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Cerrado Grasslands

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Gonzalo Navarro
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 Cerrado Grasslands 441

vations are more highly converted, with intactness The biome is mostly coincident with the Brazil-
increasing with elevation—exactly the opposite ian Precambrian shield, one of South America’s
trend required for biodiversity. Even though this largest and oldest geological areas. These rocks
biome is fairly intact in general, the areas with the of this area, mainly granite and gneiss, have been
highest biodiversity are the most at risk. affected by several erosion cycles since Paleozoic
times, and now form a landscape of plateaus and
José-F. González-Maya undulating peneplains. Some have low hills, com-
Jan Schipper posed of less-ancient geological materials such as
sandstone, limestone, and shale.
Further Reading Because the region has been mostly unaf-
Halffter, G. “Biogeography of the Montane fected by subsequent marine transgressions, the
Entomofauna of Mexico and Central America.” soils have developed over long periods under
Annual Review of Entomology 32, no. 1 (1987). warm, semihumid, tropical-climate conditions,
Land, H. C. Birds of Guatemala. Wynnewood, PA: with strongly seasonal rainfall. There is a general
Livingston, 1970. predominance of old, weathered, and impover-
Reid, F. Field Guide to the Mammals of Central ished red and yellowish soils. The Cerrado biome
America and Southeast Mexico. New York: Oxford is highly adapted to soils that are poor in nutri-
University Press, 2009. ents, and to the strong seasonal rainfall, which can
Rich, P. V. and T. H. Rich. “The Central reach 31 to 67 inches (800 to 1,700 millimeters)
American Dispersal Route: Biotic History and annually. The rain occurs primarily in the warmer
Paleogeography.” In D. H. Janzen, ed., Costa Rican months, November to April, with an opposing
Natural History. Chicago: University of Chicago significant water deficit that extends over four to
Press, 1983. five months. This prolonged dry season favors the
Sutton, Susan Y. “Nicaragua.” In David G. Campbell high incidence of fires, both naturally caused and
and H. David Hammond, eds., Floristic Inventory of human-induced. Consequently, many researchers
Tropical Countries. Bronx, NY: New York Botanical consider the Cerrado to be a pyrophytic or pyro-
Garden, 1988. genic ecosystem that has at least partially evolved
by adapting to periodic fire disturbance.

Biota
The vegetation of the Cerrado is comprised of sev-
Cerrado Grasslands eral dynamic savanna physiognomies and struc-
tures, varying in their respective extension and
Category: Grassland, Tundra, and landscape importance on the basis of the incidence
Human Biomes. and intensity of fires, as well as human management
Geographic Location: South America. modalities. This physiognomies include almost pure
Summary: The Cerrado grasslands, a large grassland savanna (campo limpo); open scrub and
neotropical biome with tropical and subtropical shrubby savanna (campo sujo); arboreal savanna
grassland, savanna, and shrubland, is threatened (campo cerrado); and patches of low, partly open
by agricultural expansion, water projects, and woodland (cerradão). Both the herbaceous and
other development. woody Cerrado floristic components show a set of
morphological and anatomical specializations that
The Cerrado biome is a diagonal strip in the cen- various scientists have interpreted as being adapta-
ter of South America that is roughly oriented from tions to fire, the poverty and toxicity of soils, and
northeast to southwest, occupying large areas seasonal drought. Among these adaptations, the
in central Brazil (nearly 25 percent of the coun- most significant is the low-lying, contorted trees
try), eastern Bolivia, and northeastern Paraguay. with thick, corky, fire-resistant barks; the frequent
442 Cerrado Grasslands

sclerophyllous leaves with thick cuticles and or 17th century when cattle were introduced by Portu-
silicified tissues; and the presence of several swol- guese and Spanish settlers. In Bolivia and Paraguay,
len woody underground vegetal structures called the traditional use of the Cerrado has continued,
xylopodia. leading to a predominance of semi-natural land-
Animals of the biome include the maned wolf scapes with still-remarkable levels of ecosystem
(Chrysocyon brachyurus), giant anteater (Myr- conservation. Today, both countries have the best
mecophaga tridactyla), and the pampas cat (Once- naturally preserved areas of the Cerrado biome.
felis colocolo). Among the bird species are the rhea In Brazil, by contrast, different social charac-
(Rhea americana); red-legged seriema (Cariama teristics and greater economic capacity to trans-
cristata); and the Spix’s macaw (Cyanopsitta form the environment have resulted in a dramatic
spixii), which is critically endangered due to habi- conversion of much of the Cerrado to large areas
tat loss and capture for the pet trade. of mechanized agriculture. With the extensive
addition of lime and fertilizer after deforestation,
Environmental Threats the Brazilian Cerrado has largely been replaced
Fire and livestock pressure on vegetation are very by cultivated soybeans, cotton, rice, and oil
important factors determining the density and palms, among other crops. Today, this biome has
frequency of the Cerrado woody component. practically disappeared in Brazil outside national
Overgrazing and excessive frequency or inten- parks, where some more or less representative
sity of the fire regime both favor the progressive areas are preserved.
reduction or disappearance of woody plants and, Studies have shown that climate change is likely
conversely, grass predominance, in transforming to affect the Cerrado by breaking up tree habitats,
the savanna woodlands and arboreal savanna (cer- leading to lower diversity among the woody spe-
radão, campo cerrado) to savanna grasslands and cies here, and limiting a successful rebound in
thickets (campo limpo, campo sujo). the aftermath. The current, relatively high level of
According to several researchers, the natural diversity is seen transitioning to moderate level of
potential vegetation of the Cerrado is the wood- diversity, which will be found in more isolated dis-
land and arboreal savanna physiognomies. The tribution. Such research points to a conservation
grasslands and thicket–grasslands are successional strategy that would strengthen the core areas of
degraded phases; they can evolve through eco- the Cerrado—including its central expanse in Bra-
logical succession to woody savanna if the exces- zil—in order to preserve the maximum diversity
sive fire or livestock pressure ceases or diminishes. of tree species and thereby support the health of
These ideas are consistent with field observations the habitats they underpin.
that show a recovery of woodland and arboreal
savanna in the interior of existing Cerrado pro- Gonzalo Navarro
tected areas in Brazil, as well as the general domi-
nance of woody savanna aspects in the better-pre- Further Reading
served Cerrado areas of Bolivia and Paraguay. De Siqueira, Martinez Ferreira and Andrew Townsend
Peterson. “Consequences of Global Climate Change
Effects of Human Activity for Geographic Distributions of Cerrado Tree
Most of the Cerrado biome is not suitable for agri- Species.” Biota Neotropica 3, no. 2 (2003).
culture, because of strong soil and climatic con- Killeen, T. J. A. and T. S. Schulenberg, eds. A Biological
straints. Therefore, the main natural land poten- Assessment of the Parque Nacional Noel Kempff
tial use is cattle ranching on natural pastures and Mercado, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Washington, DC:
browsing in the woodland savanna, where fire is Conservation International, 1998.
used annually to encourage the growth of tender Navarro, Gonzalo. Clasificación de la Vegetación de
grass after burning. Extensive range management Bolivia. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia: Editorial
has been the dominant economic activity since the Centro de Ecología Simón I. Patiño, 2011.
 Chad, Lake 443

Oliveira-Filho, Ary T. and James A. Ratter. The

Cerrados of Brazil: Ecology and Natural History
of a Neotropical Savanna. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2002.

Chad, Lake
Category: Inland Aquatic Biomes.
Geographic Location: Central Africa.
Summary: Lake Chad supports an abundance
of life, but is shrinking at an alarming rate;
conservation efforts are widespread but not
entirely effective.

Lake Chad is a unique inland sea that receives

water from four rivers and has no water out-
let—yet has shrunk to less than 10 percent of
its original size within 40 years. This lake and
its vast resources support more than 25 million
This satellite photograph of Lake Chad from October 21,
people, and its location in the southern Sahara 2001, shows evidence of the lake’s decline over the past
Desert provides a perfect sanctuary for animals, 40 years, as its previous surface area included the rippled
making it a biome with rich biological diversity of area near the top of the lake. (NASA)
global importance and an international meeting
point for important animals, especially migrant
birds. Crude oil deposits within its basin are set
to affect the economies of the concerned coun- Republic, Chad, and Cameroon, and also collects
tries, perhaps to the better. The lake, however, the waters of the Logone River; the Komadugu-
has become a point of contention for communal Yobe from Nigeria; and the El-Beid from Camer-
conflicts over rights to water use as it shrinks, oon. The Chari River accounts for more than 90
threatening the livelihoods of pastoralists, fish- percent of the water supplied to the lake, and it
ers, and farmers in the area. flows year-round, unlike the rest, which seasonally
The name Chad is a local term meaning “a flow for only a few months each year.
large expanse of water.” Lake Chad, in contrast to
several other brackish or high-saline inland seas, Biodiversity
such as the Caspian and Dead Seas, is still nearly The lake and the wetlands of its basin combine to
entirely a freshwater lake. The lake is believed to support biodiversity that is of global importance,
be a remnant of an ancient sea that had drainage including 176 fish species and 354 resident and 155
into the Atlantic Ocean through the Benue River migrant bird species. Birds here include ostriches,
in present-day Nigeria. Today Lake Chad is shared bustards, pelicans, crane, herons, ducks, mara-
by four countries: Niger in the northwest, Chad in bous, storks, and egrets, which gather in the dried
the east, Cameroon in the south, and Nigeria in its floodplains in populations as high as 450,000. Lake
southwest portion. Chad is the wintering ground for several European
The main influent rivers of Lake Chad are bird species, too, such as white storks, ducks, wad-
the Chari, which flows through Central African ers, white-faced whistling ducks, and little egrets.

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