UNIT- II RESEARCH APTITUDE

Meaning Of Research
Research is composed of two words ‘re’ and ‘search’ which means to search again or
to search for new facts or modify older ones in any branch of knowledge
Research is a process of systematic inquiry that needs collection of data,
Documentation of critical information, analysis and interpretation of data. It is in
accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific Professional fields and
academic disciplines
The meaning of research is totally confined inside the word RESEARCH. If we analyze
letter by letter, we will get
R : Rational way of thinking
E : Expert and exhaustive
S : Search for solution
E : Exactness
A : Analytical analyses of adequate data
R : Relationships of facts
C : Careful recording, critical observation and constructive attitude
H : Honesty

Definitions of Research
Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern
or a problem using scientific methods. It gives multiple solutions for a single problem
and there are many possible ways to do research for a single problem.

Definitions given by some scholars are follows:-

According to P.M Cook “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for
facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.”
J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavor to discover, develop and verify
knowledge.”
Clifford Woody, defines “Research is a careful enquiry or examination in seeking facts
or principles a diligent investigation to ascertain something”
Redman and Moray define research as a “Systematics effort to gain new knowledge.”

According to Webster, “Research is a studious inquiry or examination, critical and

exhaustive investigation or experimentation, having its aim for discovery of new facts
and their correct interpretation.

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According to J W Best, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic,

intensive process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis.
It involves a more systematic structure of investigation. Usually resulting in some sort
of formal record of procedures and report of results or conclusions.”

According to John Creswell, “Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyse
information to increase our understanding of topic on an issue.”
According to Morley, “Research is a process of arriving at dependable solutions to
problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and Interpretation
of data.”

Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of things, concepts
or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art “

Objectives of Research
Objectives are the goals, researcher set attain in their study. They inform the render
what the researcher wants to accomplish through the research work.
The objectives of research can be catagorised as:-
• Practical Objectives: these objectives are catagorised as developmental research
and in order to achieve them functional research is undertaken. Research objectives
are the results sought by the researcher, to achieve at the end of the research study.
Through, each research has its own specific purpose, research objectives that vary
with its achievement.
• Application Objectives: Such objectives suggest the use of already existing theories
to new situations.
• Theoretical Objectives: It lends to formulation of new theories and basic knowledge
by exploring the association between different variables.
• Factual objectives: Studies at such objectives which aim at finding new facts.
• Variable objectives: In fact they are of philosophical in nature in which the final
result is obtained on the basis of philosophy.
Qualities of a Good Researcher
To be a good researcher, one must have the following qualities.
1. Research-oriented 4. Effective 7. Creative

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2. Efficient 5. Active 8. Honest
3. Scientific 6. Resourceful 9. Economical

Research characteristics
There are certain common desirable characteristics in the research process. However,
there is a word of caution, that there is an overlapping in the meaning and scope of
these characteristics. They ensure that research is free of biases, prejudices and
subjective errors.
1.Accuracy: It is closely related to validity, it is also the degree o which research
processes, instruments and tools are related to each other, Accuracy also measures
whether the research tools have been selected in the best possible manner and
research procedures suit the research problem or not.
Rigorous scientific methods and procedures have been adopted in research and each
step In the research is tested for accuracy. Thus, choosing the best data collection tool
improves the accuracy of research.

2.Objectivity: It means research is without any bias. All other characteristics are built
around it. Researchers usually take utmost precautions that results are not affected
by their own presence, behavior and attitude. They critically examine the research
methods to avoid any bias.
The following means can be adopted to ensure objectivity during research process:
(a) Procedural safeguards: The processes involved in procedural safeguards is as
follows.
i. Keeping complete records of observations and data analyses in a form that other
researchers can understand and evaluate
ii. Most scientific reports are written in a similar form and published by organizations of
scientists. These reports communicate ideas to the entire scientific community and
open those ideas to criticism.

(b) Standardization: It means using uniform, consistent procedures in all phases of data
collection.

(c) Operationalization of concepts: It is basically standardizing the meaning of

concept. An operational definition of a concept defines that concept in terms of how
it is measured or what operations produce it.

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(d) Avoiding bias: Bias from external influences, personal beliefs, observers’
perspectives and human expectations can distort all data. As we know that research
follows scientific approach with the sole purpose of finding out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet, But finding the truth may be
affected by certain kinds of biases. So, the most formidable challenge in research is to
remain objective and tree from biases. There can be a variety of biases to distort
people’s impressions of collected data.
Let’s discuss some important biases:
(i) External influences: One’s culture or opinion created by media (say social media)
can influence people to accept a particular world view.
(ii) Observer bias: Some events are taken as meaningful by some and not taken as
meaningful by others. Researchers themselves were raised in certain cultures and
societies. They also have role expectations. These Background factors can all affect the
way that researchers observe and interpret events in their lives.
(iii) Personal bias: This may happen due to personal beliefs, attributes or past
experiences.
(iv) Placebo biases: It operates when people strongly want to believe a treatment is
successful. For example, many people may claim to feel better after taking a placebo,
such as a sugar pill.
(v) Expectancy bias: Researchers sometimes expect to find specific outcomes, they
may see (or note) what they expect to see rather than remain objective.
Here it is important to mention that there can be overlapping of biases.

3.Validity: Here, validity in research mainly stands for accuracy of procedures,

research instruments, tests, etc.
The concept of validity can also understood by posing a question, ‘are we measuring
or able to measure what we originally intended to measurer’.
Validity means that research must be unbiased and free from any systematic error as
these may impact the applicability of research. Without validity, research goes in the
wrong direction.
Generally, validity is termed to be much more important than reliability. to keep the
research on the right track, it is must that the concepts are defined in the best possible
manner so that no error occurs during measurement. Different types of validity are
given below.

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a) Internal validity: With higher internal validity, a researcher is able to establish
better causal relationship between two or more variables. This is specifically true in
case of laboratory experiments where cause-and-effect relationship is supposed to be
more clearly established.
b) External validity: It means that external factors that can affect the study must be
controlled. For example, the response of a respondent in social sciences surveys may
be affected by the mere presence of a non-participant observer. lt also refers to the
extent to which the research outcome can be generalized and applied to other cases
that are rot under study.
Sometimes, internal validity is also termed as credibility and external validity is termed
as generalizability or transferability. Both Credibility and generalizability have been
discussed as separate features also and the ensuing discussion.
c) Content validity: The indicator measures a aspects of the construct (or concept as
discussed earlier) and not just a part of it.
d) Face validity: By valid, we mean that survey and questionnaire they are supposed
to measure. For example, all participants have filled a questionnaire meant for
measuring Certain Personality traits agree that this exercise appears to measure those
traits and not something very different.
e) Construct validity: The indicator measures the construct in a manner that is
convergent with other measures in terms of direction.
f) Criterion validity: The indicator corresponds with and is predictive of
measurements using related indicators.
For example: The level of education and income level converge. The indicator also
allows discrimination of opposing constructs.

4.Reliability: Reliability in the context of research is consistency. It refers to the

extent to which an investigation produces consistent results. It can also be termed as
verifiability. if any research yields similar results each time, then it is undertaken with
similar procedures the given context and with similar procedures, it is said to be a
reliable research.
Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of watching television on the class
performances of the children and if the results conclude that watching TV causes low
grades in class and it another sample taken from the population shows the same
results with the same research procedure, then we can say that the research
procedure and the out comes are reliable. The more the similarity in the results, the

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more is the reliability of research. The coefficient of determination is also termed as
reliability coefficient.

5.Generalizability: It is closely related to validity. It refers to the degree to which

research findings can be applied to a larger population. The sample considered is the
representative of the whole population so the findings should also be applicable to
the whole population.

6.Credibility: It is the use of best source of information and the best procedures in
the research. The use of secondary data saves time and reduce cost. However, the
excessive reliance on secondary data when the option of primary data is available
entails the risk of reducing the credibility of the research. Hence, it has to be a trade-
off between Primary data and secondary data. The accurate references in research
enhances the credibility of research but fake references also decreases the credibility
of research.

7.Systematic: For a research to be effective, it has to be systematic lt is the only

approach to undertake any research work and each step must follow the other. There
are a set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus,
suitable to use in research. Therefore, each research should follow a definite
procedure.

8.Empirical research: It is based on real-life experiences, direct experiences or

observation by the researcher. It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to the results to the research.
9.Controlled factors: In real-life experience, there is always more than one factor
that affects an outcome of an event. Similarly, in research, various factors may affect
the outcome and some are taken as controlled factors, whereas the others are tested
for possible outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in
relation with two variables [factors), we set up a study in a way that minimizes the
effects of other factors affecting the relationship. The controlled factors or variables
have to be controlled rigorously. In physical sciences, it is easier to control such factors
as the experiments are conducted in laboratories, In social sciences, it is extremely

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difficult as research is carried out on the issues related to human beings living in
society, Where exerting such controls are not possible, Moreover, within social
sciences, the level of control may vary significantly from one discipline to another.

10.Logical: The statement, a good research is logical, implies that research is guided
by the rules of logical reasoning. Induction and deduction are of great value in
research, which have been discussed under types of research.

11.Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends
with a problem.

12. Replicable: This characteristic allows the results of the research to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Purpose of Research
There are three purposes of research:
1) Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current i5sues
through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the
behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required
to conduct the study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing,
explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-
level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge
sum of money from the company profit.

2) Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a

group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the
perceived problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive
research and data collection.

3) Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand

the impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting
experiments is the most popular form of casual research. For example, a study
conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

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RESEARCH APPROACHES
Paradigm
A paradigm is a model of the functions and interpretations of a process a way of
thinking about something and how to study it.
The emphasis on the concept of a paradigm in research philosophy in the recent
decades is usually attributed to the work of Thomas S. Kuhn in the 1960’s. He
discussed paradigms in the context of “the progress of scientific discoveries in
practice” and went on to define Paradigms as “universally recognized scientific
achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community
of practitioners”.
Bryman provides a useful definition of a paradigm. According to him, “it is a cluster of
beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should
be studied, how research should be done and how results should be interpreted”
Hence, it is primarily a set of basic beliefs that defines the nature of the world and the
place that individual holds in the world and it also guides individual’s action.
The paradigms are grouped as positivist and interpretive paradigms. The pitfalls in the
positivist approach led to the emergence off Interpretivism, subjectivism, etc.
There can be many approaches to carry out the research. Some of them have been
mentioned below for the sake of comparison.
• Positivist/post-positivist paradigm: To discover laws that are generalizable and
govern the universe.
• Constructivist/interpretative paradigm: To understand and describe human
nature.
• Transformative/emancipatory paradigm: To destroy myths and empower
people to change society radically.
• Postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm: To challenge defective thinking
and pathological descriptions of the former colonized and reconstruct a body of
knowledge that carries hope and promotes trans formation and social change among
the historically oppressed.
There are two important approaches famous among sociological researchers i.e.
Positivism and Post-Positivism.

These approaches are discussed below:

1) Positivism
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This approach was first formulated by the French thinker Auguste Comte. Thus, he is
considered the ‘Father of Positivism’.
He first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in
positive Philosophy’ (1842) and System of positive Polity’ (1851). The positivism is
based on scientific basis.
According to Comte, the whole universe is organized and operated by Unchangeable
natural Laws. Thus, it can be understood through scientific methods rather than
theological or hypostatical manner.
Hence, positivism is to understand and acquiring knowledge about everything with the
help of scientific methods which are based on analysis, synthesis, application and
classification. It only discusses about those events which can be seen or felt directly
and can be analyzed.

According to Comte steps of Positivism approach

To select a topic to study

To collect the observable evidences related to the topic through evaluation

After analysis classify the collected evidences on the basis of general classification

To give conclusion

Positivists believe in five principles which include

• Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be regarded as
knowledge),
• Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested to
make laws),
• Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and knowledge),
• Objectivism (science should be value-free) and
• Scientific statements

Drawbacks of Positivism
Positivism as an epistemology is associated with the following set of disadvantages

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1. Positivism relies on experience as a valid source of knowledge.
2. All types of processes can be perceived as a certain variation of actions of individuals
or relationships between individuals.
3. Adoption of positivism in business studies and their studies can be criticized for
reliance on status quo.
4. Sometimes positivism is a rejection of metaphysics. It is a position that holds that the
goal of knowledge which is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience.

2) Post - positivism
Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed as a result of
the criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists also believe in the existence
of a single reality, however, they acknowledge that reality can never be fully known
and efforts to understand reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and
intellectual limitations.
The aim of post positivist research also a prediction and explanation. Like positivists,
post positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that the findings fit with
the existing knowledge base. However, unlike positivists, they acknowledge and spell
out any predispositions that may affect the objectivity
Positivism and post positivism was precluded from use in this study for several
reasons. Firstly, research conducted under both of these paradigms is usually
quantitative where a hypothesis is tested while the researcher remains objective and
separate from the area of investigation.
Positivism gives emphasis on three developments such as
i. Use of quantitative and qualitative Strategies
ii. Desire of strategy based on question research.
iii. Its pattern is based on quantitative v/s qualitative technique.
Hence, it promotes the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods that
explores the diversity, of researchable facts.

Epistemology
Postpositivists believe that human knowledge is based not on a priori assessments
from an objective individual but rather upon human conjectures. As human
knowledge is thus unavoidably conjectural, the assertion of these conjectures are
warranted, or more specifically justified by a set of warrants, which can be modified

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or withdrawn in the light of further investigation. However, postpositivism is not a
form of relativism, and generally retains the idea of objective truth.

Ontology
Postpositivists believe that a reality exists, but, unlike positivists, they believe reality
can be known only imperfectly and probabilistically. Postpositivists also draw from
social constructionism in forming their understanding and definition of reality.

Axiology
While positivists believe that research is or can be value-free or value-neutral,
postpositivists take the position that bias is undesired but inevitable, and therefore
the investigator must work to detect and try to correct it. Postpositivists work to
understand how their axiology (le. Values and beliefs) may have influenced their
research, including through their choice of measures, populations, questions, and
definitions, as well as through their interpretation and analysis of their work.
Let’s look at the other aspects which is important from the examination point of view
as well with the help of diagram

Epistemology:
Theoretical
Framework
Literature and
Research Methodology Research practice

Ontology:
Axiology:
Assumptions
Value system
About the
and ethical
nature of realty
principles
and knowledge

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METHODS OF RESEARCH
Research method may be understood as all those methods or techniques that are used
for conducting a research in other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his/her research problem are termed as
research methods.
Since, the objective of research is to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the
available data and unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other
to make a solution possible.
However, keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following
categories.

1.Experimental research
Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets
of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which we use to measure the differences
of the second set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental.
If we don’t have enough data to support our decisions, we must first determine the
facts. Experimental research gathers the data necessary to help us make better
decisions.
Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental
methods. The success of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the
change of a variable is based solely on the manipulation of the constant variable. The
research should establish a notable cause and effect.
We can conduct experimental research in the following situations:
• Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.
• Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
• We wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.

Types of experimental research design

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The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in
experimental studies.”
There are three primary types of experimental design:
• Pre-experimental research design
• True experimental research design
• Quasi-experimental research design

The way we classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the
type of design.
1.True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on
statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form
of research. Of the types of experimental design, only true design can establish a
cause-effect relationship within a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to
be satisfied:
• There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an experimental
Group, which will experience the changed variables.
• A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
• Random distribution
This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.

2.Pre-experimental research design:

A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after implementing factors of
cause and effect. We’ll conduct this research to understand whether further
investigation is necessary for these particular groups.
We can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:
• One-shot Case Study Research Design
• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
• Static-group Comparison

3.Quasi-experimental research design:

The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to
experimental, but it is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment
of a control group. In this research, an independent variable is manipulated, but the

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participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field
settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required. The nature of
relationships between two variables in causal experimental researches may be divided
into three categories: symmetrical, reciprocal and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical relationship can be observed when two variables fluctuate at the same
time. However, in symmetrical relationship change in one variable is not caused by
change in another variable. In other words, symmetrical relationships of two individual
variables usually would be the cause of another factor.
For example, decrease in the levels of consumption of luxury products and decrease
on the levels of consumer trust on financial institutions may occur at the result of a
third factor increasing level of uncertainty of same time as perspectives of national
economy.
Reciprocal relationship between two variables occurs when there is a mutual
influence and reinforcement between two variables For example, impacted by a
marketing message a consumer purchases a car from a particular brand for the first
time. Consequently, the consumer becomes loyal to the brand considering more
purchases from the same brand in the future. Hence, the mutual influence between
the consumer and company
Asymmetrical relationship relates to change in one variable (independent Variable)
causing changes in another variable (dependent variable), There are four major forms
of asymmetric relationships:
(1) Disposition-behavior relationship relates to a specific type of relationship where
human behavior is impacted in certain ways. For example, impact of management
style on the levels of employee motivation and consumer perception about the brand
after the purchase relate to disposition-behavior relationship
(2) Property-disposition relationship Property is associated with enduring nature of
a subject, whereas disposition can be explained as tendency to respond in certain ways
in certain circumstances. For example, personal properties include gender, religion,
heritage etc. while personal disposition opinions, values, attitudes etc.
(3) Stimulus response relationship marks occurrence of an event as a response to
certain changes. For example, effective re-branding initiatives may have positive
implications on the volume of sales
(4) Property-behavior relationship. This type of relationship relates to the impact of
property to human behavior. For example, effects of cultural Background on consumer
behavior, implications of family life-cycle on human tendency to shop online etc.

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Experiments aim to answer ‘how’ and ‘why questions and they tend to be used in
exploratory and explanatory studies. Experiments can be divided into two categories
field and laboratory, The following table lustrates the main differences between these
alternative types of experiments.

laboratory experiments Field experiments

Artificial-low realism Natural-high realism

Few extraneous variables Many extraneous variables

High control Low control

Low cost High cost

Short duration Long duration

Subjects aware of participation Subjects unaware of participation

Advantages of experimental research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into
something that may not work?
Experimental research allows us to test our idea in a controlled environment before
taking it to market. It also provides the best method to test our theory thanks to the
following advantages:
• Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired Results.
• The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research.
Any industry can implement it for research purposes.
• The results specific.
• After analyzing the results, we can apply our findings to similar ideas or situations.
• We can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze
this relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
• Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data we collect is a
foundation on which to build more ideas and conduct more research.

2.Historical Research Method

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Historical study or method focuses on collection and objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to test hypothesis concerning causes, effects or
trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events.
The purpose of historical method of research is to re-evaluate data in relation to
selected hypothesis, theories and generalizations, and to understand how and why
educational theories and practices developed.

Steps of Historical Research

i. Conduct a background literature review.
ii. Identify an idea, topic or research Question.
iii. Refine the research ideas and questions.
iv. Determine that historical method will be used.
v. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources.
vi. Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials.
vii. Analyze the data and develop a narrative exposition of the findings

Objectives of Historical Research

❖ To study the cause and effect relationship between two events.
❖ To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, institutions and other
kinds of
organizations.
❖ The purpose of historical research is to discover unknown events.
To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern.
❖ It tries to understand the significance of events that may be responsible fat shaping a
particular situation

Methods of Historical Research

1) Archival Data: The archival data or primary sources, are typically the resources that
researchers rely most heavily on. It includes official documents and other items that
would be found in archives, museums, etc.
2) Secondary Sources: Secondary sources are the works of other historians.
3) Running Records: Running records are the documentaries maintained by private Or
non-profit organizations

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4) Recollections: Recollections include sources such as autobiographies, diaries or
memoirs.

Sources of Historical Research

There are two sources of historical research that are discussed below:-
a) Primary Sources
A primary source is a document that contains the original statement on the topic being
Investigated by the researches
These contain evidence that is closest to the event under investigation as recounted
by
Observers and participants.
These include the following:
• Documents generated by the events themselves such as archival records
governmental, institutional, commercial, ecclesiastical, etc.), internal letters and
memoranda (memos), speeches, summaries or minutes of conferences and meetings,
photographs of people, building’s and equipment, statistical information (such as tally
sheets and surveys), lists of holdings(goods, equipment, etc. ) and reports and
Statements (mission statements, employee Guidelines).
• Documents produced to record events such as chronicles, diaries, reports produces by
Journalists and interviews conducted by them, drawings and photographs, motion
picture films, tape recordings and video recordings.
• Documents in supplementary forms produced much later in the form of oral sources,
oral traditions and folklores, languages themselves, say fables, folktales, folklore etc.
are a good source; etc.

b) Secondary Sources
A secondary source is the one derived or created from a primary source (that first
reported the event being studied). It report events based on use of primary and
other secondary sources as basis of data collection. It contains information reported
by a person who did not directly observe the event, object or condition (Key, 1997,
p.1).
Thus, these report events by a person other than a direct observer or a participant in
the events. A source becomes a primary or secondary source depending upon its
proximity to the actual event under investigation (Powell, 1991, p.140). Examples of
secondary sources are given below:
• Textbooks

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• Encyclopedias
• Monographs
• Articles in magazines

3. Descriptive Research Method

It is a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or
phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what of
the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.
Thus, it does not make accurate predictions, and does not determine cause and effect.
it is quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to
be used for, statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market
research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic
segment.
In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way because it uses
observational method to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or
their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher. Descriptive research method is
generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group
are studied. The data collected and analyzed during this method can also be used by
other research methods.

Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is classified into different type according to the kind of approach
that is used in conducting descriptive research. The Different types of descriptive
research are highlighted below:
i. Descriptive-Survey Research Uses Surveys to gather data about varying subjects.
This data aims to know the to which different conditions can obtained among these
subjects for example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed
professionals in India, He uses a survey as his research instrument, and each item on
the survey related to qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer.
ii. Descriptive-Normative Survey This is an extension of the descriptive-survey, with
the addition being the normative element. In the descriptive-normative survey, the
results of the study should be compared with the norm. For example, an organization
that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have them a skills test.

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