MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY ( IP-604)

MODULE - 2
Resistance welding: Electric resistance welding, Variables in resistance welding, Spot welding: procedure,
spot welding methods, Heat balance in spot welding, Spot welding equipment, Seam welding: Seam welding
equipment, Principle of operation, Applications, Projection welding, Resistance butt welding, Flash butt
welding, Percussion welding.
Special welding process: Cold pressure welding; Diffusion welding, Ultra sonic welding, Explosive welding,
Friction welding and Inertia welding, Forge welding, Electron beam welding, laser beam welding, Atomic
hydrogen welding, Thermit welding, Under water welding process, Thermal spraying & Metal-addition.

Resistance welding
Resistance welding, sometimes called electric resistance welding (ERW),is a process by which metals can be
joined together by applying pressure and conducting a strong electric current through the metal
combination to heat up the welding joint and melt the metals, forging them together.

How Does Resistance Welding Work?

1) An electric current is delivered to the metal sheets (or any work pieces being joined) through weld
electrodes which apply force to the sheets.
2) This force is then converted to heat. The heat is generated so that it melts the metal at the point where
they join – the point of ‘resistance’ between the faying surfaces.
3) The electrode then extracts heat from the molten weld area which forms a weld nugget at the point
where it solidifies. A force is applied before, during and after a current is applied, which confines the
contact area.

Resistance welding’s variables:

Resistance welding involves several variables that can influence the quality and effectiveness of the weld.
These variables need to be carefully controlled and optimized to achieve the desired results. Here are the
key variables in resistance welding:

1) Current (Amperage): The amount of electrical current passing through the welding circuit determines
the heat generated at the weld interface. Higher currents produce more heat, leading to faster heating
and melting of the metals being welded. Current is typically measured in amperes (A).

2) Voltage: Voltage is the electrical potential difference applied across the welding circuit. It affects the
intensity of the electrical arc and the heat generated at the welding interface. Voltage, in conjunction
with current, determines the power input to the welding process. Voltage is typically measured in volts
(V).

3) Electrode Force (Pressure): The pressure applied by the welding electrodes onto the workpieces is
crucial for establishing proper electrical contact and ensuring consistent weld quality. The force exerted
by the electrodes helps in overcoming surface contaminants and creating intimate contact between the
metal surfaces. Electrode force is typically measured in pounds or newtons.

4) Weld Time (Duration of Current Flow): The duration for which the current is allowed to flow through
the welding circuit affects the amount of heat transferred to the workpieces and the depth of
penetration into the material. Longer weld times typically result in deeper welds, while shorter weld
times are used for thinner materials. Weld time is typically measured in milliseconds (ms) or seconds (s).

5) Material Properties: The conductivity, thickness, and composition of the materials being welded affect
the resistance encountered by the electrical current. Materials with higher electrical conductivity
 require lower welding currents, while thicker materials may require longer weld times or higher
currents to achieve adequate heating.

6) Electrode Material and Condition: Proper electrode maintenance and selection are crucial for ensuring
consistent weld quality and prolonging electrode life.

7) Cooling Rate: The rate at which the welded joint is allowed to cool after the welding process can
influence the microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld. Controlled cooling may be
necessary to prevent excessive distortion or metallurgical defects in the welded joint.

Types of Resistance Welding

There are many resistance welding processes with different uses, such as spot welding, seam welding,
and butt welding.

1. Spot Welding
Spot welding is a resistance welding process
used to join metal sheets together at localized
points.
The spot welding process uses two copper alloy
electrodes to focus the welding current into a
small area and hold the sheets together. This
process involves pressure and an electric current
which creates heat through the channel of
current through resistive materials like low
carbon steels.

Working Principle of Spot welding:

1) Pressure Application: Spot welding works by applying pressure and heat to the weld area using copper
alloy electrodes.
2) Passing Electric Current: These electrodes transport an electrical current through the weld segments.
3) Heat Generation: The electric current uses the copper alloy electrodes to transfer heat to the work
piece creating the weld. The reason copper is used for the electrodes is that it can maintain a high
thermal conductivity and has a low electrical resistance compared to most other metals.
4) Melting & Bonding: As the material melts the parts are fused. At this point, the current is turned off and
pressure from the electrodes is upheld. This enables the molten “nugget” to solidify and create the joint.

Advantages of Spot welding:

a) Speed: Spot welding is a fast , This rapid speed makes it suitable for high-volume production
b) Automation: Spot welding can be easily automated, allowing for continuous production with minimal
operator intervention.
c) Minimal Heat Distortion: Spot welding generates localized heat, resulting in minimal distortion of the
surrounding material.
d) High Productivity: Due to its speed and automation capabilities, spot welding offers high productivity
e) Strong Welds: Spot welding produces strong and durable welds with good mechanical properties,

Disadvantages of Spot welding:

 Limited Joint Access: Spot welding requires access to both sides of the joint, which may be challenging
 Limited Material Thickness: Spot welding is most effective for joining thin to medium-thickness metal
 Electrode Wear: The electrodes used in spot welding are subject to wear and degradation over time
Applications:
 Automotive Industry: joining sheet metal components in vehicle bodies,
 Appliance Manufacturing: Spot welding is used in the production of household appliances
 Electronics Manufacturing: joining metal components a, including batteries, circuit boards, and
 Aerospace Industry: for assembling aircraft structures, including fuselage panels, wing components, and

2. Seam Welding
The welding process in which two similar or dissimilar
materials are joined at the seam by the application of heat
generated from electrical resistance is known as seam
welding. The seam welding is a types of resistance welding,
in which weld is produced by roller electrodes instead of
tipped electrodes.

Working Principle:

1) Preparation: The metal sheets or components to be welded are prepared by cleaning the surfaces to
remove any contaminants that could interfere with the welding process.
2) Electrodes: Seam welding employs two wheel-shaped electrodes, usually made of copper, that exert
pressure on the metal sheets. These electrodes conduct electricity and are responsible for generating
heat at the weld joint.
3) Application of Pressure: The metal sheets are placed between the rotating electrodes, and pressure is
applied to bring them into contact.
4) Application of Electrical Current: Once the sheets are clamped together, an electrical current is passed
through the electrodes. The resistance to the flow of electricity at the contact point between the sheets
generates heat due to the Joule heating effect.
5) Controlled Movement: As the current flows through the electrodes, they rotate along the seam at a
controlled speed. This movement ensures that the entire length of the seam is heated uniformly,
leading to a consistent weld.
6) Cooling: After the welding process, the electrodes continue to apply pressure as the welded joint cools
down.

Advantages of Seam Welding

 The welds produced by the seam welding are air-tight and water-tight.
 Seam welding is a fast welding process and it can be automated using robotic machines.
 It does not require any flux and filler materials.

Disadvantages of Seam Welding

 As it has of roller electrodes, thus, only straight line or uniformly curved line welds can be made with
the resistance seam welding.
 It is not suitable for metal sheets of thickness more than 3 mm per sheet.

Applications of Seam Welding

 It is used for making lap joints.
 It is used in manufacturing process of various types of pressure tight or leak proof tanks such as fuel
tanks, oil switches, transformer tanks, aircraft tanks, etc.
 Used for welding parts of vessels that need to be air tight and water tight.
 For welding of pipes and tubes.
Heat Balancing in resistance welding:
Heat balancing is adjusting heat input so that the nugget forms at the center or more importantly the faying
surface. Resistance welding two different work piece materials will often cause the heat to build up in one
before the other. The same is true if the thicknesses are unequal.

Heat balance in spot welding is the process of adjusting the heat input to ensure that the nugget forms at
the center orfaying surface, rather than elsewhere. If too much heat goes to one part, the weld won't be
strong.
These five techniques to balance the heat when developing the welding process:

1) Electrode Force: Increase force to shift heat away from contact areas, and decrease force to shift heat
to contact areas. This technique works because the heat generated in the work piece is distributed
based on where the electrical resistance is.
2) Upslope: Increase upslope time to shift heat away from contact areas, and decrease upslope time to
shift heat to contact areas. Allowing the weld current to gradually increase at the beginning of the weld
pulse allows the electrodes and parts to seat together.
3) Electrode Face Size: Increase electrode face size to shift heat away from electrode, decrease face size to
shift heat toward electrode. This technique often has the greatest influence on heat balance because it
affects three things at the same time.
4) Polarity: Depending on material combinations, heat may shift toward the positive or negative electrode.
There is a well known scientific principle known as the Peltier Effect, which states that when electrical
current flows through two dissimilar metals.
5) Electrode Materials: Use more resistive electrode to shift heat toward electrode, use more conductive
electrode to shift heat away from electrode.

Spot Welding Equipments:

1. Welding Power Supply: The welding power supply is the core component of spot welding equipment. It
provides the electrical energy required to generate the welding current.
2. Welding Electrodes: Welding electrodes are the contact points through which the electrical current
passes to create the weld. Electrodes are typically made of copper alloys due to their high electrical and
thermal conductivity.
3. Welding Control System: The welding control system regulates the welding parameters such as current,
voltage, and duration of the weld. It ensures consistent and repeatable welding results by controlling
the timing and intensity of the welding current.
4. Workpiece Clamping Mechanism: A robust clamping mechanism is essential for securely holding the
workpieces in place during the welding process. It ensures proper alignment and tight contact between
the mating surfaces, facilitating efficient heat transfer and weld formation.
5. Cooling System: Spot welding equipment often incorporates a cooling system to dissipate heat
generated during the welding process. Cooling systems help maintain the integrity of the equipment
and prolong its service life, especially during high-duty cycle operations.

Projection Welding :
Projection welding is a type of resistance welding
that uses pressure and electricity to join two or
more metal parts. It uses embossing, or
projections, to concentrate the current and
welding force on a small area. The projections
form a high resistance point contact that melts
and forms a weld along the entire seam.
Working of Projection Welding

1) The set up used for projection welding consists of two copper electrodes.
2) The metal pieces to be welded are kept between these two electrodes as shown in the above figure.
3) After that, the projections are accurately formed in precise locations on the metal workpieces by using a
special set of dies.
4) Once the projections are formed, the raised portions on one workpiece are pressed into contact with
another workpiece.
5) At the same time, a high electric current is passed through the workpieces.
6) When the raised portions touch the second workpiece of metal, the electric current flows through the
contact points, which heats and fuses the two metal workpieces together.

Advantages of Projection Welding

 There is no limitation on the metal thickness, i.e., metal of any thickness can be welded with the
projection welding.
 With projection welding, more than one welds are done at a time. Hence, more output is obtained.
 In the projection welding, less current is passed through the electrodes and low pressure is applied.
Thus, the electrode life is increased.
 Projection welding gives good heat balance while welding process.
 The weld with good furnished appearance is obtained in the projection welding.

Disadvantages of Projection Welding

 The process of projection formation is complicated and time consuming.
 It requires highly skilled welders.
 Projection welding cannot be applied to all types of workpieces.
 Equipment used for projection welding are expensive.

Applications of Projection Welding

 Projection welding is used for welding studs, nuts to plates, etc.
 Projection welding is also used in automobile industries, ship building works and sheet metal works, etc.
 It is also used for welding the parts of refrigerator, grills, condensers, etc.

Butt Welding:
Butt welding is one of the simplest and versatile resistance welding process. In the butt welding process,
heat is produced by the contact resistance between two metal workpieces. The faces of the workpieces
should be machined or edge prepared.
The circuit diagram for butt welding process is shown in the figure.
Working of Butt welding:
1) In butt welding, the two workpieces are brought together and mechanical pressure is applied along the
axial direction by a spring.
2) A welding transformer is used that is having larger number of turns in the primary winding and smaller
number of turns in secondary winding.
3) A heavy current is passed from the welding transformer, which creates the required heat at the joint
due to comparatively high resistance of the contact area.
4) This heat melts the metal at the joint and the two workpieces fuse together producing a weld joint.

Advantages of Butt Welding

 Butt welding process is easy to machine.
 It provides distortion control
 It produces welds of high strength with complete fusion.

Disadvantages of Butt Welding

 For butt welding, the welding geometry can limit its applications.
 Welds made by butt welding are sensitive to faying surface conditions.
 Butt welding process may require fixturing or backing.

Applications of Butt Welding

 Butt welding is used, where the metal pieces are joined end to end or edge to edge.
 Butt welding is used for welding such articles whose cross-sectional area is as much as 6.25 cm2 such as
steel rails.
 Butt welding is also used for welding pipes, wires and rods, etc.

Percussion Welding:
Percussion welding is a resistance welding process that uses a
short electrical discharge to create a high-temperature arc that
joins dissimilar metals. The process involves:
 Preparing the workpiece: Remove grease, dirt, and paint
 Clamping the workpiece: Use a machine or fixer
 Joining the ends: Use light force
 Striking the arc: Between the two faces of the workpiece
 Applying pressure: Immediately after the electrical discharge

Working Principle:
Cold Pressure Welding:
Cold pressure welding is a solid-state welding
process that joins two metallic surfaces at ambient
temperatures by applying external pressure. The
process involves removing the oxide layers on the
materials being joined, which allows the metal atoms
to join with enough pressure.

Working Principle:

1) Surface Preparation: The surfaces to be welded are meticulously cleaned and polished to remove any
contaminants, oxides, or surface irregularities.
2) Application of Pressure: The prepared surfaces are brought into contact under high pressure. This
pressure is usually applied using hydraulic or mechanical means, exerting sufficient force to deform the
metal surfaces and create intimate atomic contact.
3) Atomic Bonding: Under pressure, the atoms at the interface of the two surfaces begin to diffuse across
the boundary, overcoming the natural barriers to atomic movement. This diffusion results in the
formation of metallurgical bonds between the two surfaces.
4) Weld Formation: With continued pressure application, the metallurgical bonds strengthen, and a solid-
state weld is formed. This bond is often as strong as the base material, providing a reliable joint.

Advantages:

 No Heat Affected Zone (HAZ): Since cold pressure welding does not involve heating, there is no risk of
thermal distortion, oxidation, or metallurgical changes in the base materials.
 High Bond Strength: Cold pressure welding produces joints with high bond strength, often approaching
that of the base materials. This makes it suitable for critical applications where joint integrity is
paramount.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Cold pressure welding typically requires minimal equipment and energy compared
to traditional welding processes, resulting in lower operational costs.
 Versatility: including aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and other non-ferrous alloys,
 Environmentally Friendly:

Disadvantages:
 Surface Condition Dependency: The success of cold pressure welding heavily depends on the surface
condition of the materials being joined.
 Limited Thickness: Cold pressure welding is most effective for thin materials,
 Equipment Complexity: While the equipment required for cold pressure welding is generally simpler
Applications:
 Electronics: bonding wires to terminals or leads in devices such as semiconductors, sensors,
 Aerospace: aluminum and titanium, where maintaining material properties and reducing weight
 Automotive: like brake lines, fuel lines, and electrical connectors.
 Jewelry: Cold pressure welding is used in jewelry making to bond precious metals

Diffusion Welding:
Diffusion welding, also known as diffusion bonding, is a solid-state welding
technique that joins similar and dissimilar metals. It works by causing the atoms
of two solid, metallic surfaces to intersperse themselves over time.

Working Principle:
The process involves the following steps:
1) Contacting conmponents: Press two components together
2) Heating Componests: Heat the components to around 50–75% of the
materials' highest dissolving temperature
3) Application of Pressure: Use pressure to get the materials' contacting surfaces close together
4) Removal of pressure : When the desired proportion of atoms have diffused, remove heat and pressure

Advantages:
Clean welds High measurement resistance Can join similar and different materials
Low running costs Simple to work with Reduced plastic distortion

disadvantages, including:
Expensive hardware Time-consuming Limited defensive assessment strategies
Not applicable for mass production

Application:
 It is mostly used to weld refectory materials used in aerospace and nuclear industries.
 Diffusion bonding is used to weld titanium, zirconium and beryllium metals and its alloy.
 It can weld nickel alloy like Inconel, Wrought Udimet etc.
 It is used to weld dissimilar metals like Cu to Ti, Cu to Al etc.

Ultra sonic Welding:

Ultrasonic welding
is a solid-state welding process that uses high-frequency ultrasonic
vibrations to create frictional heat at the joint interface between
two materials. This localized heat softens the materials, allowing
them to be welded together without the need for additional heat
sources or fillers.

Working Principle:
 Assembly: The materials are placed in contact with each other
under pressure, typically between a fixed anvil and a vibrating
tool called a sonotrode.
 Application of Ultrasonic Vibration: An electrical generator converts electrical energy into high-
frequency mechanical vibrations, usually in the range of 20 kHz to 70 kHz.
 Frictional Heat Generation: The sonotrode applies the ultrasonic vibrations to the joint interface,
causing friction between the materials. This friction generates localized heat, softening the materials
and allowing them to fuse together.
 Weld Formation: As the materials soften, they bond together to form a strong, seamless weld.
Advantages:
Speed Versatility. Precision Low Energy Consumption No Thermal Distortion
 No Consumables: No additional materials such as adhesives, solvents, or fillers are required, reducing
material costs and environmental impact.

Disadvantages:
Material Limitations Joint Design Requirements Equipment Complexity Thickness Limitations

Applications:
Automotive Industry, Electronics, Medical Devices: such as catheters, filters, and housings.
Packaging: Sealing of blister packs, pouches, Textiles: Bonding of synthetic fabrics

Explosive Welding:
Explosive welding (EXW) is a solid-state welding process
that uses chemical explosives to accelerate one
component at high speed. The process is similar to hot-
pressing, and is often used to clad carbon steel or
aluminum plate with a thin lay
er of a harder or more corrosion-resistant material.

Working Principle:
The process involves:
1) Placing the joining parts at an angle of 1–15°
2) Preparing the parts with a layer of explosive on the top
3) The detonation of the explosives creates a compression force that joins the overlapping metal sheets
4) The top plate hits the bottom plate at a speed of 100–1000 ms, and pressures are in the range of 10 to
100 kbar

EXW is mainly used for cladding processes, such as cladding carbon steel, stainless steel, copper or titanium
with aluminum. Explosion welded bi-metallic sections are often used as transition segments.

Friction Welding:
Friction welding is a solid-state welding process that
generates heat through mechanical friction between
workpieces in relative motion. The heat raises the
temperature at the interface high enough to cause the
two surfaces to be forged together under hig
h pressure.

Working Principle:
1. Preparation: The surfaces of the materials to be
welded are cleaned and prepared to ensure
proper bonding.
2. Contact and Rotation: The two materials are brought into contact with each other under pressure. One
of the materials is then rotated relative to the other.
3. Frictional Heating: The rotational motion generates friction between the surfaces in contact, leading to
the generation of heat.
4. Plasticization: The heat softens the materials at the interface, causing them to become plasticized
without reaching their melting point.
5. Forge Pressure: Once sufficient heat is generated, the rotation stops, and additional pressure is applied
to forge the materials together.
6. Cooling and Solidification: After the welding process, the joint is allowed to cool and solidify, forming a
strong bond between the materials.

Advantages:
 Solid-State Process: This results in minimal heat-affected zones and distortion,
Versatility High Strength Joints No Consumables Fast Cycle Times

Disadvantages:
Equipment Cost Limited Joint Configurations Surface Finish Requirements
Energy Consumption

Applications:
 Automotive Industry: Used for welding components such as shafts, axles, steering columns,
 Aerospace Industry: like turbine blades, engine components, and structural parts.
 Industrial Machinery: including hydraulic cylinders, gears, and tooling.
 Oil and Gas Industry: Welding of drill pipes, valves, and pipeline components.
 Railroad Industry: Joining of railway axles, couplings, and suspension components.

Inertia welding, also known as inertia friction welding, is a solid-state process that uses rotation and
pressure to join metals without melting them.

Forge Welding:
Forge welding, also known as fire welding, is a solid-state welding
process that joins two pieces of metal by heating them to a high
temperature and then hammering them together.

Working Principle:
1) First both the work plates heated together. The heating
temperature is about 50 to 90% of its melting temperature.
Both the plates are coated with flux.
2) Now manual hammering is done by a blacksmith hammer for
making a joint. This process is repeated until a proper joint is created.
3) For welding large work pieces, mechanical hammering is used which is either driven by electric motor or
by using hydraulic mean. Sometime dies are used which provides finished surface.

Application:
 It is used to join steel or iron.
 It is used to manufacture gates, prison cells etc.
 It is widely used in cookware.
 It was used to join boiler plates before introduction of other welding process.
 It was used to weld weapon like sword etc.
 Used to weld shotgun barrels.
Advantages:
 It is simple and easy.
 It does not require any costly equipment for weld small pieces.
 It can weld both similar and dissimilar metals.
 Properties of weld joint is similar to base material.
 No filler material required.
Disadvantages:
 Only small objects can be weld. Larger objects required large press and heating furnaces, which are not
economical.
 High skill required because excessive hammering can damage the welding plates.
Electron Beam Welding:
Electron-beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in
which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to two
materials to be joined. The work pieces melt and flow
together as the kinetic energy of the electrons is
transformed into heat upon impact.

Working Principle:
1) Electron Gun: In an electron beam welding machine, an
electron gun emits a stream of high-energy electrons.
2) Electron Focusing System: The electron beam passes
through a series of magnetic lenses, which focus and
control the beam's direction and intensity.
3) Workpiece Interaction: The focused electron beam is
directed towards the joint area between the
workpieces to be welded.
4) Heat Generation: When the high-energy electrons strike the workpiece material, they transfer their
kinetic energy to the atoms in the material, causing rapid heating.
5) Melting and Fusion: The intense heat generated by the electron beam melts and fuses the material at
the joint interface.
6) Weld Solidification: After the welding process, the molten material cools and solidifies, forming a
strong metallurgical bond between the workpieces.

Advantages:
 High Energy Density: Electron beam welding produces a highly concentrated heat source, resulting in
deep penetration and narrow weld zones, which is advantageous for welding thick materials.
 Minimal Distortion: The narrow heat-affected zone and precise control over the welding parameters
help minimize distortion in the workpieces.
 High Welding Speed: Electron beam welding is a fast process, capable of producing welds in a fraction of
the time required by traditional welding methods.
 Non-Contact Process: Since electron beam welding does not require direct contact between the welding
tool and the workpiece, it can be used to weld materials with high thermal conductivity and dissimilar
materials.
 Clean and Precise Welds: The absence of filler material and minimal heat input result in clean, precise
welds with minimal post-weld cleanup required.
 Vacuum Environment: Electron beam welding is often performed in a vacuum chamber, which helps
prevent oxidation and contamination of the weld joint, particularly in reactive metals and alloys.
Disadvantages:
 High Equipment Cost: Electron beam welding machines are expensive to purchase, operate, and
maintain, making them less accessible for small-scale operations.
 Limited Joint Access: Electron beam welding requires access to both sides of the joint, which may be
challenging for certain geometries or enclosed structures.
 Material Limitations: While electron beam welding is suitable for many metals and alloys, it may not be
suitable for materials with poor weldability or those prone to cracking, such as cast iron.
Applications:
 Aerospace Industry. Automotive Industry:, engine parts, and chassis structures.
 Power Generation: Welding of components for nuclear reactors, steam turbines, and gas turbines.
 Medical Device Manufacturing: Welding of stainless steel and titanium components for medical
implants
 Electronics Industry: Welding of electronic components and assemblies, such as vacuum tubes and
semiconductor devices.
Laser Beam Welding:
Laser welding or laser beam welding (LBW) is a
process that uses a concentrated heat source in
the form of a laser to melt the materials, which
fuse together as they cool down.

Principle:
It works on the principle that when electrons of
an atom get excited by absorbing some energy.
And then after some time when it returns back
to its ground state, it emits a photon of light.
The concentration of this emitted photon is
increased by stimulated emission of radiation
and we get a high energy concentrated laser
beam.
Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation is called laser.

Working Operation:
1) Beam Generation: Laser beam welding
utilizes a high-powered laser beam
generated from a laser source such as a CO2 or fiber laser.
2) Focused Beam: The laser beam is directed through optics to focus it down to a small diameter, typically
ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 millimeters.
3) Joint Preparation: The materials to be welded are prepared and positioned, ensuring proper alignment
and fit-up.
4) Application of Laser Beam: The focused laser beam is directed onto the joint interface between the
workpieces. The intense heat generated by the laser beam melts the material at the joint interface.
5) Weld Formation: As the material melts, it forms a molten pool, which solidifies to create a fusion weld
as the laser beam moves along the joint.
6) Controlled Heat Input: Laser beam welding allows for precise control over the heat input, welding
speed, and energy distribution, resulting in a narrow and deep weld with minimal heat-affected zones.
7) Shielding Gas: In some cases, shielding gas may be used to protect the weld pool from atmospheric
contamination.

Advantages:
Precision, High Speed, Minimal Heat Affected Zone (HAZ),
Non-Contact Process Versatility, Remote Operation

Disadvantages:
Equipment Cost, Material Thickness Limitations
Weld Joint Accessibility: Laser welding requires line-of-sight access to the joint, which may pose challenges
for welding complex or obstructed geometries.

Applications:
Automotive Industry Aerospace Industry Electronics Industry
Medical Device Manufacturing Jewelry Manufacturing
Atomic hydrogen welding:
Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is an arc welding
process that uses an electric arc between tungsten
electrodes and a hydrogen shielding gas to create high-
temperature welds.

Here's how the process works:

1. Two metal pieces are positioned close together,
leaving a small gap.
2. Hydrogen gas is introduced into the welding torch.
3. The arc breaks up hydrogen molecules, which recombine with a release of heat that can reach 3400–
4000 °C.
4. The hydrogen acts as a reducing agent, removing oxides and promoting a clean welding process.
5. The molecular hydrogen changes to atomic form due to the high temperature, then regains its
molecular form in the cooler regions near the arc, releasing energy that melts the workpiece.

Advantages of Atomic Hydrogen Welding

 Atomic hydrogen arc welding is capable of welding relatively thick sections effectively.
 This welding method produces robust, ductile, and high-quality welds.
 It can be applied to materials that are too thin for conventional gas welding.
 The welding process is shielded by burning hydrogen, safeguarding the arc and weld zone from
atmospheric contaminants.
 The presence of hydrogen gas flow keeps the tungsten electrodes cool, prolonging their lifespan.
Disadvantages of Atomic Hydrogen Welding
 Atomic hydrogen arc welding tends to be more costly compared to other welding processes.
 Proficiency and skill are essential prerequisites for operating an atomic hydrogen arc welding setup.
 This welding method is primarily suitable for flat positions.
 Due to the high flammability of hydrogen, the process carries inherent risks.
Applications of Atomic Hydrogen Welding
 Atomic hydrogen welding is commonly used for welding thick sections efficiently.
 It finds application in industries requiring strong, ductile, and high-quality welds.
 Atomic hydrogen arc welding is employed for materials too thin for gas welding.
 The cooling effect of hydrogen gas flow extends the lifespan of tungsten electrodes.

Thermit Welding:
Thermit welding is a casting cum welding process that involves igniting a mixture of aluminium powder and
a metal oxide, known as Thermit, to generate molten metal through an exothermic and non-violent reaction.
The resulting superheated metal is then poured at the desired location, forming a weld joint upon
solidification.
Working Process of Thermite Welding
 Thermit welding is a chemical welding process that utilises an exothermic chemical reaction to provide
the necessary heat energy. The reaction involves the combustion of Thermit, a mixture consisting of
finely powdered aluminium and iron oxide in a weight ratio of approximately 1:3.
 While the reaction can reach a temperature as high as 3000°C, preheating the Thermit mixture to
around 1300°C is required to initiate the reaction.
 The chemical reaction that takes place is as follows:

 Aluminium has a strong affinity for oxygen and thus reacts with ferric oxide to produce pure iron and
aluminium oxide slag. The slag, in the form of aluminium oxide, floats on top of the molten metal pool,
while the pure iron (or steel) settles below due to the significant difference in densities.

Advantages of Thermit Welding

 Thermit welding is a straightforward and rapid method for joining similar or dissimilar metals.
 It offers cost-effectiveness as it does not require expensive power supply equipment.
 It is highly versatile, making it suitable for applications in areas where power supply may be inaccessible.
 Thermit welding creates strong, durable joints with excellent metallurgical bonding.
 It allows for the joining of large and complex structures, such as railway tracks, pipes, and heavy
castings.

Disadvantages of Thermit Welding

 High cost: Thermit welding can be relatively expensive compared to other welding methods.
 Limited joint configuration: Thermit welding is best suited for straight-line welds or joining components
that have been pre-positioned.
 High heat input: The exothermic reaction in thermit welding produces very high temperatures, which
can cause localised heat-affected zones (HAZ) and potential distortion or damage to surrounding
materials.

Application and Uses of Thermit Welding

 Joining railroad tracks, pipes, and thick steel sections.
 Repairing heavy castings and gears.
 Welding large sections such as locomotive rails and ship hulls.
 Welding copper cables.
 Repairing and connecting pipelines in the oil and gas industry.
 Fabrication and repair of heavy machinery components.

Under-Water Welding:
Underwater welding, also called hyperbaric welding, is a welding process that involves welding under high
pressure, usually underwater. It can take place in wet water or in a dry, pressurized enclosure.

Underwater welding is used to repair ships, submarines, nuclear reactors, pipelines, and offshore
structures. The most commonly used wet welding techniques are SMAW and FCAW, including self-shielded
FCAW (60)

Thermal spraying is a coating process that uses melted materials, such as metals, ceramics, or polymers,
to create a layer on a surface. The materials are heated by electricity or chemicals, and then projected onto a
prepared surface where they flatten or "splat" onto each other to form a coating. The coating can be 0.1 to
10mm thick.