Chapter One

Plastic Analysis for Slab and Framed Structures

1.1. Introduction
The elastic design method, also termed as allowable stress method (or Working stress method),
is a conventional method of design based on the elastic properties of steel. This method of design
limits the structural usefulness of the material up to a certain allowable stress, which is well below
the elastic limit. The stresses due to working loads do not exceed the specified allowable stresses,
which are obtained by applying an adequate factor of safety to the yield stress of steel. The elastic
design does not take into account the strength of the material beyond the elastic stress. Therefore,
the structure designed according to this method will be heavier than that designed by plastic
methods, but in many cases, elastic design will also require less stability bracing.

In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load rather than the yield stress is
regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate load
is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is also known as method of
load factor design or ultimate load design. The strength of steel beyond the yield stress is fully
utilized in this method. This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the analysis of
the structure. This method also provides striking economy as regards the weight of steel since the
sections designed by this method are smaller in size than those designed by the method of elastic
design.

Fig. 1. 1. Stress-strain diagram for steel material

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Bending stresses

For an introduction to bending stress, the rectangular beam and stress diagrams of Fig. 1.2 are
considered. It is assumed that the beam is fully braced against lateral buckling. If the beam is
subjected to some bending moment, the stress at any point may be computed with the usual flexure
𝑴𝒄
formula: 𝒇𝒃 = , where I is the area moment of inertia and c is the distance from the neutral axis
𝑰

to the most extreme fiber.

This formula is based on the usual elastic assumptions: stress is proportional to strain, a plane
section before bending remains a plane section after bending, etc. The value I/c is a constant for a
particular section and is known as the elastic section modulus S. The flexure formula may then be
written as follows:

𝑴𝒄
𝒇𝒃 = = 𝑴/𝑺
𝑰

Initially, when the moment is applied to the beam, the stress will vary linearly from the neutral
axis to the extreme fibers (Fig. 1.2 (b)). If the moment is increased, there will continue to be a
linear variation of stress until the yield stress is reached in the outermost fibers (Fig. 1.2 (c)). The
yield moment of a cross section is defined as the moment that will produce the yield stress in the
outermost fiber of the section. If the moment in a ductile steel beam is increased beyond the yield
moment, the outermost fibers that had previously been stressed to their yield stress will continue
to have the same stress, but will yield, and the duty of providing the necessary additional resisting
moment will fall on the fibers nearer to the neutral axis. This process will continue, with more and
more parts of the beam cross section stressed to the yield stress (Figs 1.2 (d) and (e)), until a full
plastic distribution is approached (Fig 1.2 (f)). Note that the variation of strain from the neutral
axis to the outer fibers remains linear for all of these cases.

Fig. 1. 2. Variations in bending stresses due to increasing moment about x-axis

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When the stress distribution has reached this stage (Fig 1.2 (f)), a plastic hinge is said to have
formed, because no additional moment can be resisted at the section. Any additional moment
applied at the section will cause the beam to rotate, with little increase in stress. The plastic
moment is the moment that will produce full plasticity in a member cross section and create a
plastic hinge. The ratio of the plastic moment Mp to the yield moment My is called the shape
factor.

Plastic Modulus

The yield moment My equals the yield stress times the elastic modulus. The elastic modulus equals
I/c or bd2 /6 for a rectangular section, and the yield moment equals Fybd2 /6. This same value can
be obtained by considering the resisting internal couple shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1. 3. Resisting internal couple for elastic state

The resisting moment, My can be calculated as follows:

𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑑 2 𝒇𝒚 𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝑀𝑦 = ( ) ( 𝑑) =
4 3 𝟔

The resisting moment at full plasticity can be determined in a similar manner. The result is the so-
called plastic moment, Mp. It is also called the nominal moment of the section, Mn.

Fig. 1. 4. Resisting internal couple for plastic state

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For the rectangular beam shown in Fig. 1.4, the plastic, or nominal, moment can be calculated as:

𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑑 1 𝒇𝒚 𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑀𝑛 = ( ) ( 𝑑) =
4 3 𝟒

The plastic section modulus, Z is the ratio of plastic moment to yield stress. Which is:

𝑀𝑝 𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝑍= =
𝒇𝒚 𝟒

1.2. Yield Line Patterns

Rectangular one way or two-way slabs under normal uniform loading can be analyzed and then
designed using coefficients obtained from Tables published for this purpose. In a situation where
irregular shapes, varied support conditions, presence of openings, varied loading and more
complex conditions are encountered, the established theory of elasticity or plasticity cannot be
employed directly. For these circumstances, the yield line theory is found useful.

The yield-line theory is an ultimate load method of analysis of slab, i.e., the bending moment at
the verge of collapse is used as the basis for design. At collapse loads, an under reinforced slab
begins to crack with the reinforcement yielding at points of high moment. The crack lines or the
yield lines propagate with the increase in deflection until the slab is broken in to a number of
segments. A yield line is a line in the plane of the slab across which reinforcing bars have yielded
and about which excessive deformation (plastic rotation) under constant limit moment (ultimate
moment) continues to occur and leading to failure.

Plastic analysis methods such as the yield line theory derived from the general theory of structural
plasticity, which states that the ultimate collapse load of a structure lies between two limits, an
upper bound and a lower bound of the true collapse load.

The lower bound and upper bound theorem, when applied to slabs, can be stated as follows:

Lower bound theorem: If, for a given external load, it is possible to find a distribution of moments
that satisfies equilibrium requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield moment at any
location, and if the boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is a lower bound of the
true carrying capacity.

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Upper bound theorem: If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal work done by the
slab, assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and that
boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given load for that
same small increment of displacement, then that load is an upper bound of true carrying capacity.

If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the given load, although a
higher load may be carried if internal distributions of moment occur. If the upper bound conditions
are satisfied, a load greater than the given load will certainly cause failure, although a lower load
may produce collapse if the selected failure mechanism is incorrect in any sense.

Accordingly, the yield line method of analysis for slabs is an upper bound method, and
consequently the failure load calculated for a slab with known flexural resistance may be higher
than the true value. This is certainly a concern, as a designer would naturally prefer to be correct,
or at least on the safe side. However, procedures can be incorporated in yield line analysis to ensure
that the calculated capacity is correct.

The yield line phenomenon involves:

✓ a slab under increasing loads where cracking and reinforcement yielding occur in the most
highly stressed zone (i.e., around maximum moment),
✓ the highly stressed zone normally acts as a plastic hinge where the subsequent loads are
distributed to another region of the slab,
✓ cracks develop forming patterns of yield lines until a mechanism is formed,
✓ collapse is then indicated by increasing deflection under constant load.

The term positive and negative yield lines are used to distinguish between those associated with
tension at the bottom and tension at the top of the slab, respectively.

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Fig. 1. 5. Typical yield line patterns

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1.3. Guideline for Yield Lines
Guidelines for establishing axes of rotation and yield lines are summarized as follows:

1. Yield lines are straight lines because they represent the intersection of two planes.
2. Yield lines represent axes of rotation.
3. The supported edges of the slab will also establish axes of rotation. If the edge is fixed, a
negative yield line may form, providing constant resistance to rotation. If the edge is simply
supported, the axis of rotation provides zero restraint.
4. An axis of rotation will pass over any column support. Its orientation depends on other
considerations.
5. Yield lines form under concentrated loads, radiating outward from the point of application.
6. A yield line between two slab segments must pass through the point of intersection of axes
of rotation of the adjacent slab segments.

1.4. Method of Yield Line Analysis

Once the general pattern of yielding and rotation has been established by applying the guidelines,
the specific location and orientation of the axes of rotation and the failure load for the slab can be
established by either of two methods. These methods are:

1. Method of segment equilibrium, and

2. Method of virtual work

Method of segment equilibrium requires consideration of the equilibrium of an individual slab

segments forming the collapse mechanism and leads to a set of simultaneous equations permitting
solutions for the unknown geometric parameters and for the relation between load capacity and
resisting moments.

Method of virtual work is based on equating the internal work done at the plastic hinges with the
external work done by the loads at the predefined failure mechanism with a small virtual
displacement.

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 (a) Segment Equilibrium Method of Analysis

In this method of analysis, each segment, studied as a free body, must be in equilibrium under the
action of:

✓ the applied loads,

✓ the moments along the yield lines, and
✓ the reactions or shear along the support lines.

The method of segment equilibrium should not be confused with a true equilibrium method such
as then strip method. A true equilibrium method is a lower bound method of analysis.

Essentially, the yield lines form at lines of maximum moment where neither shear nor torsion is
typically present at positive yield lines.

(b) Virtual work method of Analysis

Since the moments and loads are in equilibrium when the yield line pattern has formed, an
infinitesimal increase in load will case the structure to deflect further. The external work done by
the loads to cause a small arbitrary virtual deflection must equal to the internal work done as the
slab rotates at the yield lines to accommodate this deflection. By equating internal and external
work done, the relation between the applied loads and the resisting moments can be obtained.

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1.4.1. Analysis of One-Way Slabs

For the following one-way continuous slab under uniformly distributed load, determine the
specific location of yield line and the magnitude of collapse load.

1. Using segment equilibrium method of analysis

Let the slab with span L is reinforced to provide resistance of MC kNm per m through the span
and MA and MB kNm per m at the two supports. Suppose it is desired to have the collapse load
wu.

𝑤𝑥 2
From segment 1, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑂 → 𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 − =0
2

2(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )
→𝑤=
𝑥2

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 𝑤(1−𝑥)2 2(𝑀𝐴 +𝑀𝐶 )
From segment 2, ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 𝑂 → −𝑀𝐶 − 𝑀𝐵 + = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑤 =
2 𝑥2

2(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )
2 (1 − 𝑥)2
→ −𝑀𝐶 − 𝑀𝐵 + 𝑥
2

Finally, we will get the following quadratic equation:

(𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 )𝑥 2 + 2𝑙(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )𝑥 − 𝑙 2 (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 ) = 0

The above quadratic equation can be changed in the form of:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑎 = (𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 ),

𝑏 = 2𝑙(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 ), 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑐 = −𝑙 2 (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )

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 2. Using virtual work method of analysis

Work done by external forces = Energy absorbed by the hinges (internal work)

External work done, 𝑊𝑒 = ∑ 𝑃𝑑 ∆ = 𝑊𝑒1 + 𝑊𝑒2 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑊𝑒1 = 𝑃𝑑1 ∆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑒2 = 𝑃𝑑2 ∆2

Where: 𝑃𝑑1 is the magnitude of concentrated design load for segment 1 which is 𝑤𝑥 ,

𝑃𝑑2 is the magnitude of concentrated design load for segment 2 which is 𝑤(𝑙 − 𝑥),

∆1 is the magnitude of virtual displacement at the point of 𝑃𝑑1 which is ∆⁄2, and

∆2 is the magnitude of virtual displacement at the point of 𝑃𝑑2 which is ∆⁄2

∆𝑤𝑙
→ 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑤𝑥 ∆⁄2 + 𝑤(𝑙 − 𝑥) ∆⁄2 =
2

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Internal work done, 𝑊𝑖 = ∑ 𝑀𝜃

Where: M is a maximum moment at the formation of hinges,

𝜃 is rotation induced by the respective moments.

→ 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑀𝐴 ∗ 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 ∗ 𝜃𝐵 + 𝑀𝐶 ∗ (𝜃𝐴 + 𝜃𝐵 )

∆ ∆
But, tan 𝜃𝐴 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃𝐵 = (𝑙−𝑥) tan 𝜃𝐴 ~𝜃𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

∆ ∆
→ 𝜃𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝐵 =
𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥)

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
→ 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑀𝐴 ∗ + 𝑀𝐵 ∗ + 𝑀𝐶 ∗ ( + )
𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥)

Since the external work done is equal to the internal work done,

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖

∆𝑤𝑙 ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
→ = 𝑀𝐴 ∗ + 𝑀𝐵 ∗ + 𝑀𝐶 ∗ ( + )
2 𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑥)

2𝑀𝐴 2𝑀𝐵 2𝑀𝐶 2𝑀𝐶

→𝑤= + 2 + + 2
𝑙𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑙𝑥) 𝑙𝑥 (𝑙 − 𝑙𝑥)

To get a point of maximum collapse load or specific location of yield line,

𝑑𝑤
=0
𝑑𝑥

Finally, we will have the following quadratic equation:

(𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 )𝑥 2 + 2𝑙(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )𝑥 − 𝑙 2 (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 ) = 0

𝑎 = (𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 ),

𝑏 = 2𝑙(𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑐 = −𝑙 2 (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐶 )

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1.4.2. Analysis of Two-Way Slabs

Reinforcing bars are:

✓ Mutually perpendicular,
✓ Parallel to the sides of rectangular sections,
✓ May be at an angle α with in the yield lines.

Possible yield line patterns for two-way slabs:

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1.5. Moments along Skewed yield lines
Consider a two-way slab orthogonally reinforced where the yield lines are inclined at an angle α
with one of the principal axes.

Fig. 1. 6. Yield line skewed with orthotropic reinforcement: (a) orthogonal gird and yield line;
(b) Y direction bars; (c) X direction bars.

Fig 1.6(a) shows an orthogonal grid of reinforcement, with an angle α between the yield line and
the X direction bars. Bars in the X direction are at spacing v and have moment resistance my per
unit length about Y axis, while bars in the Y direction are at spacing u and have moment resistance
mx per unit length about X axis.

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For the Y direction bars, the resisting moment per bar about X axis is mxu, and the component of
that resistance about the α axis is mxucosα

For the X direction bars, the resisting moment per bar about Y axis is myv, and the component of
that resistance about the α axis is myvsinα.

From Fig. 1.6 b:

✓ the resisting moment per unit length along the α axis provided by the y direction bars is:

✓ the resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to α axis provided by the y direction
bars is:

From Fig. 1.6 c:

✓ the resisting moment per unit length along the α axis provided by the x direction bars is:

✓ the resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to α axis provided by the x direction
bars is:

Thus, for the combined set of bars:

✓ the resisting normal moment per unit length measured along the α axis is:

✓ the resisting torsional moment per unit length measured along the α axis is:

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1.6. Plastic Analysis of Indeterminate Beams and Frames
The fully plastic moment Mp, of a section is defined as the maximum moment of resistance of a
fully plasticized or yielded cross-section.

The assumptions used for finding the plastic moment of a section are:

(i) The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield value; on further
straining, the stress drops to the lower yield value and thereafter remains constant.
(ii) The yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same value in compression as
in tension.
(iii) The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic and plastic states.
(iv) The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam) remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after bending, the effect of
shear being neglected.
(v) There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
(vi) The cross section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid parallel
to plane of bending.
(vii) Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally and laterally
under the stress as if separated from the other layers.

The load which causes the collapse moment (Plastic moment) Mp is referred as collapse load. It
can be determined using segment equilibrium method or virtual work method.

The ratio of the collapse load to the working load is called load factor. The load factor for a
possible collapse mechanism i, denoted λi, is one of the important terms in plastic analysis.
Working load is the load which the structure is expected to carry in the course of its lifetime. The
collapse load factor, λc, is the load factor at which the structure will actually fail.

𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑖

𝜆𝑖 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

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Plastic Hinges

Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in a structural member at which an infinite
rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment Mp of the section. The number of hinges
necessary for failure does not vary for a particular structure subject to a given loading condition.

Plastic hinges are always developed:

✓ At the location of maximum moment,

✓ At the rigid joints (nodes) or beam-column joints and
✓ At fixed supports

The number of hinges to cause collapse can be determined as:

𝑁𝐻 = 𝐼𝐷 + 1

Where: NH is number of hinges,

ID is degree of indeterminacy

Again, degree of indeterminacy can be determined as:

(2𝑚 + 𝑟) − 2𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠

𝐼𝐷 = {
(3𝑚 + 𝑟) − 3𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠

Where: n = number of static equilibrium equations,

m = number of members,

r = number of reactions

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Application to Portal Frames

A portal frame always involves high degree and indeterminacy. Therefore, there are always a large
number of collapse mechanism that can be combined to form new collapse mechanism.

For portal unbraced frames, there are three collapse mechanisms. These are:

✓ Beam mechanism
✓ Sway mechanism
✓ Combined mechanism

Beam mechanism: when vertical loads are applied to a beam and horizontal loads to column to
form partial collapse mechanism.

Beam

Column
Sway mechanism: when horizontal loads are applied to the frame to form complete collapse.

Combined mechanism: a combination of beam and sway mechanism only if unloading occurs to
one or more plastic hinges.

The purpose of combined mechanism is to eliminate sufficient hinges which exists in

independently. So that the value to the worst condition will be governed value.

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