UNIT 6 COAL FIRE

Structure
6.0 Learning Outcome
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Coal Fires: Causes and Impacts
6.3 Coal Mine Fire: Disaster Management
6.4 Coal Fire: Past Disasters
6.5 Conclusion
6.6 Key Concepts
6.7 References and Further Reading
6.8 l\ctivities

6.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Understand coal fire disaster;
• Describe the causes and impacts of coal fIre in India; and
• Explain the coal fire disaster management practices in India.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In India, coal is the most abundant available fossil fuel and provides a substantial part of energy .
needs. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to the industry as well as for domestic
needs. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. The
principal deposits of hard coal are in the eastern half ofthe country, that is, ranging fromAndhra
Pradesh, bordering the Indian Ocean, to Arunachal Pradesh in the extreme north - east: the States
ofBihar, Orissa.Madaya Pradesh and West Bengal together account for about 85 per cent of
reserves. In India, within the Ministry of Mines & Minerals, the Department of coal has the overall
responsibility for determining policies and strategies regarding exploration and development of
coal and lignite reserves. (World Energy Council). .

6.2 COAL FIRE: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

Causes of Coal Fire

Coalmine fires are caused due to spontaneous combustion of coal and carbonaceous matter-in the
rocks. All coals when exposed to air undergo natural oxidation of carbon forming CO and/or CO2
and producing heat. Occasionally, due to bacterial action some heat is generated which when
reaches 35° C or 95°F, coal is automatically set tofrre. This phenomenon is generally considered
as spontaneous combustion of coal.

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 64 Understanding Man-Made Disas,ters

Thermal capacity of coal is inversely proportional to its ash content, that is, greater the ash content,
lesser is its thermal efficiency and vice-versa. In this reaction, so long as the heat produced is
dissipated, the temperature of coal does not increase. Concentration of heat, when dissipation
does not occur, causes coal to catch fire. Most of the fires in coalfields have taken place due to
spontaneous heating (endogenous fires) of coal, which depends on mining, geological, and coal
"
factors. Certain exogenous factors that have contributed to mine fires are frictional sparks, electrical
short-circuiting, dumping of hot ash etc. (Gurdeep Sing~, Minenvis Newsletter -29/30).
-,
Mine fires have existed in coal mining areas and have also been observed in non-coal mines having
carbonaceous shales or any other form of carbonaceous matter in the strata.
Areas where coal mine disasters could occur, due to fire, are as follows:
,
• Fire prone underground mines.
• Mines where sealed off areas exist due to fire.
• Mines where sealed off areas exist in which fire may occur due to breathing in of air.
• Mines which have extensive old workings and not sectionalised.
• Mines which have thick seam workings and not sectionalised.
Coal fires have also been found in the following situations:
• Underground fires, which have remained underground.
• Underground fires, which have become surface fires.
• Fires in over-burden dumps.
• Fires in coal benches in open coalmines.
• Fires in overlying rock mass, specially having thin coal bands and carbonaceous shales.
• Fires in coal stacks.

Precautions
Storage of coal for domestic purpose does not pose much problems, since the quantity and amount
involved is minimal. But in coal-based industries, where a large amount of coal is consumed every
day and huge quantities of coal are stored in factory premises. From the safety angle, in coal-
based industries, coal is stocked in separate heaps not exceeding 200 tonnes each and 8 feet
height, following the contour of the ground along a 20 feet wide track. In this context, between the
two stocks, 8 to 10 feet gap is to be provided to allow a truck or a lorry to pass through. Apart
from the convenience ofloading and unloading, these gaps compartmentalise coal-stocks so that
spontaneous fire in one stock may not create a secondary fire in the adjoining stocks due to
spreading of flame or conduction of heat.

Impacts of Coal Fire

,Mine fires give rise to environmental problems, safety hazards and economic losses like gas
poisoning, difficult geo-rnining conditions, sterilisation of coal,hindrance to production, explosions,
anddamage to structure and properties.
Un-burnt hydrocarbons (from coal fire) in presence of nitrogen oxides and other pliotosensitive
oxidants can cause eye irritation due to the formation of smog like conditions.
Burning of coal during coal fire produces carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO) in
large quantities. CO is produced due to incomplete combustion of coal, which is common in Jharia
coalfield. A considerable depletion of oxygen in air has been observed in fire areas compared to

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Coal Fire 65

non-fire areas. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide are generally emitted from fire areas. Sulphur
dioxide (S02) is partly converted to sulphur trioxide or to sulphuric acid by reactions with
atmospheric constituents. The oxides of sulphur in combination with particulates and moisture
produce damaging effects. Amount ofS02 released from coal fire depends on the sulphur content
of coal. S02 has low residence time and may contribute to classical smog and acid rain formation.
Sulphur dioxide has been associated with respiratory diseases and increased mortality rates.
Inhalation of su lphur dioxide can cause increased airway resistance by constricting lung passages
which is depicted in table 6.1 (Puget Sound Clean Air Agency, 2005). The amount ofS02 emissions
is higher in fire areas than in non-fire areas in view of increased pyrite oxidation. Oxides of nitrogen
are formed as a result of oxidation (burning) of coal at high temperatures. Coal contains about 2
per cent nitrogenous compounds and produces oxides of nitrogen during. coal fire, burning. Out of
, total nitrogen oxides, 90-95 per cent is nitrogen monoxide (NO ).It is a fairly stable gas but reacts
photo-chemically with hydrocarbons and radicals in air to form PAN and smog. It reacts with
moisture present in the air to form nitric acid.
Large amount of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons are emitted from coal combustion due
to coal fire. At higher temperature a variety of hydrocarbons are generated from the fires due to
distillation of coal. The compounds released are mentioned below:
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VAC), which includes aliphatic oxygenated and low molecular
weight aromatic compounds that exists in vapour phase like alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes,
benzene, toluene etc.; .
• Semi Volatile Organic Compounds; and
• Condensable Organic Compounds that include polycyclic organic matter (pOM), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PARs), PAN etc.
The pollutants released from mine fires comprise gases, such as, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (S02)' saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphides (H2S) and other photosensitive oxidants and suspended
particulate matter (SPM). Suspended particulate matter contains harmful trace elements beyond
threshold limit values (TLV) that adversely affect the health of the people. Fire areas have high
sulphation and dust fall rates. Smoke and particulates affect visibility and form smog resulting in
eye irritations and nasal discharges.
Table 6.1 and 6.2 highlight the harmful effects of gases and trace elements in the atmosphere
respectively (Trivedy, 1995).
Table 6.1 Effects of Coal Fire Gases on Human Health

S.No. Air Pollutants Effects on Human Health

1. CO CO poisoning, coma, death, reduces oxygen carrying capacity oflungs,
exacerbates heat disorders.
2. CO2 r Laboured breathing, headache, eventual loss of consciousness.
3. S02 Irritation of respiratory tract, eye irritation, increased morbidity and
mortality rates.
4. NOx Bronchial disease, emphysema, tissue damage in animals, pneumonia,
lung diseases.
5. H2S Neurotoxin, eye and throat irritation, headache, sleeplessness.
6. Hydrocarbon Cancer, anaemia, skin problem, eye irritation,odour problem, nerve damage.
7. Ozone Eye irritation, respiratory and throat infection, chest pain, headache,
coughing.
Adapted from Trivedy and Rao, Minenvis Newsletter No. 29 and 30.

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 66 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Table 6.2: Effects Associated with Trace Elements from Coal Fires

S.No. Element Hazard to Man Hazard to Animals

1. Lead Cancer, anaemIa,· kidney Lameness of cattle and horses,
malfunction, brain tissue damage, muscle problems, delirium, stupor,
. '. affects enzyme activity, death in paralysis, diarrhoea etc .
extreme cases.
2.. Cadmium . Teratogen, renal disfunction, Decline milk in cow, affects
hypertension, metabolic disorder respiratory tracts.
high, B.P., bronchitis and
, emphysema pleural mesothelioma,
tumors.
3. Arsenic Cancer, kidney damage, inhibit Inflammation of respiratory and·
enzyme, skin, nasal irritation, mild gastric tract, destroy RBC,
bronchitis. kidney damage, ulcer paralysis,
loss of appetite, nervous disorder.
4. Mercury Highly toxic, enzyme poison, Protoplasmic poison damage to
affects nervous system, brain, muscular tremors.
.•
pulmonary problems, gastro-
intenstinal disorder.

5. Chromium Cancer, dermatitis, skin ulcer, Toxic to aquatic animal.

performation of nasal, septum,
toxic tissues, kidney, gastro-
intestinal damage, respiratory
problems.

6. Copper Gastro-intestinal problem, liver . Toxic to fish

damage, reduces growth, and hair
disease.

7. Zinc Corrosive, damage skin, irritate Swelling of joints, lameness.

and damage mucous membrane,
renel damage, vomitting, cramps,
dwarfism.
,
8. Ni Cancer of lung,· dermatitis, \

respiratory problems.

Source: Adapted from An Introduction to Air Pollution: R.K. Trivedy, 1995.

Impact on the Environment

In case the fire is restricted to underground, the impact is limited but when it extends to the surface
the surroundings are adversely affected. The adverse impacts of mine fires are observed on all the
basic components ofthe environment, that is, air, wafer, and population.

Mine fires give rise to continuous and uncontrolled emissions of greenhouse gases, such as, CO2,
(carbondioxide) NOx, (nitrogen oxides) and CH4 etc. These gases may contribute to global
warming. Release ofS02"NOx, CO2 into the atmosphere mostly cause acidic precipitation in the
J,
mining areas in the form of sulphuric acid (H2S0 nitric acid, (RNO 3) and carbonic acid, (H2C03).
In fire areas, as already stated, CO, CO2 concentrations are high and oxygen is low. Smoky
conditions are serious in winter months, which can affect visibility and cause eye irritation leading
to accidents. The affected area has high evapo-transpiration rates, which affects the region's climate.

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 Coal Fire 67

Fire areas have characteristic rise in temperature, humidity conditions with distinct odour, which is
caused due to 'gob stink', 'fire stink' and distillation of coal.
Mine fires affect the society and its surrounding in the following manners. It causes discomfort to
the people living in nearby areas mainly due to increase in temperature and air.pollution and
consequent adverse environmental impacts make people vulnerable to lung diseases
(pneumoconiosis). The effect of air pollution becomes severe in residential areas, which are close
to mine fires. It may result in loss of productivity in agricultural land and destruction of ecosystem.
The people from coal fire-affected areas are to be displaced to the safer areas. When all of a
sudden fire occurs, there is insufficient time for safe evacuation of men and equipment, which is
evident from the case of New Kenda mine fire disaster at Raniganj coalfield where 55 miners lost
, their lives. In ceratin cases, the people had to be rescued. The circumstances of people force them
to live under various hazards and risks, and thus their lives are in constant danger.
There is reduction in availability of quality of surface and ground water, which is significant in fire-
affected areas. People living in and around such areas are hard hit because of qualitative and
quantitative change of surface and ground water. The degrading effects on vegetation and disruption
in cropping pattem have also led to inconvenience among the inhabitants ofthe area. The vulnerability
of state in which the people live near the fire areas can be realised only by visiting the settlements.
Thus, coal fires affect life and cause damages to residential areas/ towns, mineshafts, riverbeds, rail
sidings, roads etc.

6.3 COAL MINE FIRE: DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The most crucial factor while managing coal fire disaster in coal mine would be using the right life
saving equipment immediately, and deploying rescue personnel within the least possible time. The
safety ofthe personnel in coal mine envisages that the miners working, underground, should
immediately wear escape apparatus (Filter Self Rescuer - FSR) and escape from the deadly
Carbon Monoxide. The oxygen available in the atmosphere is to be utilised to survive. For survival
a man needs at least 17 per cent oxygen in the air inhaled. The filter of self-rescuers has limitations,
that is, the atmosphere should not contain less than 17 per cent of oxygen and not more than
1per cent of Carbon Monoxide.
In new Kenda disaster, 55 miners died due to fire. As per the enquiry, held after the disaster, it has
been observed that self-rescuers were not provided adequately or were not carried by the miners.
A major constraint in provision of self-rescuers is the prohibitive cost of equipment. In this context,
if the customs duty is exempted the ~ost will be reduced that will encourage the mine management
to make adequate.provision, Local industry should be encouraged to develop an indigenous product
so as to reduce the cost and also design the same with a fibre body to increase the life period.
After fire occurs, the mine is filled up with deadly Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide increases
and Oxygen declines significantly. However, the self-rescuers provide protection only from Carbon
Monoxide but offer no protection from lack of oxygen. Therefore, to provide complete protection
to miners self-contained self-rescuers should be provided at strategic locations. These strategic
points are known as Rescue Chambers.
Rescue Chambers are:
• mobile chambers having charged oxygen self-rescuers;
• established at strategic points underground;
• provide for replacement of depleted self-rescuers, healthy atmosphere, safe drinking water,
telephonic communication and first-aid facilities; and
• a place of safety for trapped miners.

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 68 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

The self-contained self-rescuer (SCSR) is of two types:

a) Compressed Oxygen Cylinder Type - oxygen is provided from a cylinder and the exhaled
air is recirculated after cleaning the CO2 in the' exhaled air by CO2 absorbent placed within
the self- rescuer.
," b) Chemical Type - super potassium oxide is used, which continuously provides oxygen for
about half an hour.
After adopting self-rescuers, the miners should know where to proceed to safety and as such
escape routes should be clearly marked to be used in case of emergency from each and every
working district. Without this, the workers may not proceed to safety but in turn might proceed
, further towards danger. In the case of new Kenda disaster, the victims proceeded towards the
Intake air (air on the intake side) assuming i~to be the safest but instead proceeded towards the
poisonous carbon monoxide filled air as the fire itself was on the Intake side. In the new Kenda
disaster a simple decision of reversal of fan by the senior most officer available at the mine, at the
time of disaster, would have saved the life of persons as the fire was in the intake side and the
carbon monoxide was filling the complete mine along with the intake air. Had this fan been reversed.
the poisonous gas would not have filled the mine but would have been cleared out of the mine and
the workers would have been saved and evacuated from the return side, which would have had
clean air in case the fan was reversed. In such cases, the provision of a third Air Lock Door is
necessary. According to the location ofthe fire, standing orders are-to be formulated as to when
the fan is to be reversed. (Baidya, HPC Report)
The Emergency Action Plan should be immediately activated in case of a coal fire disaster. Mock
rehearsal should be conducted by simulating fire in working district; and use of alarm signal, self
rescuers and escape routes. In this process, access to rescue chambers; and activation of the
emergency action plan should be rehearsed and tested.
Immediately after fire occurs, the Rescue Station should be informed. For this, telephone
communication to the Rescue Service Point is essential. But it is often found that telephone is busy,
engaged or faulty. As such, alternative communication, such as, wireless and fax should also be
. provided between all mines and Rescue Service Points as per Rule 17 of the Mines Rescue Rules,
1985.
On the receipt oftelephone, rescue personnel should immediately set off and reach the affected
mine well within 30 minutes, as the miners using self-rescuers will survive for 30 minutes. Use of
SCSR at strategic points will further give a survival time of another 30 to 45 minutes. For this a
team of rescue personnel and driver should be available in each shift. Well-conditioned emergency
vehicles should be available so as to transport the rescue personnel and equipment to reach the
mine in time.
As per the Rule 11, Schedule -land II of Mines Rescue Rules (MRR), 1985 provision of equipment
is made after the rescue personnel reach the mine and the Superintendent in-charge of the rescue
service point contacts the Control Room established at the surface and discusses with the advisory
committee (to be formed as the emergency action plan) to take the rescue plan, that is, to be
maintained at the mine as per Rule 18 ofMRR, 1985 and proceed to the underground as per the
condition of the case and establish a Fresh Air Base. As per rule 27 ofMRR 1985, a Fresh Air
Base (FAB) is a base established in good air as near to the fire as safety permits, equipped and
provided with a Doctor, Rescue Trained Officer, Breathing Apparatus and Accessories, and a
standby team.
From the FAB, after consultation with the Principal Official (Colliery Manager), the Rescue Team
conducts Search and Rescue Mission with six members in each team, as per the rules ofthe MRR

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 Coal Fire 69

1.985. Trapped persons are rescued with the application of Resuscitators and carried on a stretcher
to the Fresh Air Base for further transport to the surface and Hospital. Meanwhile, Rescue Trained
Personnel are summoned as per the requirement assessed according to the magnitude of the
disaster. It has been reported that 620 rescue-trained personnel are present in the mines ofSingareni
who are trained in the use of breathing apparatus to rescue life and also in fire fighting for recovery
of national property. These personnel are selected from the mines at the rate of one from each 100
.
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miners, employed in the mines .
After rescuing the trapped persons the' area is sealed offby constructing sand bag stopping, and
then strengthened by masonry stopping so as to cut off the supply of air (oxygen) and extinguish
the fire.
, After the fire is extinguished and temperature is reduced, the area is recovered by the rescue teams
by breaking open the stoppings and circulating the air to remove all the foul and noxious gases.
During these Rescue and Recovery operations the atmosphere is monitored by Gas Detectors to
determine the percentage of Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon dioxide and Methane for the
safety ofthe Rescue Personnel and also workers of the mine.

6.4 COAL FIRE: PAST DISASTERS

i) New Kenda Disaster( 25-01-1994)

The disaster was caused by fire due to spontaneous heating of roof coal of about 28 cm thick layer
in the underground workings in the Debrona seam. Fire was in the main intake airway close to the
down cast shafts (Number 2 Pit). The products of combustion spread into the working places.
• On the day of the incident, 180 persons were deployed on the west side of both the shafts,
including Number 12 and 23 dip districts. Both have independent intakes of the mainstream.
In the first shift ending on25.01.1994; sudderily dense smoke was encountered in the west
side shafts level of Number 2 pit. In all, eleven persons came out safely walking through the
smoke clouds to Number 3 pit. 55 persons on the west side ofthe mine died due to carbon
monoxide (CO) poisoning. (Baidya, HPC Report)

ii) Fire at Kothagudem Thermal Power Station (Ktps)(10-12-1998)

• Major fire broke out in the '0' level ofthe plant in underground cable gallery completely
engulfing the plant with dense smoke that prevented fire fighters to enter and deal with fire.
• Rescue trained persons wearing breathing apparatus entered the smoke filled plant and
prevented fire from reaching fuel tankers and hydrogen cylinders.
• It could have caused an explosion and led to a major disaster.
• Extinguished fire by directing water jets at strategic points and saved the IV & V plant from
damage and saved the VI and VII plants completely.
• Total property saved, nearly 250 crores. (ibid)

Disaster Management: Basic Needs.

Coal- mine fire causes damage to coal mines and structures on the surface and directly affect the
safety of inhabitants through subsidence ofland and pollution. The information needs, during the
different phases, are as follows:
• Preparedness: Zonation of existing coal mine fire affected regions, preparedness drills through
modelling/simulation of potential land subsidence and related impact, and assessment ofloss

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 70 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

of property / energy.
• Warning/ Prediction: real time monitoring of coal fires, prediction of spread and depth, and
pollution extent.
• Relief Delineation of affected areas, ways to arrest spread of fire, and provide support to
affected population.
"
• Rehabilitation: long-term measures to control spread offires, awareness creation among
local people, and relocation of affected people.
Agencies involved in Coal Fire management in India are as follows:
• Coal India Ltd.
, • Indian School of Mines
• Geological Survey of India
, . • Indian Space Research Organization
As authentic sources of information on occurrences of disasters, extent, and damage is not available,
therefore, potential use of satellite data may be used to:
• study fire-prone areas from thermal infrared data. Albedo image from IRS visible data for
comparison with ground truth;
...• generate the surface temperature from satellite data after appropriate atmospheric correction;
and
• 'detection and mapping of aerial extent, and estimated depth.
Thus, to bridge the gaps in the disaster management system operational use of high technology
(Satellite / aerial data) for monitoring and estimation of extent and depth; and development of new
, tools such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging and thermal anomaly mapping for accurate
information on oil spills are suggested. An urgent need to improve the management system has
been felt. In this regard, development of techniques for quick detection and monitoring; and
development of a surveillance system with ground, ship based, and satellite observations should be
developed.

6.5 CONCLUSION
The Unit has revealed that coalmine fire is one ofthe serious problems ofIndian Coal Mining
industry and needs serious attention both for resource conservation, worker safety and minimising
the harm to the environment resulting from unattended disasters. This Unit has emphasised on'
causes, impacts, and management of coal fires in India. It suggested the need to put in concerted
efforts to minimise the economic losses and loss oflife resulting from coal fires.

6.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Aliphatic Compounds Organic compounds with Carbon atoms which are
arranged in open chains and not rings, e.g., paraffms,
fatty acids, also Methane.
Environment Impact Assessment It is a policy tool to tailor environmental concerns in
policy decisions concerning siting of projects in
particular,and otherdecisions;which potentiallyinvolve
impacts on the environment. Clearance Certificate has
to be taken from the concerned ministry for project
siting, after a detailed study concerning potential
harmful impact on the environment.

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 Coal Fire 71

Particulate Matter "PM 10 consists of small, discrete solid or aerosol

(PMIO and PM2.5) particles in the air. Particulate matter with a diameter
of less tha!l or equal to 10 micrometres is referred to
as PMl O. A PMl 0 particle is roughly 118 the diameter
of a human hair, so it is invisible to the naked eye.
" Motor vehicles, wood burning and industrial activity
are major sources of particulate matter. Particulate
matter in the respiratory tract may produce injury by
itself, or it may act with gases to increase the effect on
the body. The elderly, those suffering fromrespiratory
illness, and young children are especially prone to the
harmful effects of particulates. Particulate matter also
makes our long-distance views appear hazy. PM 2.5
particles are about one-fourth the size of PM 10 and
therefore much more harmful.

6.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Chowdhary, S.K" "Coal In India," World Energy Council at http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-
geis.
Focus on Fire, vol.3 Hot Spur Publishing Co. Ltd, Manchester, U.K.
Government ofIndia, Ministry of Agriculture, Baidya, D., "Accident Related Disasters: Mine
Fires and Flooding, Chapter-4", High Powered Committee Report, 2002, New Delhi.
Minenvis Newsletter, 29/30 at http://www.geocities.com/envis_ism/newsletter12.html- 8k-
Prakash, Anupma, 2005, "Frequently asked questions on coal fires" at http://www.gi.alaska.edu/
-prakash/coalfires/frq. html.
Puget Sound Clean Air Agency, 2001, "Working Together for 'Clean Air," at http://
www.pscleanair.org
Rao, C.S., 1991, Environmental Pollution Control Engineering, Wily Earton Ltd., New Delhi.
"Safety" at http://www. coal. nic.in
Singh, Gurdeep, "Environmental Impacts of Mine fires: An Overview", Minenvis Newsletter, 29/
30.
Trivedy, R.K., 1995, An introduction to Air Pollution, Techno-Science Publishers.
World Energy Council, 1999-2005, at http//:www.worldenergy.org/wec-geislpublications.

6.S ACTIVITIES
1) Select a coal fire affected area in India, which is susceptible to coal fire disasters and critically
evaluate the disaster management practices prevalent in that area.
2) On the basis of your study, bring out effective policies and strategies to mitigate the problem
of coal fire in India.