Dr.

Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological

University Aurangabad (M.S.)

People’s Education Society’s (TNR-12) P.E.S. College of

Engineering, Aurangabad (TNR-16/Bold) Department of
Electronics and Computer Engineering(TNR-16)
 A

Seminar report

On

PEROVSKITE SOLAR
CELLS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree
Of Electronics

Submitted by
Guided by
Vasudha Kashirsagar Syed Kashif
E 25

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, the Seminar “PEROVSKITE SOLAR

CELLS” submitted by Syed Kashif has successfully submitted
Seminar / Mini project under my supervision and guidance in
partial fulfillment in F.Y. B.Tech in Electronics and Computer
Engineering and in the academic year 2023 - 2024 of Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,Lonere(Riagad)
and is

being submitted to P. E.S. College of Engineering,

Aurangabad(M.S.).

Place : Aurangabad

Date : 17/5/24
Prof. Dr. Vasudha Kashirsagar
Guide Head of Department

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 CONTENT

Serial No.Title Page No.

1. What is Solar Cell? 3

2. History and development of Solar Cell Tech. 4

3. Generation of Solar Cell 5

4. How do Solar Cell work 7

5. Manufacturing Technology and Process 9

6. Application of Solar Cell 13

7. Efficiency of Solar Cell 19

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 1. What is a solar cell?

A solar cell (photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electricalevic that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The energy of
light is transmitted by photons-small packets or quantums of light. Electrical energy is stored
in electromagnetic fields, which in turn can make a current of electrons flow.
Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which are used to capture energy from
sunlight. When multiple modules are assembled together (such as prior to installation on a
pole-mounted tracker system), the resulting integrated group of modules all oriented in one
plane is referred as a solar panel. The electrical energy generated from solar modules, is an
example of solar energy. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the
practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often
used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells are described as
photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necessarily sunlight. These are used for detecting
light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, for example infrared detectors,
or measurement of light intensity.

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 2. History and Development of Solar Cell Technology

The development of solar cell technology began with the 1839 research of French physicist
Antoine-César Becquerel. Becquerel observed the photovoltaic effect while experimenting
with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution when he saw a voltage develop when light fell
upon the electrode. The major events are discussed briefly below, and other milestones can be
accessed by clicking on the image shown below.

• Charles Fritts - First Solar Cell: The first genuine solar cell was built around 1883 by Charles
Fritts, who used junctions formed by coating selenium (a semiconductor) with an extremely
thin layer of gold. The device was only about 1 percent efficient.
• Albert Einstein - Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in
1905 for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

• Russell Ohl - Silicon Solar Cell: Early solar cells, however, had energy conversion created the
first solar panels. Bell Laboratories in New York announced the prototype manufacture of a new solar
battery. Bell had funded the research. The first public service trial of the Bell Solar Battery began with
a telephone carrier system (Americus, Georgia) on October 4 1955.

3. Generations of Solar Cells:

3.1 First Generation: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology

First generation solar cells are the larger, silicon-based photovoltaic cells. Silicon's ability to
remain a semiconductor at higher temperatures has made it a highly attractive raw material
for solar panels. Silicon's abundance, however, does not ease the challenges of harvesting and
processing it into a usable material for microchips and silicon panels. Solar cells, use silicon
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wafers
efficiency, despite their high manufacturing costs

3.2 Second Generation: Thin Film Solar Cell Technology

Second generation solar cell, also known as thin-film solar cell (TFSC) or thin-film
photovoltaic cell (TFPV), is made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin films) of
photovoltaic material on a substrate. They are significantly cheaper to produce than first
generation cells but have lower efficiencies. The great advantage of thin-film solar cells,
materials and manufacturing techniques. Third generation contains a wide range of potential
solar innovations including multijunction solar cells, polymer solar cells, nanocrystalline-
nanowire cells, quantum dot solar cells anddye sensitized solar cells.
generation materials have been

4. How do Solar Cells Work?

5. Manufacturing Technology and Process

5.1 STEP 1 - PURIFICATION OF SILICON:

The basic component of a solar cell is intrinsic silicon, which is not pure in its natural state.
To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed
quartz—are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon arc is applied to release
the oxygen. A Graphite and Therma insulator trap the heat and maintain the furnace at
point, the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for solor cells and requires further
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purification. Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest
silica) or crushed quartz.

5.2 STEP 2- INGOT AND WAFER PREPARATION:

Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the atomic
structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating the boule is called
the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is dipped into melted

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Electrical contacts are formed through squeezing a metal paste through mesh screens to
create a metal grid. This metal paste (usually Ag or Al) needs to be dried so that subsequent
layers can be screen-printed using the same method. As a last step, the wafer is heated in a
continuous firing furnace at temperatures ranging from 780 to 900°C. These grid- pattern
metal screens act as collector electrodes that carry electrons and complete the electrical
continuity in the circuit.

5.3 STEP 5 - STRINGING AND TABBING:

Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of produced current.
The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not to block sunlight to the cell.
Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuum-evaporated After the contacts
are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells. The most commonly used strips
are tin-coated copper.

5.4 STEP 6 - ANTIREFLECTIVE COATING:

Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To reduce the
amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon wafer- mostly titanium
dioxide, silicon oxide and some others are used. The material used for coating is either heated
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5.5 STEP 7 - MODULE MANUFACTURING

The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber or ethylene
vinyl acetate. Solar module assembly usually involves soldering cells together to produce a
36-cell string (or longer) and laminating it between toughened glass on the top and a
polymeric backing sheet on the bottom. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an
aluminum frame that has a mylar or tedlarbacksheet and a glass or plastic cover. Frames are
usually applied to allow for mounting in the field, or the laminates may be separately
integrated into a mounting system for a specific application such as integration into a
building.
6. Application of Solar Cell:

Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. Photovoltaic
modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while
protecting the semiconductor wafers from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven
debris, rain,hail, etc. Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an
additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very ural
electrification:

More than 10,000 PV powered water pumps are known to be successfully operating
throughout the world. Solar pumps are used principally for two applications: village water
supply (including livestock watering), and irrigation. Sin villages need a steady supply of
water, provision has to be made for water storage for periods of low insolation. In contrast,
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crops have variable water requirements during the year which can often be met by supplying
water directly to produce without the need for a storage tank.

6.1.1 Health care:

Extensive vaccination programmes are in progress throughout the developing world in the
fight against common diseases. To be effective, these programmes must provide
immunisation services to rural areas. All vaccines have to be kept within a strict temperature
range throughout transportation and storage. The provision of refrigeration for this aim is
6.1.2 Lighting:
In terms of the number of installations, lighting is presently the biggest application of
photovoltaics, with tens of thousands of units installed world-wide. They are mainly used to
provide lighting for domestic or community buildings, such as schools or health centres. PV
is also being increasingly used for lighting streets and tunnels, and for security lighting.

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6.2 rofessional applications:
For some time, photovoltaic modules have proved to be a good source of power for high-
reliability remote industrial use in inaccessible locations, or where the small amount of power
required is more economically met from a stand-alone PV system than from mains electricity.
Examples of these applications include:

6.2.1 Ocean navigation aids:

many lighthouses and most buoys are now powered by solar cells.

6.2.2 Telecommunication systems:

radio transceivers on mountain tops, or telephone boxes in the country can often be solar
powered.

6.2.3 Remote monitoring and control:

scientific research stations, seismic recording, weather stations, etc. Use very little power
which, in combination with a dependable battery, is provided reliably by a small PV module.

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6.2.4 Cathodic protection

this is a method for shielding metalwork from corrosion, for example, pipelines and other
metal structures. A PV system is well suited to this application since a DC source of power is
required in remote locations along the path of a pipeline.

6.3 Electric power generation in space:

Photovoltaic solar generators have been and will remain the best choice for providing
electrical power to satellites in an orbit around the Earth. Indeed, the use of solar cells on the
U.S. satellite Vanguard I in 1958 demonstrated beyond doubt the first practical application of
photovoltaics. Since then, the satellite power requirements have evolved from few Watts to
several kiloWatts, with arrays approaching 100 kW being planned for a future space station.

A space solar array must be extremely reliable in the adverse conditions of space
environment. Since it is very expensive to lift every kilogram of weight into the orbit, the
space array should also have a high power-to-weight ratio.

6.4 Grid-connected systems:

PV Power Stations:

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A PV power station feeds the generated power instantaneously into the utility distribution
network (the 'grid') by means of one or more inverters and tranformers. The first PV power
station was built at Hysperia in southern California in 1982 with nominal power specification
1 MW, using crystalline silicon modules mounted on a 2 axis tracking system.

PV power stations may be approaching economic viability in locations where they assist the
local grid during periods of peak demand, and obviate the need to construct a new power
station. This is known as peak shaving. It can also be cheaper to place small PV plants within
the transmission system rather than to upgrade it ('embedded' generation).

PV in buildings:

The main advantages of these distributed systems over large PV plants are as follows:

• There is no costs in buying the land and preparing the site.

• The transmission losses are much lower because the load is on the same site as the
supply.
• The value of the PV electricity is also higher because it is equal to the selling price of
the grid electricity which has been replaced, rather that to the cost of generating it.

7. Efficiency of Solar Cell:

Solar efficiency refers to the amount of ambient light that can be converted into usable
electricity. There are two ways to evaluate photovoltaic solar efficiency: You can look at
solar cell efficiency or at solar panel efficiency. Solar cellefficiency is the amount of light
that the individual solar cell converts to electricity. Solar cells are placed next to one another
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on top of a backsheet and are covered by glass to make up a solar panel.

Solar panel efficiency refers to the amount of light that the entire module converts to
electricity. The efficiency of a solar panel is lower than that of a solar cell due to the spacing
between cells and because the glass covering reflects away some of the sunlight.
Consequently, you want to pay attention to solar panel efficiency because that will indicate
how much electricity your solar energy system will actually generate.

7.1 Why Is Solar Panel Efficiency Important?

High efficiency solar panels help you to maximize your overall return on investment for
today and the future. These solar panels will:
• Generate more electricity with fewer panels
• Require less rooftop space
• Involve reduced installation time and fewer mounting materials
• Offer more long-term savings

7.2 Efficiency Improvement:

Solar power is big. It's so big, in fact, that the Department of Energy recently promised up to
$7 million in funding to support emerging solar technologies [source: DOE]. Harnessing the
sun's energy is smart, but not as simple as it sounds.

It might be easier if we really could "harness" the sun, but that bright spot in the sky is
elusive. Sometimes it hides behind clouds and, each night, it disappears altogether for hours
at a time. The optimal time to mine the sun's energy is when it is highest in the sky, typically
during the summer months when we also enjoy longer days with more average sunshine.
The researchers and engineers who design and build solar panels have to work with and
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around these factors all while devising new ways to not only collect but reserve free and
renewable energy from the sun. For example, using mirrors, they've figured out a way to
direct sunlight to solar panels even when the sun moves at an angle that normally would keep
it from hitting those very panels.

On the next few pages, discover how innovative people are coming up with ways to use one
of our most traditional energy sources more efficiently and effectively. You'll learn more
about how solar panels can track the sun, how using different building materials increases
efficiency and how solar concentrators channel light waves. Finally, you'll learn how "the
sky's no limit" when it comes to collecting the sun's power for use here on Earth.

8. Cost of Solar Cell:

The cost of a solar cell is given per unit of peak electrical power. Solar-specific feed-in
tariffs vary worldwide, and even state by state within various countries. Such feed-in
tariffscan be highly effective in encouraging the development of solar power projects.
High-efficiency solar cells are of interest to decrease the cost of solar energy. Many of the
costs of a solar power plant are proportional to the panel area or land area of the plant. A
higher efficiency cell may reduce the required areas and so reduce the total plant cost, even if
the cells themselves are more costly. Efficiencies of bare cells, to be useful in evaluating
solar power plant economics, must be evaluated under realistic conditions. The basic
parameters that need to be evaluated are the short circuit current, open circuit voltage.
The chart above illustrates the best laboratory efficiencies obtained for various materials and
technologies, generally this is done on very small, i.e., one square cm, cells. Commercial
efficiencies are significantly lower.
9. Materials used in Solar Cell:

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Various materials display varying efficiencies and have varying costs. Materials for efficient
solar cells must have characteristics matched to the spectrum of available light. Some cells
are designed to efficiently convert wavelengths of solar light that reach the Earth surface.
However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere as
well. Light absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical configurations to take
advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms.

9.1 Crystalline silicon:

By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (abbreviated as a
group as c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple
categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer.

1. monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): often made using the Czochralski process. Single-
crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical
ingots, do not completely cover a square solar cell module without a substantial waste
of refined silicon. Hence most c-Si panels have uncovered gaps at the four corners of
the cells.
2. polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, (poly-Si or mc-Si): made from cast
square ingots — large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. Poly-
Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are less
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 CONCLUSION

After the extensive investigation, we found that the performance of the solar cell is not
only affected by the nature of the solvent and the electrolyte, but also the particle size of
the semi-conductor and the nature of the dye. When we use 0.5ml dichloromethane as the
solvent with 2 drops of ethanoic acid, the maximum current achieved was 2.85mA under
sunlight. Our results were 3 times better than that using the conditions recommended in
the literature. Actually, conserving the world is one of the people’s responsibilities and so
we hope that this dye sensitized solar cell will be widely used soon so as to provide
another clean and cheap energy source.

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 REFERENCES

1. www.google.com
2. www.wikipedia.org
3. www.studymafia.org
4. www.pptplanet.com

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