnormal conditions are current , voltage, phase angle
(direction) and frequency.
Relay operation
 Fundamental requirements of relaying

• Selectivity
• Speed
• Sensitivity
• Reliability
• Simplicity
• Economy
 Classification of Relays
• In a power system control and protection
schemes, various types of relays are used
which can be categorized as follows:
– According to functions
– According to construction
– According to speed of operation
– According to their generation of development
– According to the method of connection
– According to the method of action
 According to functions
• Relays can be divided into three classes according to
the function, they are;
– Main relay: These relays operate according to the
information received from the power system i.e. they
operate when there is a change in the actuating quantity
which may be current, voltage or power.
– Auxiliary Relays: These relays operate after the operation
of main relays and are used to perform some auxiliary
functions such as introducing time delay for the operation
of the breaker.
– Signal Relays: These are the relays used to indicate the
operation of main relays. It is also used to energize a signal
or an alarm circuit to make the operators alert to take the
necessary actions immediately.
 According to construction

• Protective relay can be broadly classified into

the following three categories, depending on
the technology they use for their construction
and operation.
– Electromechanical Relay
– Static Relay
– Numerical Relay
 Electromechanical Relay
• Electromechanical relays are further classified
into two categories i.e.
– electromagnetic relays,
– thermal relays.
• Electromagnetic relays work on the principle of
either electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction.
• Thermal relays utilize the electro thermal effect
of the actuating current for their operation.
 Cont…
• First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the
principle of electromagnetic attraction were
developed. These relays were called attracted
armature-type electromagnetic relays.
• This type of relay operates through an armature
which is attracted to an electromagnet or
through a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger
type electromagnetic relays are used for
instantaneous units for detecting over current or
overvoltage conditions.
 Cont…
• Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays
were developed. These relays use
electromagnetic induction principle for their
operation, and hence work with ac quantities
only.
• Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet
and a moving part. When the actuating quantity
exceeds a certain predetermined value, an
operating torque is developed which is applied on
the moving part.
• This causes the moving part to travel and to
finally close a contact to energies the trip coil of
the circuit breaker.
 Static Relay
• A static relay refers to a relay in which there is no
armature or other moving element and response is
developed by electronic components without
mechanical motion.
• These type of relays perform switching actions by
changing the state of serially connected solid-state
component from non-conducting to conducting or vice
versa, without any physical movement of any of relay.
They are more versatile, reliable and faster than
electromagnetic type.
• Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may
include transistors, ICs, diode and other electronic
components.
 Static Relay
In such type of relays, the output is obtained
by the static components like magnetic and
electronic circuit etc.
The relay which consists static and
electromagnetic relay is also called static relay
because the static units obtain the response
and the electromagnetic relay is only used for
switching operation.
 Static Relay

• The instrument transformer is connected to

the transmission line, and its output is given
to the rectifier. The rectifier rectifies the input
signal and pass it to the relay measuring unit.
 Static relay
• The relaying quantity (output of PT, CT or transducer) is
rectified by a rectifier.
• The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit.
• The output of the measuring unit is amplified and fed to the
output device.
• The output unit energizes the trip coil.
• Static relays possess the advantages of having low burden on
the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia
and contact trouble, long life and less maintenance.
• Static relays have proved to be superior to electromechanical
relays and they are being used for the protection of important
lines, power stations and sub-stations.
 Numerical Relay
• Numerical relays are the latest development in this area.
• These relays acquire the sequential samples of the ac
quantities in numeric (digital) data from through the data
acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an
algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip
decisions.
• Numerical relays have been developed because of
tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware
technology. (Very large scale of integrated circuit)
• They are based on numerical (digital) devices, e.g.
microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors
(DSP) etc. At present microprocessor/microcontroller based
numerical relays are widely used.
 Cont….

• The main features of numerical relays are

their economy, compactness, flexibility,
reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking
capability, multiple functions, low burden on
instrument transformers and improved
performance over conventional relays of
electromechanical and static types.
 According to speed of operation
• Protective relays can be generally classified by
their speed of operation as follows:
– Instantaneous relays
– Time-delay relays
– High-speed relays
• Instantaneous relays: In these relay, no
intentional time delay is introduced to slow
down their response. These relays operate as
soon as a secure decision is made.
• Time-delay relays: In these relays, an
intentional time delay is introduced between
the relay decision time and the initiation of
the trip action.
• High-speed relays: These relays operate in
less than a specified time. The specified time
in present practice is 60 milliseconds (3
cycles on a 50 Hz system).
 According to their generation of
development

• Relays can be classified into the following

categories, depending on generation of their
development.
i) First-generation relays: Electromechanical relays
ii) Second-generation relays: Static relays
iii) Third-generation relays: Numerical relays.
 According to their functions

• Protective relays can be classified into the

following categories, depending on the duty
they are required to perform:
– Overcurrent relays
– Under voltage relays
– Impedance Relays
– Under frequency relays
– Directional relays
 According to the method of connection

• As per the method of connection to the power system, the

relays may be classified into
– primary relays
– secondary relays.
• Primary relays: primary relays are those whose sensing
elements are directly connected to the power lines, which
they protect.
• Secondary relays: Secondary relays are those whose sensing
element are connected to the power lines through
instrument transformers. Normally, these types of relays are
used in power system protection because of high values of
voltages and currents of the power circuit.
 According to the method of action

• On the basis of the action of relays on circuit breakers, they are

classified into;
– Direct-acting relays
– Indirect acting relays.

• Direct acting relay: These relays are connected mechanically

with the tripping mechanism of the breakers and their control
elements acts directly to operate the breaker.
• Indirect acting relays: These relays acts indirectly i.e. instead
of acting directly on the breaker’s operating mechanism, they
perform switching actions to supply the power from an
auxiliary d.c. source to the trip coil of the operating
mechanism. The most relays are used in practice of these
kinds.
 Electromechanical Relay

• Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces

generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic or
electrothermic forces created by the input quantities.
• Most electromechanical relays use either
electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic
induction principle of their operation. Such relays are
called electromagnetic relays.
• Depending on the principle for their operation the
electromagnetic relays are of two types:
– i) attracted armature relays
– ii) induction relays.
 Cont…

• Some electromechanical relays also use

electrothermic principle for their operation
and are based upon the forces created by
expansion of metals caused by temperature
rise due to flow of current. Such relays are
called thermal relays.
• Most of the present day electromechanical
relays are of either induction disc type or
induction cup type.
 Types of electromechanical relays

• Electromagnetic relays
– Attracted armature relays
– Induction relays
• Thermal relays
 Attracted armature relays
• Attracted armature relays are the
simplest type which respond to
ac as well as dc.
• These relays operate through an
armature which is attracted to an
electromagnet or through a
plunger which is drawn into a
solenoid.
• All these relays use the same
electromagnetic attraction
principle for their operation.
• The electromagnetic force
exerted on the moving element
i.e. the armature or plunger, is
proportional to the square of the
flux in the air gap or the square
of the current.
• In dc relays this force is constant.
 Cont…
• The following are the different types of
construction of attracted armature relays.
– Hinged armature type
– Plunger type
– Balanced beam type
– Polarised moving-iron type
– Reed type
Hinged armature type
Hinged armature type
 cont
• The coil is energized by an operating quantity
proportional to the system current or voltage.
• The attractive force increases as the armature
approaches the pole of the electromagnet.
• This type of relay is used for the protection of
small machines, equipment etc. It is also used
for auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags,
alarm relays etc.
 Cont…

• The actuating quantity of the relay may be either ac

or dc.
• In dc relay, the electromagnetic force of attraction is
constant.
• In the case of ac relays, sinusoidal current flows
through the coil and hence the force of attraction is
given by
F = KI2 = K (Imax sin ωt)2 = K (I2max - I2max cos 2ωt)
 Plunger Type relay

• In this type of relay, there is a solenoid and an

iron plunger which moves in and out of the
solenoid to make and break the contact.
• The movement of the plunger is controlled by
a spring. This type of construction has
however become obsolete as it draws more
current.
Plunger Type relay
 Balanced Beam Relays

• It consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets

at its ends. One gives operating torque while the
other restraining torque. The beam is supported
at the middle and it remains horizontal under
normal conditions.
• When the operating torque exceeds the
restraining torque, an armature fitted at one end
of the beam is pulled and its contacts are closed.
• Though now obsolete, this type of a relay was
popular in the past for constructing impedance
and differential relays.
Balanced Beam Relays
 Polarized moving iron relay.

• The sensitivity of the hinged armature relays

can be increased for dc operation by the
addition of a permanent magnet.
• This type of relay is known as polarized
moving iron relay.
• These employ leaf spring supported armatures
Polarized moving iron type
 Reed Relays
• A reed relays consists of a coil and nickel strips (reeds)
sealed in a close glass capsule.
• The coil surrounds the reed contact. When the coil is
energised, a magnetic field is produced which causes
the reeds to come together and close the contact.
• Reed relays are very reliable and are maintenance free.
• They are used for control and other purposes, and also
used in protective relays.
• Their input requirement is 1 W to 3 W and they have
speed of 1 or 2 msec.
• They are completely bounce free and are more suitable
for normally closed application.
 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
• Can be used for both ac and dc
• They have fast operation and fast reset
• These are almost instantaneous
Disadvantages
• The relay can operate during transients
• Directional feature is absent
 Applications

• Protection of various ac and dc equipments

• Over/under current and over/under voltage
protection
• Differential protection
• Can be used as auxiliary relay
 Induction Relays
• Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for
their application.
• Their principle of operation is same as that of a single
phase induction motor, so used for ac currents only.
• Two types of construction of these relays.
– Induction disc type
– Induction cup type
• In both types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is
equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor.
• The moving element acts as a carrier of rotor currents,
where as the magnetic circuit is completed through
stationary magnetic elements.
• In order to produce an operating torque, the two fluxes
must have a phase difference between them.
 Induction Relay torque
In watt metric type construction, φ1 is
produced by upper magnet and φ2 by
the lower magnet. A voltage is induced
in a coil wound on the lower magnet by
the transformer action.
The Current flowing in this coil
produces flux φ2 . In case of the cup
type construction φ1 and φ2 are
produced by pairs of coil.
Phasor diagram for an induction relay
ɸ2

θ ɸ1

F2

F1
 Force Produced in Induction Relay

The current produced by the flux interacts with other flux and vice versa.
The force produced are:
 Force Produced in Induction Relay
As these forces are in opposition, the resultant force is

If the same current produces φ1 and φ2 the force produced is given by

Where θ is the angle between φ1 and φ2. If two actuating currents M and
N produced is
 Induction Relay
• There are two types of construction of induction disc
relays:
– The shaded pole type
– Watt hour meter type
• In shaded pole type construction, a C-shaped
electromagnet is used. One half of each pole of the
electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band known as
the shading ring.
• The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is
displaced in space and time with respect to the flux
produced by the unshaded portion of the pole.
• Two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the
disc and produce eddy current in it.
• Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with
the eddy current produced by the other flux. The resultant
torque causes the disc to rotate.
 Shaded Pole Induction Disc Relay

Plug setting
(PS)

•Robust & reliable Construction • Used for over current protection

•Time current characteristics are • Used for slow speed relays
inverse characteristics
•Current setting can be changed by
taking suitable no. of turns
•Eddy currents in disc
•Brake magnet to avoid over run
Wattmetric type Induction Disc Relay
Wattmetric type Induction Disc Relay
 Wattmetric type Induction Disc Relay
• It consists of an E shaped electromagnet and an U shaped
electromagnet with a disc free to rotate in between
• The E shaped electromagnet carries two windings primary
and the secondary. The primary winding carries relay
current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
windings of U shaped electromagnet. The primary current
induces emf in the secondary and so circulates a current I2
in it.
• The flux ɸ2 induced in the U shaped electromagnet will lag
behind flux ɸ1 by an angle θ
• Driving torque is developed on the disc proportional to
ɸ1ɸ2sinθ
• It can provide higher phase angle between ɸ1 and ɸ2 and
thus higher torque.
Induction Cup Relay
 Induction Cup Relay

• The relay has two, four or more electromagnets

energized by the relay coil.
• A stationary iron core is placed between these
electromagnets. The rotor is hollow metallic cylindrical
cup which is free to rotate in the gap between the
electromagnets and the stationary iron core.
• The rotating field is produced by two pairs of coils
wound on four poles as shown. The rotating field
induces currents in the cup causing it to rotate in the
same direction.
• These relays have inverse time characteristics. Such
relays are very fast in operation and may have an
operating time of less than 0.01 second
 Time current characteristics

A wide variety of time-current characteristics

is available for overcurrent relays.
– Definite-time overcurrent relay
– Instantaneous overcurrent relay
– Inverse-time overcurrent relay
– Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) overcurrent
relay
– Very inverse - time over current relay
– Extremely inverse - time over current relay
Time current characteristics
Time current characteristics
Time current characteristics
 Time current characteristics
• Time required to rotate the disc depends on a torque.
• More the torque, lesser is the time required, hence relay
has inverse time characteristics. The figure below shows
the time current characteristics for the overcurrent relay.
Such characteristics are called inverse definite minimum
time (IDMT) characteristics.
• This is because the characteristics shows inverse relation
between time and current for small values of currents.
• But as current increases, some definite time is required by
the relay. So the characteristics become straight line for
higher values of currents.
• Such characteristics can be obtained by saturating the iron
in the upper magnet so that there can not be increase in
the flux once current achieves certain high value.
 PSM and TSM

Plug setting multiplier (PSM)

PSM =
Fault current in relay coil
Pick up value
Fault current in relay coil
PSM =
% current setting x rated secondary current of CT

Time setting multiplier (TSM)

TSM =
Actual time of operation
Time for PSM obtained
Fault current in relay coil
IF in relay = Line fault current / CT ratio
Example 1.1
An IDMT overcurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and a time multiplier
setting of 0.6. The primary of relay is connected to secondary of CT having
ratio 400/5. Calculate the time of operation if the circuit carries a fault
current of 5000A. The time current characteristics of relay is shown in figure
below.
Solution:
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current /CT ratio
= 5000 x 5/400 = 62.5 A
Rated secondary current of CT = 5A
Current setting = 150% = 1.5
PSM = Fault current in relay/ (% current setting x rated secondary current of CT)
= 62.5 / (1.5 x 5) = 8.333
From figure above approx time for PSM of 8.33 is 1.8 sec
Actual operation time = Time for PSM obtained x Time setting multiplier
= 1.8 x 0.6
= 1.08 sec
Example 1.2
An IDMT overcurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and a time multiplier
setting of 0.6. The primary of relay is connected to secondary of CT having
ratio 400/5. Calculate the time of operation if the circuit carries a fault
current of 4000A. The time current characteristics of relay is shown in figure
below.
Solution:
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current /CT ratio
= 4000 x 5/400 = 50 A
Rated secondary current of CT = 5A
Current setting = 150% = 1.5
PSM = Fault current in relay/ (% current setting x rated secondary current of CT)
= 50 / (1.5 x 5) = 6.666
From figure above approx time for PSM of 6.67 is 3 sec
Actual operation time = Time for PSM obtained x Time setting multiplier
= 3 x 0.6
= 1.8 sec
Example 1.3
An IDMT overcurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and a time multiplier
setting of 0.6. The primary of relay is connected to secondary of CT having
ratio 400/5. Calculate the time of operation if the circuit carries a fault
current of 7000A. The time current characteristics of relay is shown in figure
below.
Solution:
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current /CT ratio
= 7000 x 5/400 = 87.5 A
Rated secondary current of CT = 5A
Current setting = 150% = 1.5
PSM = Fault current in relay/ (% current setting x rated secondary current of CT)
= 87.5 / (1.5 x 5) = 11.67
From figure above approx time for PSM of 11.67 is 1.8 sec
Actual operation time = Time for PSM obtained x Time setting multiplier
= 1.8 x 0.6
= 1.08 sec
Example 2.1
The figure below shows the part of a typical power system. If for the discrimination, the
time grading margin between the relays is o.6 sec. Calculate the time of operation of
relay 1 and time setting multiplier for relay 2. The time current characteristics of relay is
shown in figure. The time setting multiplier of relay 1 is 0.3.
Solution:
For relay 1; Current setting = 125% = 1.25
Fault current = 4000A
CT ratio = 500/5
Fault current in relay = 4000 x 5/500 = 40 A
PSM = 40/(5 x 1.25) = 6.4
From the time current characteristics, the corresponding time for 6.4 PSM is
approx. 3 seconds.
Actual time of operation = 3 x 0.3 = 0.9 sec

For relay 2; Current setting = 150% = 1.5

Actual time of operation = 0.9 + 0.6 = 1.5 sec
Fault current in relay = 4000 x 5/500 = 40 A
PSM = 40 / (5 x 1.5) = 5.33
From the time current characteristics, the corresponding time for 5.33 PSM is
approx. 3.8 seconds.
Time setting multiplier = 1.5/3.8 = 0.385 = 0.4
Example 2.2
The figure below shows the part of a typical power system. If for the discrimination, the
time grading margin between the relays is o.6 sec. Calculate the time of operation of
relay 1 and time setting multiplier for relay 2. The time current characteristics of relay is
shown in figure. The time setting multiplier of relay 1 is 0.5.
Solution:
For relay 1; Current setting = 125% = 1.25
Fault current = 4000A
CT ratio = 500/5
Fault current in relay = 4000 x 5/500 = 40 A
PSM = 40/(5 x 1.25) = 6.4
From the time current characteristics, the corresponding time for 6.4 PSM is
approx. 3 seconds.
Actual time of operation = 3 x 0.5 = 1.5 sec

For relay 2; Current setting = 150% = 1.5

Actual time of operation = 1.5 + 0.6 = 2.1 sec
Fault current in relay = 4000 x 5/500 = 40 A
PSM = 40 / (5 x 1.5) = 5.33
From the time current characteristics, the corresponding time for 5.33 PSM is
approx. 3.8 seconds.
Time setting multiplier = 2.1/3.8 = 0.385 = 0.55 sec
Example 3.
Given; fault current = 2000 A; Relay 1 set on 100%; CT ratio = 200/1; Relay 2 set on
125%; time gradient margin between relays is 0.5 sec. Determine the time of operation
of the two relays assuming that both the relays have characteristics as shown in the
following table and the relay no. 1 has a time multiplier setting of 0.2

PSM 2 3.6 5 8 10 15 20
Time in sec 10 6 3.9 3.15 2.8 2.2 2.1
Solution;
Relay 1; Relay current = 2000/200 = 10 A
Pickup current =1x1=1A
PSM = 10/1 = 10
Time of operation of relay 1 corresponding to PSM 10 is 2.8 seconds
Actual operating time of relay 1 with TSM of 0.2
= 2.8 x 0.2 = 0.56 seconds

Relay 2; Relay current = 2000/200 = 10 A

Pick up current = 1.25 x 1 = 1.25 A
PSM = 10/1.25 = 8
Time of operation of relay 2 corresponding to PSM 8 is 3.15 seconds
Actual operating time of relay 2 = 0.56 + 0.5 = 1.06 seconds
Time setting multiplier of relay 2 = 1.06/3.15 = 0.3365
 Calculation of Relay Operation Time
For calculating actual relay operating time, we
need to know these following operation.

1. Current setting.
2. Fault current level.
3. Ratio of current transformer.
4. Time / PSM curve.
5. Time setting.
 Calculation of Relay Operation Time
Step – 1
From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say the CT ratio is
100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A.
Step – 2
From current setting we calculate the current of the relay. Say current setting of
the relay is 150% therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 × 150% = 1.5 A.
Step – 3
Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current level. For that, we
have to first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to get relay faulty current. Say
the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT primary, hence secondary equivalent of
faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15 A

Step – 4
Now, after calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the
relay from Time / PSM curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation
of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10.
Step – 5
Finally that operating time of relay would be multiplied with time setting
multiplier, in order to get actual time of operation of relay. Hence say time setting
of the relay is 0.1.
Therefore actual time of operation of the relay for PSM 10, is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec or
300 ms.
 Buchholz Relay

Buchholz relay in transformer is an oil container housed in

the connecting pipe from main tank to conservator tank. It
has mainly two elements. The upper element consists of a
float. The float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it
can move up and down depending upon the oil level in
the Buchholz relay Container. One mercury switch is fixed
on the float. The alignment of mercury switch hence
depends upon the position of the float. The lower element
consists of a baffle plate and mercury switch. This plate is
fitted on a hinge just in front of the inlet (main tank side)
of Buchholz relay in transformer in such a way that when
oil enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the
alignment of the baffle plate along with the mercury switch
attached to it, will change.
Buchholz Relay
 Overcurrent relay

• A protective relay which operates when the load current

exceeds a preset value, is called an overcurrent relay. The
value of the preset current above which the relay operates
is known as its pickup value. Overcurrent relays offer the
cheapest and simplest form of protection.
• These relays are used for the protection of distribution
lines, large motors, power equipment, industrial systems
etc. A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for the
protection of an element of a power system, is known as an
overcurrent protection scheme or overcurrent protection.
At present electromechanical relays are widely used for
overcurrent protection.
 Time current characteristics

• A wide variety of time-current characteristics is

available for overcurrent relays.

– Instantaneous overcurrent relay

– Inverse-time overcurrent relay
– Definite-time overcurrent relay
– Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) overcurrent
relay
– Very inverse - time over current relay
– Extremely inverse - time over current relay
 Instantaneous overcurrent relay

Features:
• Intentional time delay is not provided for operation. The relay
contacts are closed immediately after the current in the relay coil
exceeds the operating value. Although there will be a short time
interval between the instant of pick up value and the closing of the
relay contacts, no intentional time delay is provided.
• This characteristic can be achieved with the help of the hinged
armature relay. This relay has a unique advantage of reducing the
time of operation to a minimum for faults very close to the source
where the fault current is the greatest.
• The instantaneous relay is effective where the impedance between
the relay and source is small.
Application:
• Such type of relay is used for controlling earth fault and other types
of circulating current protection.
 Time current characteristics

Instantaneous overcurrent relay Definite time overcurrent relay

 Definite time overcurrent relay

Features:
• Definite time overcurrent relay operates after a predetermined
time when the current exceeds its pick-up value.
• The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the
current above the pick up value.
• The desired definite operating time can be set with the help of an
intentional time delay mechanism provided in the relaying unit.
•

Application:
• Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time
delay.
• Back up protection to differential relay of power transformer with
time delay.
• Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with
adjustable time delay setting.
 Inverse time overcurrent relay

• In such type of relay, the operating current is

approximately inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the actuating quantity.
• At values of current less than pick up value,
the relay never operates. At, higher values,
the operating time of the relay decrease
regularly with the increase of the current.
• The inverse time relay is of three types.
 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

Features:
• In this relay, the operating time is inversely
proportional to the fault current near pick-up value.
• The relay becomes considerably constant slightly above
the pickup value of the relay as shown in the figure.
• This is achieved by using a core of the electromagnet
which gets saturated for current slightly greater than
the pick-up current.
Application:
• The relay is used for the protection of the distribution
line.
 Very Inverse Relay
Features:
• In such relay, the saturation of the current occurs at a
still later stage.
• The time-current characteristic is inverse over a greater
range and after saturation tends to the definite time.
• The relay is used in the places where there the
magnitude of the short-circuit current fall rapidly
because of the large distance from the source.
Application:
• Relays with very inverse time characteristic are
employed on feeders and long sub-transmission lines.
 Extremely Inverse Relay

Features:
• The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared
to the IDMT and the Very inverse relay.
• In this type of relay, the core saturation occurs at the very large
stage.
• The relay can operate instantly when the pickup value of the
current is more than the relay setting time. The relay provides
faster operation.
Application:
• This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. It is
used for sensing the overheating of the machines.
• The inverse time relay is used in the distribution networks and the
power plants.
Time current characteristics
IDMT characteristics
Induction type overcurrent relay
 Induction type overcurrent relay

There are two structures of the induction disc type overcurrent relay:
1. Shaded pole structure, and
2. Watt-hour meter structure.
• Most of the induction relays are of watt-hour meter structure. The
construction of this relay is similar to the watt-hour or the AC energy
meter.
• It consists of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries two
windings; primary winding and the secondary winding.
• The advantage of this type of construction is that it can provide a larger
phase angle between the two fluxes and hence a higher torque.
• An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be
controlled by opening or closing the secondary winding.
• If the circuit is opened, no torque will be produced and thus the relay is
made inoperative.
 Induction type overcurrent relay
• The relay has two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has two
windings; one of these is primary and is connected to the secondary of a
CT in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The tappings are
connected to a plug setting bridge by which the no. of turns in use can be
adjusted thereby giving the desired current setting.
• The plug bridge is usually arranged to give seven sections of tappings to
give overcurrent range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%. If the relay is
required to response for earth faults the steps are arranged to a range from
10% to 70% or 20% to 80% in steps of 10%.
• The values assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of percentage of
full load rating of CT with which the relay is associated and represents and
value above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip
circuit.
• The pickup current equals the rated secondary current of CT multiplied by
current setting. For example suppose that an overcurrent relay having a
current setting of 150% is connected to a supply circuit through a CT of
500/5 A. The rated secondary current of CT is 5 A and therefore the pick-up
value will be 1.5 x 5 = 7.5 A.
• It means that with above current setting, the relay will actually operate for
a relay current equal to or greater than 7.5 A.
 Induction type overcurrent relay
• The second winding is energized by induction from the primary and is connected
in series with the winding on the lower magnet. By this arrangement, the leakage
fluxes of upper and lower electromagnets sufficiently displaced in space and phase
to set up a rotational torque on the aluminium disc suspended between the two
magnets. This torque is controlled by the spiral spring or by a permanent magnet
brake on disc.
• The disc spindle carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts (trip
circuit contacts) when the disc has rotated through a preset angle. The angle can
be set to any value between 0o and 360o. This adjustment is known as time setting
multiplier. The multiplier setting is generally in the form of an adjustable backstop
which decides the arc length through which the disc travels, by reducing the length
of travel the operating time is reduced.
• The time setting multiplier is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. this figure do
not represent the actual operating time but are multiples to be used to convert
the time known from the relay name plate curve (time – PSM curve) into the
actual operating time. Thus if time setting is 0.2 and the operating time obtained
from the time – PSM curve of the relay is 5 seconds, then actual operating time of
the relay will be equal to 0.2 x 5 = 1 second.
• Since the time required to rotate the disc through a preset angle depends upon
the torque which varies as current in the primary circuit, therefore, more the
torque lesser will be the time required. So the relay has inverse time
characteristics.
 Time graded protection

Time graded protection

• In this scheme of overcurrent protection time discrimination is
incorporated. The time setting of relay is so graded that in the event
of fault the smallest possible part of the system is isolated.
Protection of radial feeders
• The main characteristic of a radial system is that power can flow in
one direction only from generator or supply end to the load end. It
has the drawback that continuity of supply cannot be maintained at
the load end in the event of fault.
• In this system the time setting of overcurrent relays is adjusted in
such a way that farther the relay from the generating station the
lesser the time of operation. When the fault occurs at SS4 the relay
OC5 should operate first and not any other, i.e. the time required to
operate the relay OC5 should be less than that required for relay
OC4.
 Time graded protection

• Similarly, the time required to operate the relay OC4 must be less
than that required for OC3 and so on.
• This shows that the time setting required for these relays must be
graded. The time settings for relay OC1, OC2, OC3, OC4 and OC5
will be 2 sec, 1.5 sec, 1 sec, 0.5 sec and instantaneous respectively.
• It is also essential to have the time of operation dependent on the
severity of fault. For severe fault the time of operation should
automatically be less. This is achieved by using time limit fuses in
parallel with the trip coils. Its additional advantage is that the relay
will not operate under overload conditions of very short duration.
• The graded time lag relays when connected in series require that
their time current characteristics are similar in shape. In no case
they should cross each other at any point. From this point of view
induction type inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays are
most suitable. Their ratings provide complete discrimination under
all fault conditions and they are most widely used.
Time graded protection
 Time graded protection

The drawbacks of this scheme are

– Time lag is to be provided which is not desirable
on short circuits
– This scheme is suitable for radial feeders with
supply at one end only, not for ring mains or
interconnected lines
– It is difficult to coordinate and requires changes
with the addition of loads
– It is not suitable for long transmission lines where
rapid fault clearance is necessary
 Protection of line

• Protection of line should have some special features, such

as-
– During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point
should be tripped.
– If the circuit breaker closest to the faulty point, fails to trip, the
circuit breaker just next to this breaker will trip as back up.
– The operating time of relay associated with protection of line
should be as minimum as possible in order to prevent
unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers associated with other
healthy parts of power system.
• The main three methods of transmission line protection
are -
– Time graded over current protection.
– Differential protection.
– Distance protection.
 Time Graded Over Current Protection

• This may also be referred simply as over-current

protection of electrical power transmission line.
Let' discuss different schemes of time graded
over current protection.
Protection of Radial Feeder
• In radial feeder, the power flows in one direction
only, which is from source to load. This type of
feeders can easily be protected by using either
definite time relays or inverse time relays.
 Protection of Radial Feeder
Line Protection by Definite Time Relay
• This protection scheme is very simple. Here total line is divided into
different sections and each section is provided with definite time
relay.
• The relay nearest to the end of the line has minimum time setting
while time setting of other relays successively increased, towards
the source.
 Line Protection by Definite Time Relay

Advantages of Definite Time Line Protection

• The main advantage of this scheme is simplicity. The
second major advantage is, during fault, only nearest
CB towards the source from fault point will operate to
isolate the specific position of the line.
Disadvantage of Definite Time Line Protection
• If the number of sections in the line is quite large, the
time setting of relay nearest to the source would be
very long. So during any fault nearer to the source will
take much time to be isolated. This may cause severe
destructive effect on the system.
 Over Current Line Protection by Inverse Relay

• In inverse relay the time of operation is inversely proportional

to fault current.
 Over Current Line Protection by Inverse Relay

• In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is

minimum and successively this time setting is increased for
the relays associated with the points towards the point A.
• In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip CB-3 at
point D.
• In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall
time setting is higher in that relay at point C.
• Although, the time setting of relay nearest to the source is
maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if major fault
occurs near the source, as the time of operation of relay is
inversely proportional to faulty current.
 Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders

• For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed

a load from source by two or more than two feeders in
parallel.
• If fault occurs in any of the feeders, only that faulty feeder
should be isolated from the system in order to maintain
continuity of supply from source to load. This requirement
makes the protection of parallel feeders little bit more
complex than simple non direction over current protection
of line as in the case of radial feeders.
• The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional
relays and to grade the time setting of relay for selective
tripping.
Protection of parallel feeders
 Protection of parallel feeders
• There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load.
Both of the feeders have non-directional over current relay at
source end. These relays should be inverse time relay.
• Also both of the feeders have directional relay or reverse power
relay at their load end. The reverse power relays used here should
be instantaneous type. That means these relays should be
operated as soon as flow of power in the feeder is reversed.
• The normal direction of power flow is from source to load.
• Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the fault current is If.
This fault will get two parallel paths from source, one through
circuit breaker A only and other via CB-B, feeder-2, CB-Q, load bus
and CB-P.
• This is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current of
fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-2 respectively.
 Protection of parallel feeders

• Here, IA + IB = If.
• Now, IA is flowing through CB-A, IB is flowing through CB-P.
• As the direction of flow of CB-P is reversed it will trip
instantly. But CB-Q will not trip as flow of current (power) in
this circuit breaker is not reversed.
• As soon as CB-P is tripped, the fault current IB stops flowing
through feeder.
• IA still continues to flow even CB-P is tripped. Then because
of over current IA, CB-A will trip. In this way the faulty feeder
is isolated from system.
 Differential Pilot Wire Protection
• This is simply a differential protection scheme applied to
feeders. Several differential schemes are applied for protection
of line but Merz Price Voltage balance system and Translay
Scheme are most popularly used.
 Merz Price Balance System
• In this scheme of line protection, identical CT is connected to each
of the both ends of the line. The polarity of the CTs is same. The
secondary of these current transformer and operating coil of two
instantaneous relays are formed a closed loop as shown in the
figure. In the loop pilot wire is used to connect both CT secondary
and both relay coil as shown.
• When the system is under normal condition, there would not be
any current flowing through the loop as the secondary current of
one CT will cancel out secondary current of other CT.
• Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these
two CTs, the secondary current of one CT will no longer equal and
opposite of secondary current of other CT.
• Hence there would be a resultant circulating current in the loop.
Due to this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the
trip circuit of associate circuit breaker. Hence, the faulty line will be
isolated from both ends.
 Translay Scheme

The translay relay is another type of differential relay. The

arrangement is similar to overcurrent relay but the secondary
winding is not closed on itself. Additionally copper ring or
copper shading bands are provided on the central limb as
shown in the Fig.
 Translay Scheme

• These type of relays are used in the feeder protection and the
scheme is called Translay scheme. In this scheme, two such
relays are employed at the two ends of feeder as shown in the
Fig.
 Translay Scheme

• The secondaries of the two relays are connected to each other using pilot
wires. The connection is such that the voltages induced in the two
secondaries oppose each other. The copper coils are used to compensate
the effect of pilot wire capacitance currents and unbalance between two
currents transformers.
• Under normal operating conditions, the current at the two ends of the
feeder is same. The primaries of the two relays carry the same currents
inducing the same voltage in the secondaries. As these two voltages are in
opposition, no current flows through the two secondaries circuits and no
torque is exerted on the discs of both the relays.
• When the fault occurs, the currents at the two ends of the feeder are
different. Hence unequal voltages are induced in the secondaries. Hence
the circulating current flows in the secondary circuit causing torque to be
exerted on the disc of each relay. But as the secondaries are in opposition,
hence torque in one relay operates so as to close the trip circuit while in
other relay the torque just holds the movement in unoperated position.
The care is taken that at least one relay operates under the fault condition.
 Translay Scheme

Role of copper ring:

• The copper rings are so adjusted that the torque
due to current induced in the copper ring due to
primary winding of relay is restraining and do not
allow the disc to rotate.
• The copper rings also neutralise the effect of pilot
capacitive currents.
• The copper rings are adjusted such that no
torque is exerted on the disc, due to such
capacitive pilot currents.
 Current graded protection
• An alternator to time grading or in addition to time grading,
current grading protection can be applied when the
impedance between two substations is sufficient.
• It is based on the fact that the short circuit current along
the length of the protected circuit decreases with the
increase in distance between the supply end and the fault
point.
• If the relays are set to operate at a progressively higher
current towards the supply end then the drawback of long
time delays occurring in graded time lag system can be
partially overcome.
• This is known as current grading. Current graded systems
normally employ high-speed high-set overcurrent relays
Current graded protection
 Current graded protection

Difficulties associated with this protection scheme are

given below
– The difference in the fault currents would be extremely
small so two nearby relays may sense the fault.
– The magnitude of fault currents cannot be accurately
determined
– The accuracy of relays under transient conditions is likely
to be different
– For this reason current grading alone cannot be employed
and this protection system should be supplemented by
time graded inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay
system.
 Directional Power Relay
• The directional power relay operates when power in the circuit
flows in the specific direction.
• The construction and principle of operation is similar to the
induction type watt hour meter relay.
• The difference is that in watt hour meter type relay the torque is
produced due to interaction of the fluxes produced by only the
current derived from secondary of CT;
• In directional power relay the torque is produced due to interaction
of the fluxes produced from both voltage and current of the circuit.
• The relay has two windings; one acts as voltage coil or potential coil
while other as current coil similar to a wattmeter.
• The upper magnet carries a voltage coil or potential coil which is
energized from PT; while the lower magnet carries a current coil
which is energized from CT in the line to be protected.
 Directional Power Relay

• The number of tappings are provided to the current

coil with which desired current setting can be achieved.
• The restraining torque is provided by the spiral spring.
• The spindle of the disc carries the moving contacts
which make contact with tripping circuit terminals
when the disc rotates.
• The voltage coil provided on the upper magnet
produces the flux ɸ1. This lags the voltage V by 90o.
• The current I is sensed by the current coil on the lower
magnet which produces the flux ɸ2. This is in phase
with current I.
• The current I lags voltage V by an angle ɸ. The angle
between ɸ1 and ɸ2 is α as shown in the phasor
diagram.
 Directional Power Relay

The interaction of fluxes

ɸ1 and ɸ2 produces the
torque.
Tα ɸ1ɸ2 sinα
but; ɸ1 α V and
ɸ2 α I
While; α = 90 - ɸ
T α V I sin(90 - ɸ)
V I cosɸ - power
Directional power relay
 Directional Power Relay

• Under normal working conditions, the driving torque

acts in the same direction as that of restraining torque.
This moves the moving contact away from the fixed
tripping circuit contacts. Thus relay remains inoperative
as long as power flow is in particular direction.
• But when there is a current reversal and hence the
power reversal then the driving torque acts in opposite
direction to the restraining torque in such a manner
that the moving contacts close the tripping circuit
contacts. This relay is used for providing the reverse
power protection to synchronous machines. The relay
can be single phase or three phase.
 Induction type directional O/C and earth fault relay

• The directional power relay is not suitable to use as a

protective relay under short circuit conditions. This is
because under short circuit conditions the voltage falls
drastically and such a reduced voltage may not be sufficient
to produce the driving torque required for the relay
operation.
• Hence in practice, directional induction type overcurrent
relay is used. This relay operates almost independent of
system voltage and power factor. The directional induction
type overcurrent relay uses two relay elements mounted
on a common case. These elements are
– Directional element which is directional power relay
– Non directional element which is non directional overcurrent
relay.
• The schematic diagram is shown in figure below.
Induction type directional O/C and earth fault relay
 Induction type directional O/C and earth fault relay
• Directional relay is essentially a directional power relay. The
voltage coil of this element is connected to the circuit voltage
through a PT while its current coil is energized through a CT
by circuit current. This winding is carried over the upper
magnet of the non directional element. The trip contacts of
the directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the overcurrent element. Thus
overcurrent element can not start to operate until its
secondary circuit is completed i.e. the directional element
must operate first in order to operate the overcurrent
element.
• Non directional element is an overcurrent element similar in
all respects to a non directional overcurrent relay. The spindle
of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which
closes the trip circuit contacts after the operation of
directional element. The tappings are provided over the
upper magnet of the overcurrent element and are connected
to the bridge, thereby provide facility for current setting
 Induction type directional O/C and earth fault relay

• Under normal operating conditions, power flow is in the

normal direction in the circuit protected by the relay. Thus the
directional power relay does not operate, thereby keeping the
overcurrent element unenergized.
• But as soon as there is a reversal of current or power the disc
of the reverse power relay starts rotating and completes the
circuit for overcurrent element.
• Due to overcurrent a torque is produced in the disc and the
action closes the trip circuit, thereby enabling the circuit
breaker to operate and isolate the faulty section. The relay
operates only when,
– The direction of current is in reverse direction
– Current in the reverse direction exceeds the preset value
– Excessive current persists for duration longer than its time setting
 Thermal relay

• The coefficient of expansion is one of the basic

properties of any material. Two different metals
always have different degree of linear expansion.
A bimetallic strip always bends when it heated
up, due to this inequality of linear expansion of
two different metals.
• A thermal relay works depending upon the above
mentioned property of metals. The basic working
principle of thermal relay is that, when a
bimetallic strip is heated up by a heating coil
carrying over current of the system, it bends and
closes the “NO” contacts or opens the “NC”
contacts.
 Thermal relay - construction

• The construction of thermal relay is quite simple. As

shown in the figure, the bimetallic strip has two metals
– metal A and metal B. Metal A has lower coefficient of
expansion and metal – B has higher coefficient of
expansion. One heating coil is would on the bimetallic
strip. When over current flows through the heating
coil, it heats up the bimetallic strip.
• Due to the heat generated by the coil, both of the
metals are expanded. But expansion of metal B is more
than expansion of metal A. Due to this dissimilar
expansion the bimetallic strip will bend towards metal
A as shown in the figure.
Thermal relay - construction
 Earth fault detection and protection

• When the fault current flows through earth return

path, the fault is called earth fault. Other faults which
do not involve earth are called phase faults.
• Since earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault
protection is necessary in most cases.
• When separate earth fault protection is not
economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault
currents.
• However such protection lacks sensitivity.
• Hence separate earth fault protection is generally
provided.
• Earth fault protection senses earth fault current.
Residually connected earth fault relay

• In the absence of earth

fault
Īresidual = Īas + Ībs + Īcs = 0
• In presence of earth fault
the condition is disturbed
and (Īas + Ībs + Īcs) is no
more zero.
• Hence residual Iresidual
flows through the earth
fault relay.
• If residual current is above
the pick-up value, the earth
fault relay operates.
 Earth fault relay connected in neutral to earth circuit

• The relay is connected to secondary of a

CT whose primary is connected in
neutral to earth connection.
• The fault current finds the return path
through the earth and then flows
through the neutral to earth connection.
• The magnitude of earth fault current is
dependent of type of earthing
(resistance, reactance or solid) and
location of fault.
• In this type of protection, the zone of
protection cannot be accurately defined.
The protected area is not restricted to
transformer/generator winding alone.
The relay senses the earth faults beyond
the transformer/generator winding.
• Hence such protection is called
unrestricted earth fault protection.
 Combined earth fault and phase fault protection

• It is convenient to incorporate
phase fault relays and earth fault
relay in a combined phase fault
and earth fault protection.
• The increase in current of phase
causes corresponding increase in
respective secondary currents.
• The secondary current flows
through respective relay units.
• Very often only two phase relays
are provided instead of three,
because in case of phase faults,
current in any at least two phases
must increase.
• Hence two relay units are
enough.
 Earth fault protection with core balance current transformer
(Zero sequence ct)

• In this type of protection, a single ring shaped

core of magnetic material, encircles the
conductors of all the three phases.
• A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit.
During no earth fault condition, the component of
fluxes due to the fields of three conductors is
balanced and the secondary current is negligible.
• During earth faults, such a balance is disturbed
and current is induced in the secondary.
• Core balance protection can be conveniently used
for protection of low voltage and medium voltage
system.
• The burden of relay and exciting current are
deciding factors. Very large cross section of core is
necessary for sensitivity less than 1A.
• This form of protection is likely to be more
popular with static relay due to the less burden of
the latter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally
used with core balance schemes.
 Frame leakage protection

• The metal-clad switchgear

can be provided with frame
leakage protection.
• The metal framework or
enclosure of the switchgear
is earthed with a primary of
a CT.
• The concrete foundation of
the switchgear and the cable
boxes and other conduits
are slightly insulated from
earth, the resistance to
earth being about 12 ohms.
• In the event of an earth fault
within the switchgear, the
earth fault current finds the
path through the neutral
connection. While doing so,
it is sensed by the earth
fault relay.
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Transformer

• An external fault in the star side will result

in current flowing in the line current transformer of
the affected phase and at the same time a balancing
current flows in the neutral current transformer,
hence the resultant current in the relay is therefore
zero. So this REF relay will not be actuated for
external earth fault.
• But during internal fault the neutral current
transformer only carries the unbalance fault current
and operation of Restricted Earth Fault Relay takes
place. This scheme of restricted earth fault
protection is very sensitive for internal earth fault
of electrical power transformer. The protection
scheme is comparatively cheaper than differential
protection scheme.
• Restricted earth fault protection is provided in
electrical power transformer for sensing internal
earth fault of the transformer. In this scheme the CT
secondary of each phase of electrical power
transformer are connected together as shown in the
figure. Then common terminals are connected to
the secondary of a Neutral Current Transformer or
NCT.
 Unrestricted earth fault protection

• The unrestricted earth fault protection uses a residually connected earth fault
relay. It consists of three C.T.s, one in each phase. The secondary windings of three
C.T.s are connected in parallel. The earth fault relay is connected across the
secondaries which carries a residual current.
• When there is no fault, under normal conditions, vector sum of the three line
currents is zero. Hence the vector sum of the three secondary currents is also zero.
• So if Irs, Iys and Ibs C.T. secondary currents then under normal conditions we can
write,
Īrs+ Īys + Ībs = 0
• The earth fault relay is connected in such a way that the residual current flows
through the relay operating coil. Under normal condition, residual current is zero
so relay does not carry any current and is inoperative. However in presence of
earth fault condition, the balance gets disturbed and the residual current IRs is no
more zero. If this current is more than the pickup value of the earth fault relay, the
relay operates and opens the circuit breaker through tripping of of the trip circuit.
• In the scheme shown in the Fig. 1, the earth fault at any location near or away
from the location of C.T.s can cause the residual current. Hence the protected zone
is not definite. Such a scheme is hence called unrestricted earth fault protection.
Unrestricted earth fault protection
 Differential protection
Introduction
• Differential protection is a method of protection in which an internal fault
is identified by comparing the electrical conditions at the terminals of the
electrical equipment to be protected. It is based on the fact that any
internal fault in an electrical equipment would cause the current entering
it, to be different from the leaving it.
• Differential protection is one of the most sensitive and effective methods
of protection of electrical equipment against internal faults. This principle
of protection is capable of detecting very small magnitudes of the
differential currents.
• Used in protection of generators, transformers, motors of large size, bus
zones, reactors, capacitors, etc.
• The differential protection is called unit protection because it is confined
to protection of a particular unit (equipment) of a power plant or
substation.
• “A differential relay is defined as the relay that operates when the phasor
difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a
predetermined value.”
 Differential protection

Application of differential protection

• Most differential relays are current differential relays in which vector
difference between the current entering the winding and current
leaving the winding is used for sensing and relay operation.
Differential protection principle is used in the following applications.
- Protection of generator, protection of generator transformer unit.
- Protection of transformer
- Protection of feeder (TL) by pilot wire differential protection
- Protection of TL by phase comparison carrier current protection.
- Protection of large motor.
- Bus-zone protection.
 Differential protection

Types of Differential Relays

• A differential relay is a suitably connected
overcurrent relay which operates the phasor
difference of currents at the two ends of a
protected element when exceeds a predetermined
value. Most of the differential relays are of current
differential type.
• The following are the various types of differential
relays.
i) Current differential relay
• ii) Biased beam relay or percentage differential relay
• iii) Voltage balance differential relay
 Current differential relay

Two CT’s are used having same ratio are connected on the either side of the
section to be protected. The secondaries of CT are connected in series, so they
carry induced currents in the same direction. Let current I is flowing through the
primary of CT towards the external fault. As the CT are identical, the secondary’s of
CT will carry equal currents. Due to the connection of relay, no current will flow
through the operating coil for the relay. Hence Relay will remain inoperative. So
relay cannot operate if there is an external fault.
 Current differential relay
• Consider now that an internal fault occurs in between CT1 and CT2
• The current flows through the fault from both sides. The two secondary currents
through CTs are not equal. The current flowing through the relay coil is now I1 + I2.
This high current causes the relay to operate.
• It should be noted that the fault current need not always flow to the fault from
both sides. A flow on one side only or even some current flowing out of one side
while a large current entering the other side can cause differential relay to
operate. Thus the amount of current flowing through a relay coil depends upon
the way the fault is being fed.
 Biased or percentage differential relay
• The percentage differential relay is defined as the
relay that operates on the phase difference of
two or more similar electrical quantities.
• It is the advanced form of differential protection
relay. The only difference between them is the
restraining coil.
• The percentage differential relay consists
restraining coil for overcoming the trouble arising
out of differences in the current ratio for the high
value of an external short circuit current.
 Biased or percentage differential relay
• The percentage differential system consists of a restraining coil
connected in the pilot wire as shown in the figure below and the
current induced in both the CTs flows through it. The operating coil
places between the midpoint of the restraining coil.
• The restraining coil controls the sensitive characteristic of the relay. It
restricts the unwanted tripping of the transformer due to the
imbalance current. The restraining coil also restrains the harmonics in
the inrush current.
 Working of Percentage Differential Relay
• The torque due to the restraining coil prevents the closing of the trip
circuit while the torque due to the operating coil tends to close the trip
circuit contacts. Under normal operating conditions and through load
condition the torque developed by the restraining coil is greater than
the operating coil torque. Thus the relay remains inoperative.
• When an internal fault occurs, the operating torque exceeds the
restraining torque then the trip circuit contacts are closed to open
the circuit breaker. The restraining torque may adjust by varying the
number of turns of the restraining coil.
• The differential current required to utilise this relay is a variable
quantity, due to the effect of the restraining coil.
• The differential current in the operating coil is proportional to (I1-I2),
and the restraining coil is proportional to (I1-I2)/2 as the operating
current is connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. For
external faults both I1 and I2 increase and thereby the restraining
torque increase, which prevents the maloperation.
 Balanced voltage differential protection
• The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the
feeders. For the protections of the feeders, the voltage balance
differential relays are used. In this arrangement, the two similar
current transformers are connected at either end of the system
element under protection using pilot wires.
• The relays are connected in series with the pilot wires, one at each
end. The relative polarity of the current transformers is such that
there is no current through the relay under normal operating
conditions and under fault conditions. The CTs used in such
protections should be such that they should induce voltages in the
secondary linearly with respect to the current. Since the magnitude
of the fault current is very large, so that the voltage should be a
linear function of such large currents, the CTs should be aired cored.
• When the fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the
two primaries will differ from one another, and so voltage induced
in the secondaries of the CTs will differ and circulating current will
flow through the operating coils of the relays. Thus the trip circuit
will be closed, and the circuit breaker will be open.
Balanced voltage differential protection
 Setting of differential relay
• The circulating current differential relay has two principle settings namely,
- Setting of operating coil circuit.
- Setting of restraining coil circuit
• Setting of operating coil circuit (Basic setting). The percentage setting of
(Basic setting) of operating coil circuit is defined as the ratio:

• Setting of restraining coil circuit (pick up value). It is defined as the ratio:

 Differential protection of transformer
• Generally Differential protection is provided in the electrical power
transformers. The Differential Protection of Transformer has many
advantages over other schemes of protection.
• The faults occur in the transformer inside the insulating oil can be
detected by Buchholz relay. But if any fault occurs in the
transformer but not in oil then it cannot be detected by Buchholz
relay.
• Any flash over at the bushings are not adequately covered by
Buchholz relay. Differential relays can detect such type of faults.
Moreover Buchholz relay is provided in transformer for detecting
any internal fault in the transformer but Differential Protection
scheme detects the same in faster way.
• The differential relays normally response to those faults which
occur inside the differential protection zone of transformer.
• The differential relay actually compares between primary current
and secondary current of power transformer, if any unbalance
found in between primary and secondary currents the relay will
actuate and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit
breaker of the transformer.
 Differential protection of transformer
• Suppose one transformer has primary rated current Ip and
secondary current Is. If we install CT of ratio Ip/1A at primary side
and similarly, CT of ratio Is/1A at secondary side of the transformer.
The secondaries of these both CTs are connected together in such a
manner that secondary currents of both CTs will oppose each other.
• In other words, the secondaries of both CTs should be connected to
same current coil of differential relay in such a opposite manner
that there will be no resultant current in that coil in normal working
condition of the transformer.
• But if any major fault occurs inside the transformer due to which
the normal ratio of the transformer disturbed then the secondary
current of both transformer will not remain the same and one
resultant current will flow through the current coil of the
differential relay, which will actuate the relay and inter trip both the
primary and secondary circuit breakers.
• To correct phase shift of current because of star - delta connection
of transformer winding in case of three phase transformer, the
current transformer secondaries should be connected in delta and
star.
Differential protection of transformer
 Generator Protection

Merz-Price Protection of Alternator Stator Windings

• This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator
windings. The scheme is also called biased differential protection and
percentage differential protection. In this method, the currents at the
two ends of the protected section are sensed using current transformers.
• The wires connecting relay coils to the current transformer secondaries
are called pilot wires. Under normal conditions, when there is no fault
in the windings, the currents in the pilot wires fed from C.T.
secondaries are equal. The differential current i1 - i2 through the
operating coils of the relay is zero. Hence the relay is inoperative and
system is said to be balanced.
• When fault occurs inside the protected section of the stator windings,
the differential current i1 - i2 flows through the operating coils of the
relay. Due to this current, the relay operates.
• This trips the generators circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
Generator Protection
 Generator Protection

• The Fig. shows a schematic arrangement of Merz-Price

protection scheme for a star connected alternator.
• The differential relay gives protection against short circuit
fault in the stator winding of a generator. The C.T.s are
connected in star and are provided on both, the outgoing side
and machine winding connections to earth side.
• The restraining coils are energized from the secondary
connection of C.T.s in each phase, through pilot wires.
• The operating coils are energized by the tappings from
restraining coils and the C.T. neutral earthing connection.
 Distance protection
There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the
distance of fault in the line. More specifically, the relay operates
depending upon the impedance between the point of fault and the
point where relay is installed. These relays are known as distance
relay or impedance relay.
Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay
• There is one voltage element from potential transformer and a
current element fed from current transformer of the system.
• The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and
restoring torque is produced by voltage of potential transformer.
• In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than
deflecting torque. Hence relay will not operate.
• But in faulty condition, the current becomes quite large whereas
voltage becomes less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes
more than restoring torque and dynamic parts of the relay starts
moving which ultimately close the “NO” contact of relay.
 Distance protection

• Operation or working principle of distance relay depends

upon the ratio of system voltage and current. As the ratio of
voltage to current is impedance so a distance relay is also
known as impedance relay.
• The operation of such relay depends upon the
predetermined value of voltage to current ratio. The relay
will only operate when this voltage to current ratio
becomes less than its predetermined value.
• Hence, it can be said that the relay will only operate when
the impedance of the line becomes less than
predetermined impedance (voltage / current).
• As the impedance of a transmission line is directly
proportional to its length, it can easily be concluded that a
distance relay can only operate if fault is occurred within a
predetermined distance or length of line.
 Classification of Distance Relays

• Distance relays used for the protection of power circuits may be

divided into two groups:
(i) Definite distance relays and
(ii) Time-distance relays.
• Definite distance relays operate instantaneously when the
impedance (reactance or admittance) falls below a specified value.
These relays may be of impedance, reactance or mho type.
• Time-distance relays have the time of operation dependent upon
the value of impedance (reactance or admittance) i.e., upon the
distance of the fault from the relay point. A fault nearer to the relay
will operate it earlier than a fault farther away from the relay. These
relays may be of impedance, reactance or mho type.
 Impedance Type Distance Relay
• Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the
protection of the line AB. The Z is the impedance of the line in normal
operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall below the
impedance Z then the relay starts working.
• Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the
impedance of the line below the relay setting impedance. The relay
starts operating, and it sends the tripping command to the circuit
breaker.
 Electromagnetic Type Impedance Relay
• The solenoid B is excited by the voltage supplied
of the PT. This voltage develops the torque and it
pulls the plunger P2 in the downward direction.
The spring connects to the plunger P2 apply the
restraining force on it.
• The solenoid A generates the other torque and
moves the plunger P1 downwards. The solenoid
one is excited by the CT of the lines. This torque
is called the deflecting or pick up torque.
• When the system is free from fault, the contacts
of the relay become open. When the fault occurs
in the protective zone, the current of the system
rises because of which the current across the
relay also increases. The more torque developed
on the solenoid A.
• The restraining torque decreases because of the
voltage decreases. The balance arms of the relay
start rotating in the opposite direction, thus
closed their contacts.
 Induction Type Impedance Relay

• The upper electromagnet has two

separate windings. The primary
winding is connected to the
secondary coil of the current
transformer. The current setting of
the winding is varied by the help of
the plug bridge placed below the
relay.
• The flux induce between the
electromagnets produces the
rotational torque, which rotates the
aluminium disc of the relay
• In normal operating conditions the
force exerted on the armature is
more than the induction element
which keeps the trip contacts open.
When the fault occurs in the system,
then the aluminium disc starts
rotating, and their rotation is directly
proportional to the current of the
electromagnet. The rotation of the
disc-wound the spring.
 Impedance Type Distance Relay
• The voltage and the current operating elements are the two
important component of the impedance relay. The current
operating element generates the deflecting torque while the
voltage storage element generates the restoring torque. The torque
equation of the relay is shown in the figure below

• The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of
the voltage and current. When the relay is in normal operating
condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

• If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation

becomes
Operating characteristic of impedance relay
 Reactance Relay

• The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay

consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a
current-voltage directional element. The current
element develops positive torque and a current-
voltage developed directional element opposes the
current element depending on the phase angle
between current and voltage.
• Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional
limitation. The directional element is arranged to
develop maximum negative torque when its current lag
behind its voltage by 90°.
 Reactance Relay

• It has a four-pole structure carrying

operating, polarizing, and restraining coils.
• The operating torque is developed by the
interaction of fluxes due to current
carrying coils, i.e., the interaction of fluxes
of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining torque is
produced by the interaction of fluxes due
to poles 1, 2 and 4.
• The operating torque will be proportional
to the square of the current while the
restraining torque will be proportional to
VI cos (Θ – 90°).
• The desired maximum torque angle is
obtained with the help of resistance-
capacitance circuits.
• Reactance type relay is very suitable as a
ground relay for ground fault.
 Reactance Relay
• The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while
the restraining torque will be proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°). The desired
maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of resistance-capacitance
circuits. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the torque equation becomes
T = K1I2 – K2 VI cos(θ – 900) – K3
• where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net
torque is zero, and hence

• The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

 Operating characteristic of a reactance relay

• The operating characteristic of a

reactance relay is shown in the
figure. X is the reactance of the
protected line between the relay
location and the fault point, and
R is the resistance component of
the impedance.
• The characteristic shows that the
resistance component of the
impedance has no consequence
on the working of the relay, the
relay reacts solely to the
reactance component.
• The point below the operating
characteristic is called the
positive torque region.
 Mho Relay

• A mho Relay is a high-speed relay

and is also known as the
admittance relay.
• In this relay operating torque is
obtained by the volt-amperes
element and the controlling
element is developed due to the
voltage element.
• It means a mho relay is a voltage
controlled directional relay.
• The operating torque is
developed by the interaction of
fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and
the controlling torque is
developed due to poles 1, 2 and
4.
 Mho Relay

• At balance point, the net torque is zero, and

hence the equation becomes

• If the spring controlled effect is neglected i.e.,

k3 = 0.
 Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay

• The diameter of the circle is

practically independent of V
and I, except at a very low
magnitude of the voltage
and current when the
spring effect is considered,
which causes the diameter
to decrease. The diameter
of the circle is expressed by
the equation as
ZR = K1 / K2
= ohmic setting of the relay
 Mho Relay

• The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay

within the circle. The operating characteristic showed that
circle passes through the origin, which makes the relay
naturally directional.
• The impedance angle of the protected line is normally 60º
and 70º which is shown by line OC in the figure. The arc
resistance R is represented by the length AB, which is
horizontal to OC from the extremity of the chord Z. By
making the τ equal to, or little less lagging than Θ, the circle
is made to fit around the faulty area so that the relay is
insensitive to power swings and therefore particularly
applicable to the protection of long or heavily loaded lines.
• For a given relay the τ is constant
 Mho Relay
The operating torque for a Mho relay is by V-I element and restraining
torque is by voltage element.
•

Therefore, a Mho relay can be called as a voltage restrained directional

relay.
T = K1 VI Cos (Φ – τ) –K2V2, neglecting the effect of the spring.
K2V2 < K1VI Cos (Φ – τ)
K2V < K1I Cos (Φ – τ)
(V/I Cos (Φ – τ)) < K1/K2
or (V/I) < (K1/K2) Cos (Φ – τ)
or Z < (K1/K2)Cos (Φ – τ)
At balance conditions, the operating torque is equal to restraining torque.
i.e., K1VICos (Φ – τ) = K2V2
(I/V)Cos (Φ – τ) = (K2K1) = K
(1/Z) = (K / Cos (Φ – τ)) = Y
Y = K / Cos (Φ – τ) = admittance in mho.
 Application of Distance Protection
• Distance protection schemes are widely employed for the protection of
high voltage ac transmission lines and distribution lines. They have
replaced the overcurrent protection of the transmission lines.
• The reasons are faster protection, simpler coordination; simpler
application, permanent setting without need for re-adjustments; fault
current magnitude.
• Distance protection schemes are commonly employed for providing the
primary or main protection and backup protection for ac transmission and
distribution lines against 3-phase faults, phase-to-phase faults and phase-
to-ground faults.
• In some schemes for short lines, the phase-to-ground fault protection
sensing may be by distance relay and measurement by overcurrent relays
because distance protection for shorter lines are susceptible to errors due
to arc fault resistance.
• In general, the choice of type of distance protection depends on length of
line, tripping time required and coordination requirements.
• Today trend is toward the use of static distance protection for all types of
line faults, main and back-up for short, medium and long transmission
lines.
 Choice between Impedance Type, Reactance Type
and Mho Type Relays
• The choice between impedance types, reactance type and mho
type relays should be properly done with reference to their
application to transmission line protection.
• The ground resistance is variable. The relays must be unaffected by
variation in fault resistance.
• Reactance type relays are preferred for ground fault relaying. For
short line sections, reactance type relays are preferred as they are
not affected by the arc resistance and more percentage of the line
can be protected at high speed.
• Mho type relays are best suited for phase fault relaying for long
lines and particularly where a severe synchronizing power surge
may occur. They are most sensitive of all the distance relays.
• The mho relay is reliable because it combines both the directional
and distance measuring functions in one unit.
• The impedance type relay is suitable for phase fault relaying for
lines of moderate length. The arc affects the impedance relay more
than the reactance relay but less than the mho relay.
 Distance protection

Advantages of Distance Relays

1. Gives faster operation
2. Simpler to coordinate
3. Less effect of fault levels and fault current magnitudes
4. With the need at adjustments, permanent settings can be done.

Applications
• Distance relays are used for providing the primary i.e. main
protection and backup protection for a.c. transmission and
distribution lines against the following faults,
– 1. Three phase faults
– 2. Phase to phase faults
– 3. Phase to earth fault.
 Circulating Current Protection of Bus bar

• This is nothing but the

differential scheme of the
protection of bus bar. The
circulating current principle
states that under normal
working conditions or
external fault conditions,
sum of the currents
entering the bus equals
sum of the currents leaving
the bus. Under any
abnormal conditions in the
protected zone i.e. short
circuit or phase to phase
faults, the current condition
gets disturbed and sensing
this, the relay can be
operated.
 High impedance differential protection of bus bar

• The basic principle remains same as

differential scheme. Under normal
conditions vector sum of the currents
in the lines is zero. Hence, If i.e.
current flowing through ZH is zero
and the relay is inoperative. During
fault conditions, unbalanced current
exists. Such an out of balance current
If flows through ZH causing a high
voltage drop across it. It is given to a
transformer a measuring unit is
connected to the secondary of this
transformer which measures this
drop and trips the relay accordingly.
Main advantage is that as voltage
drop is sensed, saturation of core of
one of the current transformers has
no effect on the protection scheme.
 Carrier current protection

• Installation of interconnecting cables for circulating

current differential protection is not possible for long
transmission lines. It is however, possible to make use
of the main line conductors as the interconnecting
conductors of a circulating current differential
protection. The need for special interconnecting
conductors (cables) then disappears and it hence
becomes possible to set up a circulating current
differential protection on transmission lines of any
length. This is the basis of what are called carrier
current protection.
• The scheme diagram of carrier current protection is
given in figure below
Carrier current protection
 Carrier current protection

• Each end of the line is provided with identical carrier current equipment
consisting of transmitter, receiver, line-tuning unit, master oscillator,
power amplifier, etc.
• In this system it is necessary to use a current of higher frequency in order
to be able to transmit current impulses from one end of the line to the
other. High frequency signals in the range of 50 kHz to 400 kHz commonly
known as the carrier, are transmitted over the conductors of the protected
line. To inject the carrier signal and to restrict it within protected section
of the line suitable coupling apparatus and line traps are used at both
ends of the protected section. Generally used in the lines above 110 kV.
The main elements of the carrier channel are;
a. transmitter b. receiver c. coupling equipment
d. line trap
• When a voltage of positive polarity is impressed on the control circuit of
transmitter, it generates a high frequency output voltage. This output
voltage is impressed between one phase conductor of the line and the
earth as shown in figure.
 Carrier current protection

• Each carrier current receiver receives carrier current from

its local transmitter as well as from the transmitter at the
distant end of the line. The receiver converts the received
carrier current into a D.C. voltage that can be used in a
relay or other circuit to perform any desired function. The
voltage is zero when carrier current is not being received.
• Line trap unit is inserted between the bus-bar and
connection of coupling capacitor to the line. It is a parallel
L-C network tuned to resonance at the high frequency. It
hence presents high impedance to the high frequency
carrier current, but relatively low impedance (less than 0.1
ohm) to the power frequency (50 Hz) current. Carrier
current can flow only along the line section between the
traps.
 Carrier current protection

• The coupling capacitor connects the high frequency

(carrier) equipment to one of the line conductors and
simultaneously serves to isolate the carrier equipment from
the high power line voltage. It presents relatively low
reactance to the high frequency currents (150 ohm at 500
kHz) and high reactance to the power frequency (about 1.5
Mohm at 50 Hz).
• It is thus evident that the commercial frequency current
will be able to flow only through the line conductors, while
the high frequency carrier current will circulate, when the
receiver-transmitter operate, over the line conductor fitted
with the high frequency traps., through the coupling
capacitor and through ground (the return conductor).