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TOM Lab ManualS

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TOM Lab ManualS

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Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,

Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA

020..00Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Approved by AICTE,
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Lab Manual

Course Name: Theory of Machines Lab

Course Code: 4ME4-24

Semester: IV

Faculty: 1. Sandeep Kumar Bhaskar

Session: 2022-23

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 1 of 71

Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
020..00Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Approved by AICTE,
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Institute Vision/Mission/Quality Policy

Institute Vision

"To promote higher learning in advanced technology and industrial research to

make our country a global player."

Mission

"To promote quality education, training and research in the field of Engineering by
establishing effective interface with industry and to encourage faculty to undertake
industry sponsored projects for students. "

Quality Policy

We are committed to ‘achievement of quality’ as an integral part of our

institutional policy by continuous self-evaluation and striving to improve
ourselves.

Institute would pursue quality in

o All its endeavours like admissions, teaching- learning processes,

examinations, extra and co-curricular activities, industry institution
interaction, research & development, continuing education, and
consultancy.
o Functional areas like teaching departments, Training & Placement
Cell, library, administrative office, accounts office, hostels, canteen,
security services, transport, maintenance section and all other
services.”

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Departmental Vision/Mission

Vision of the Department: To become a nationally visible mechanical engineering department

with excellence in teaching-learning, research and development, entrepreneurship and industry
outreach activities.

Mission of the Department:

M1: To provide facilities and environment conducive to high quality education and research
and development in the ﬁeld of mechanical engineering.
M2: To inculcate technical, professional and communication skills in students, staff and faculty
members.
M3: To instill innovative skills, critical thinking, leadership and teamwork in students through
various teaching-learning activities and industry linkages.
M4: To inculcate strong ethical qualities in the students and faculty for realizing lifelong
learning and serving the society and nation at large.

Departmental Quality Policy

Department would pursue quality in all its endeavours like:

 Teaching-learning processes
 Examinations
 Extra and co-curricular activities
 Industry-institution interaction
 Continuing education and
 Consultancy

Departmental Core Values

 Professional integrity
 Hard-work
 Self-discipline
 Positive work culture
 Empathy towards others.

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University Syllabus

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Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

B. Tech. Mechanical Engineering Program at SKIT will produce graduates who will be:

1 Suitable for employment, venturing own business enterprise or pursuing higher studies.
2 Capable mechanical engineers with the requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes.
3 Responsible citizens, competent leaders, good team workers, good human beings and
ethical engineers.

Program Outcomes (POs) and Program Specific

Outcomes (PSOs)

Program Outcomes (POs): The student will be able to

1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and mechanical engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.

2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.

4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 5 of 71

responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs): The student will be able to

PO13/PSO1: Show an awareness of Contemporary Issues
PO14/PSO2: Participate and succeed in competitive examinations

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Applicable Program Outcomes

The student will be able to:

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of
mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and mechanical
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an
individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.

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Objectives for Laboratory Work in ME Department

Students will be able to:

1 Show an attitude of enquiry.
2 Show confidence while working.
3 Work in the team and also as leader of the team.
4 Show an attitude of safety consciousness.
5 Select appropriate equipment, instruments and material.
6 Set/handle and manipulate different types of equipment including modern engineering
tools.
7 Observe and measure various types of physical phenomena and quantities.
8 Assess various types of errors and minimize these.
9 Solve an engineering problem by designing and conducting experiments.
10 Follow standard test procedures.
11 Present observations, other data and results appropriately in tabular and graphical form.
12 Analyze experimental data and draw conclusions.
13 Draw appropriate sketches and drawings etc. related with the study, experimental set-up,
equipment etc.
14 Write reports of various studies and tests.
15 Understand concepts, principles and relationships related with the experiments.

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Course Outcomes

After completion of this course, students will be able to –

Explain inversions of four bar, single slider and double slider chain. Steering
C4ME4-24.1 Mechanisms both Davis and Ackerman; quick return mechanism and draw its
velocity and acceleration diagrams.

Explain and Demonstrate cam and followers arrangements and plot

C4ME4-24.2
displacement v/s angle of rotation curve for these.

C4ME4-24.3 Determine co-efficient of friction of different materials using two roller

oscillating arrangement and differentiate among.

C4ME4-24.4 Describe, discuss and differentiate various types of dynamometers, Brakes,

Clutches and Gear boxes with their applications

C4ME4-24.5 Explain the principle and verify the practical vs. theoretical torque relation for
gyroscope and its applications. Explain static and dynamic balancing.

C4ME4-24.6 Apply the working principle of governor for plotting Force vs. Radius and Lift
vs. Speed curves for Watt and Porter governors and differentiate among these.
Plot pressure distribution curve on a journal bearing.

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Index

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDEX
B.TECH. III SEMESTER
4ME4-24 : Theory of Machines LAB
NAME: ………………………………......... UNIV. ROLL No............................................
Name of Group Members
1............................................................... 2...............................................................
3............................................................... 4...............................................................
EXP. Date of Date of Marks/ Faculty
Title of Experiment Page No.
NO. Performance Submission Grade Sig.
To study inversions of four bars chain and
1 slider crank mechanism and their practical
applications. (Simulation on Virtual Lab)
To study Steering Mechanisms: Davis and
2 Ackerman.
Study of quick return mechanism and its
3 practical applications. (Simulation on Virtual
Lab)
Study of inversion of Double slider chain:
4 Oldham Coupling, Scotch Yoke and Elliptical
Trammel. (Simulation on Virtual Lab)
Study of various cam-follower arrangements.
5 To plot displacement v/s angle of rotation
curve for various cams. (Simulation on
Virtual
To Lab) co-efficient of friction using two
determine
6 roller oscillating arrangement.

Study of various types of dynamometers,

7 Brakes and Clutches.

Study of differential and planetary gear box.

8
To verify the torque relation for gyroscope.
9
To perform static and dynamic balancing on
10 balancing set up.

Study of a lathe gear box, sliding mesh and

11/BC Synchro mesh automobile gear box.

To plot force vs. radius and lift vs. speed

12/BC curves for watt and porter governors. (Beyond
Curriculum)
To Plot pressure distribution curves of a
13/BC journal bearing. (Beyond Curriculum)

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 11 of 71

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Prerequisite of Lab
Prerequisites of the Theory of Machines Lab (code: 4ME4-24) course are:
a) Fundamental Knowledge of Basic Mechanical Engineering and
Engineering Mechanics.
b) Mathematic fundamentals related to menstruation, geometry,
trigonometry, vectors, and calculus.

Reference Books
S.No. Title of Book Author(s) Publication Edition
1 Theory of Machines SS Tata McGraw Hill 2017
Rattan
Pearson
2 Theory of Machines Bevan, T. Education,New 2013
Delhi(India)
Uicker, J.J.,
Theory of Machines Pennocle,
3 Oxford University 2009
and Mechanisms G.R, and Press
Shigley, J.E
Mechanism And Ambekar ,
4. Machine Theory A. G. Prentice-hall Of 2007
India

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GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY WORK

Laboratory is an important place for learning. To maximize learning from the
laboratorywork, following steps will be followed: -

1. Class will be divided in 3 groups that will be further divided into subgroups of 2-4
students.
2. Experiment will be allotted for each turn for each subgroup, and usually be
performedby rotation in the cycle of experiments.
3. Each sub group will have a leader for performing an experiment. First student in
the subgroup will be the leader for the first experiment. Leadership will be rotated
in the order of roll numbers in the subgroup.
4. The duties of the leader will be to see that experimental plan is made and got
approved from the teacher\instructor, duties are allotted to each member, task is
completed, and tosee that subgroup functions effectively.
5. The duties of the members of the team will be to see that the task is completed,
and group functions effectively.
6. Each student will maintain a logbook, in which he will note down the observations,
and other point related with the experiment that he observes, and notes he makes
during the lab class or library work or while discussing with the teacher\instructor.
Logbook will be normal notebook. Leader will also prepare experimental plan in
the logbook. Student must get initials\signature of the teacher on any observation
done by him\her during the laboratory class, leaving the class.
7. Students must see that they complete as much work as possible during the
laboratory class itself. This includes taking observations\ studying whatever is to be
studied, making sample calculations, sketching setup\study object, plotting graph
etc.
8. Each student has to submit his\her previous experiment on the next turn;
experiment has to be submitted in the concerned laboratory in a file cover. Colour
coding for each laboratory will be decided and notified.
9. Each student must understand the aims of the laboratory work and try to achieve
these aims.

10. Students must come prepared with the experiment. Although teacher\instructor
will guide them, each student in the subgroup should try to start,
manipulate\control, stop a machine\system\experimental setup on his\her own.
Each one should also practice taking observations, observe a phenomena or setup
on his\her own.

11. Experimental report depending on the experiment and nature of report may include:

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 Date of conduction of experiment.

 Title of the experiment.
 Objectives of the experiment.
 Names of subgroup members and leader for the experiment.
 Resource required.
 Description of the experimental setup (including sketch\diagram)
 Theoretical background.
 Procedure\experimental steps.
 Precautions.
 Observations (in tabular form)
 Sample calculations
 Graphs
 Result
 Analysis\interpretation of results
 Conclusions
 Answers to sample questions given
 Appendices

12. Safety consciousness is an important aspect to be learnt in the laboratory.

Students must take all necessary precautions while in the laboratory. They must
not wear loose clothing‘s, including chappals in the laboratory class. They must
learn to stop a machine\experimental setup, before learning to start it. If anything
dangerous like some unexpected smell, spilled water on the floor, and machine
running without being attended, any machine believed to give electric shock, etc.;
is noticed by them, they should be immediately report the same to the
teacher\instructor. As the construction work is going on they must be very careful
about open electric wire, witches, openings in the building that are not yet closed,
building materials on the floor, etc.

13. Many a times electric power goes away, in such a situation student must
immediately put the various electric switches for the experimental setup off.
Experimental setups can be started after power comes, following all necessary
precautions.

14. Students must not play with any instrument\experimental setup or near the
construction work, openings, etc. it may be dangerous for them as well as for the
others.
15. System of the student evaluation in the laboratories will be as follows:
i. Internal evaluation-60%

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ii. External evaluation-40%

iii. Division of internal evaluation will be as follows:

a) Regularities in the class as seen by the attendance on the allotted turns and
readiness for theperforming an experiment, including prior preparation judged by
teacher by asking questions, seeing logbook, etc.-25%
b) Day to day work in the class-15%
c) Laboratory report, including timely submission-10%
d) Midterm examination, which may include written quiz\oral Post-Lab Viva and
performing experiment or doing experiment related activities-25%
e) Final laboratory report and follow up (making corrections, responding to teacher
remake, making additions in the report about addition points of interest) of
experiments performed25%.
iv. External evaluation will be depending on external examiner but will usually
includewritten quiz/ oral Post-Lab Viva, and performance of an experiment/
sample of activities from various experiments.

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EXPERIMENT NO: -1
TITLE: -To study the inversion of four bar chain, slider crank mechanism and their practical
applications. (Simulation on Virtual Lab)

Equipment’s required: - 1. Model of four bar chain and their inversions

2. Model of single slider chain and their inversions

THEORY: - Before we study inversion we should know following important definition.

MECHANISM: A four bar chain is much preferred mechanical device for control of motion
due to its simplicity and veracity. Basically, it consists of four rigid links which are
connected in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin-joint. When one link among the four is
fixed, it is known as linkage or mechanism. A link that complete the hole revolution is called
the crank. The link is opposite to the fixed link is called coupler and the fourth one is lever or
rocker. Any four bar chain exist when the sum of the shortest and longest link is less than the
sum of other two link. Inversion of a mechanism is to transmit or to modify motion where as
that of a machine is to take mechanical advantage.

Inversion of mechanism: -
The process of fixing different links of a kinematic chain one at a time to produce distinct
mechanisms is called kinematic inversion. Here the relative motions of the links of the
mechanisms remain unchanged. First, let us consider the simplest kinematic chain, i.e., chain
consisting of four binary links and four revolute pairs. The four different mechanisms can be
obtained by four different inversions of the chain.

Types of inversion
1. Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain inversions
 Beam engine
 Coupling rod of locomotive
2. Single slider crank chain
 Bull engine or pendulum engine
 Oscillating cylinder engine
 Rotary engine
 Crank & slotted quick return mechanism (Study in Exp. No. 3)
 Whitworth quick return mechanism (Study in Exp. No. 3)
3. Double slider crank (Study in Exp. No. 4)
 Elliptical trammels
 Scotch yoke mechanism
 Old-ham’s coupling

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BEAM ENGINE: It is first inversion of four bar chain. It was used to draw out water from
mines, as well as to pump water into canals. The engine consisted of a large wooden frame into
which a pivoted overhead beam was used to apply force generated by a pump rod and transfer
that movement to a vertical piston. This mechanism was mostly used in steam engines but
nowadays it is used in water pumps, oil rigs specifically designed sawing machine etc.

What is beam engine?

1. It is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force
from a verticalpiston to a vertical connecting rod.
2. It is basically a 6 link mechanism that converts rotary motion of crank into linear
straight line motion ofvertical sliding link that in practice used in pumps and other purposes.
Working principle
When the piston in the cylinder reciprocates, it imparts an oscillating motion to the rocker
arms. This oscillating motion of the rocker arm is converted into rotary motion by the
crankshaft. The crankshaft, which is connected to the circular saw, makes the circular saw
rotate. This rotary action of the circular wood saw is used to saw timber or wood blocks.
There is a small table attachment for supporting the wooden block. The wooden block is
placed on the table and pushed towards the rotating wood saw, which results in the sawing
action. The main advantage of this machine is that it can be used in places where electricity is
not economical or in places where electricity is absent.

Figure: Working of Bean Engine

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 18 of 71

Coupling rod of Locomotive: -It is second inversion of four bar chain. It is a mechanism in
which the rotary motion of one wheel is transmitted to the other wheel. For better analysis any
of the larger link is made fix, which helps to find the relative motion of other links. It is also
known by name of Parallel Crank Four-Bar linkage. If in a four bar linkage if the parallel links
are equal in length, then any of the links can be made fixed. The two links adjacent to the fixed
link will behave as two cranks. In locomotive mechanism rotary motion is transmitted from one
wheel (DRIVING WHEEL) to another wheel (COUPLING WHEEL). To increase the adhesive
weight coupling rod is placed 1800 to the adjacent driving crank. There are so many examples
but biggest one is TRAINS.

Figure: Locomotive rod of coupling

Bull engine or pendulum engine: In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by fixing the
cylinder or link 4 (i.e. sliding pair), as in this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates, the
connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4 at A and the piston
attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates. The duplex pump which is used to supply feed
water to boilers have two pistons attached to link 1, as shown in Figure below.

Figure: Pendulum Engine

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Oscillating Cylinder Engine: The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine mechanism, as

shown in Fig. is used to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion. In this mechanism,
the link 3 forming the turning pair is fixed. The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a
reciprocating steam engine mechanism. When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to
piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the
fixed link.

Figure: Oscillating Cylinder Engine

Rotary Engine: Sometimes back, rotary internal combustion engines were used in aviation.
But nowadays gas turbines are used in its place. It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and
all revolves about fixed center, as shown in Fig. while the crank (link 2) is fixed. In this
mechanism, when the connecting rod (link 4) rotates, the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside
the cylinders forming link 1.

Figure: Rotary Engine

Experiment Outcomes: We have successfully studied about

1. four bar and single slider chain.

2. inversions of four bar and single slider chain.
3. applications four bar and single slider chain.

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VIVA-VOCE: -

1. How many links are required for a mechanism?

2. What is a mechanism?

3. What are application of Locomotive and how it is useful with respect to mechanical
advantage?

4. Name the different inversion of four bar chain?

5. Explain working of Beam Engine.

6. Explain working of Rotary engine.

7. Explain oscillating cylinder engine.

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Experiment No: - 2

Title: - To study of Davis and Ackerman steering gear mechanism various types of steering

Apparatus used: -. Models of Steering mechanism.

THEORY: –
Steering gear mechanism
The steering mechanism is used in automobiles for changing the directions of the wheel
axles with reference to the chassis, so as to move the automobile in the desired path.
Usually, the two back wheels will have a common axis, which is fixed in direction with
reference to the chassis and the steering is done by means of front wheels.
Always there should be absolute rolling contact between the wheels and the road surface.
Any sliding motion will cause wear of tyres. When a vehicle is taking turn, absolute rolling
motion of the wheels on the road surface is possible, only if all the wheels describe
concentric circles. Therefore, the two front wheels must turn about the same instantaneous
centre I which lies on the axis of the back wheel.
Condition for perfect steering
The condition for perfect steering is that all the four wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous centre. While negotiating a curve, the inner wheel makes a larger turning
angle θ than the angle φ subtended by the axis of the outer wheel.
In the figure 1, a = wheel track, L = wheel base, w = distance between the pivots of front
axles.

Figure: Steering gear mechanism

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From cotθ = and

from cotφ =

.
This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this condition is satisfied, there will
be no skidding of the wheels when the vehicle takes a turn.

TYPES OF STERING GEARS: There are two main types of steering gears:

1. The Davis steering Gear

2. The Ackermann steering gear

DAVIS STEERING GEAR: A Davis steering gear has sliding pairs which means more
friction and easy wearing. The gear fulfils the fundamental equation of gearing in all the
positions. However, due to easy wearing it becomes inaccurate after some time. A davis
steering shown in fig. consists of two arms PK and QL fixed to the stub axles PC and QD to
form two similar bell crank levers CPK and DQL pivoted at P and Q respectively. A cross
link AB, constrained to slide parallel to PQ, is pin jointed at its ends to two sliders. The
sliders S 1 and S2 are free to slide on the links PK and QL respectively. During the straight
motion of the vehicle, the gear is in the mid-position with equal inclination of the arms PK
and QL with PQ. As the vehicle turns right, the cross- arm AB also moves right through a
distance x from the mod-position as shown in fig. the bell crank levers assume the positions
C´ P K´ and D´QL´.

tanα = w/2L
where: L = wheel base, w = distance between the pivots of front axle)
usual value of w/L is between 0.4 to 0.5 and that of from 11 to 14 degrees.

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Figure: Davis steering gear mechanism when taking left turn

ACKERMANN STEERING GEAR: An Ackermann steering gear has only turning pairs and
thus is preferred. Its drawback is that it fulfils the fundamental equation of correct gearing at
the middle and the two extreme position and not in all positions. This steering gear consists of a
four link mechanism having four-turning pairs.

Three positions of the correct gearing are-

1. when the vehicle moves straight.

2. when the vehicle moves at a correct angle to the right, and
3. when the vehicle moves at a correct angle to the left.

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Figure: Ackerman Steering gear mechanism when taking left turn

In Ackerman steering gear, the mechanism ABCD is a four bar crank chain, as shown in
figure. The shorter links BC and AD are of equal length and are connected by hinge
joints with front wheel axles. The longer links AB and CD are of unequal length. The
following are the only three positions for correct steering.

When the vehicle moves along a straight path, the longer links AB and CD are parallel
and the shorter links BC and AD are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle, as shown by firm lines in figure.
When the vehicle is steering to the left, the position of the gear is shown by dotted lines
in Fig. In this position, the lines of the front wheel axle intersect on the back wheel axle
at I, for correct steering.
When the vehicle is steering to the right, the similar position may be obtained.
Thus, the condition for correct steering is that all the four wheels must turn about the
same instantaneous center. The axis of the inner wheel makes a larger turning angle than
the angle subtended by the axis of outer wheel.
Cotθ = BP/IP
Let a = Wheel track
b = Wheel base, and
c = Distance between the pivots A and B of the front axle.Now from triangle IBP,
cotBP/IP
and from triangle IAP,
cot ø = AP/IP = AB+BP /IP = AB/IP + BP/IP = c/b + cot θ so, cot θ – cot ø =
c/b
This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this condition is satisfied, there

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 25 of 71

will be no skidding of the wheels, when the vehicle takes a turn. In order to satisfy the
fundamental equation for correct steering. The links AD and DC are suitably
proportioned. The value of θ and φ may be obtained either graphically or by
calculations.
The Ackerman steering gear mechanism is much simpler than Davis gear. The
difference between the Ackerman and Davis steering gears are:
1. The whole mechanism of the Ackerman steering gear is on back of the front
wheels; whereasin Davis steering gear, it is in front of the wheels.
2. The Ackerman steering gear consists of turning pairs, whereas Davis steering
gear consists ofsliding members.

Experiment Outcome: - Hence we successfully studied about

1. correct steering gear mechanism.

2. Davis and Ackerman steering gear mechanism.
3. differences between Davis and Ackerman steering gear mechanisms.
4. applications of steering gear mechanisms.

Viva questions
1. what do you mean by steering?
2. What is the difference between the Davis & Ackermann steering gear mechanism?
3. What is correct fundamental equation of steering gear mechanism?
4. What do you mean by stub axle?
5. Which steering gear is preferred and why?
6. Working & Construction of different types of steering gear mechanisms with neat
sketch.
7. Write advantages & disadvantages of Davis and Ackerman steering gear mechanisms.
8. Write applications of steering gear mechanisms.
9. Why steering gear is used in automobiles?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 26 of 71

Experiment No: - 3

Title: Study of quick return mechanism and its practical applications. (Simulation on Virtual
Lab)

Apparatus used: -. Models of quick return mechanism.

THEORY: A quick return mechanism is an apparatus to produce a reciprocating motion in

which the time taken for travel in return stroke is less than in the forward stroke. It is driven
by a circular motion source (typically a motor of some sort) and uses a system of links with
three turning pairs and a sliding pair.

Quick return motion mechanism is used in Shaper machine. The shaper mechanism is so
designed that it moves the ram holding the tool at a comparatively slower speed during the
forward cutting stroke, whereas during the return stroke it allows the ram to move at a faster
speed to reduce the idle return time.

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism:

This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary
internal combustion engines. In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the turning
pair is fixed, as shown in fig. The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating
steam engine. The driving crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about the fixed
centre C. A sliding block attached to the crank pin at B slides along the slotted bar AP and
thus causes AP to oscillate about the pivoted point A. A short link PR transmits the motion
from AP to the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates along the line of stroke R1R2.
The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is perpendicular to AC produced.

Figure: Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 27 of 71

In the extreme positions, AP1 and AP2 are tangential to the circle and the cutting tool is at the
end of the stroke. The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the position
CB1 to CB2 (or through an angle β) in the clockwise direction. The return stroke occurs when
the crank rotates from the position CB2 to CB1 (or through angle α) in the clockwise direction.
Since the crank has uniform angular speed, therefore,


We see that the angle β made by the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle α
described by the return stroke. Since the crank rotates with uniform angular speed, therefore the
return stroke is completed within shorter time. Thus it is called quick return motion
mechanism.
Observation Table: -
STROKE CRANK DISPLACEMENT(cm)
ROTATION(degree)

FORWARD STROKE 00
200
400
600
800
……..
…....

BACKWARD STROKE ……..

……..
……..
3600 or 00

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 28 of 71

GRAPH BETWEEN DISPLACEMENT AND CRANK ROTATION

Experiment Outcome: -
We have studied about quick return motion mechanism and draw the graph between
crank rotation anddisplacement

Viva Questions: -

1. Explain crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism.

2. What is quick return mechanism?
3. What are the applications of quick return mechanisms?
4. What are the advantages of quick return mechanisms?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 29 of 71

Experiment No: - 4

Title: To study the inversion Double slider crank mechanism and their practicalapplications.
(Simulation on Virtual Lab)

Apparatus used: -. Models of Double slider crank chain

Theory:
A kinematic chain consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is called
double-slider crank chain. There are three important inversions of double slider crank chain.
1) Elliptical trammel. 2) Scotch yoke mechanism. 3) Oldham‘s Coupling..

INVERSIONS OF DOUBLE SLIDER MECHANISM:

1) Elliptical trammel:
Fig. shows an elliptical trammel in which two grooves are cut at right angles in a plate which is
fixed. The plate forms the fixed link 4. Two sliding blocks are fitted into the grooves. The
slides form two sliding links 1 and 3. The link joining slides form the link 2. Any point on
link 2 or its extension traces out an ellipse on the fixed plate, when relative motion occurs.
Practical Application: To draw ellipse.
From fig.
X = APcosθ or x/AP= cosθ
Y = BPsinθ or y/BP =sinθ
squaring and adding.
We get x2/AP2 + y2/BP2 =1
Which is an equation of an ellipse.

Figure: Elliptical Trammel

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 30 of 71

2). Scotch Yoke Mechanism: This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a
reciprocating motion. The inversion is obtained by fixing either the link 2 or link 4., link 1 is
fixed. In this mechanism, when the link 2 (which corresponds to crank) rotates about B as
centre, the link 4 (which corresponds to a frame) reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the
frame.
Practical Application: Converts rotary motion into a reciprocating motion.

Figure: Scotch Yoke Mechanism

3) Old ham’s coupling: An Oldham’s coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts
whose axes are at a small distance apart. The shafts are coupled in such a way that if one shaft
rotates, the other shaft also rotates at the same speed. This inversion is obtained by fixing the
link 3, as shown in Figure below The shafts to be connected have two flanges (link 2 and link
4) rigidly fastened at their ends by forging.
Practical Application: Used to connects two shafts having axes parallel but not in line with
each other

Figure: Oldham’s Couplings

Experiment Outcome: -
1. We have studied the inversions of double slider crank chain with their
practical applications.
2. Draw an ellipse using elliptical trammel.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 31 of 71

Viva Questions: -

1. What is double slider crank chain?

2. How many inversions of double slider crank mechanism?
3. Explain working of each inversion of double slider crank mechanism with neat
sketch.
4. What are the applications of inversion of double slider crank mechanism?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 32 of 71

Experiment No: - 5

Title: Study of various cam-follower arrangements. To plot displacement v/s angle of rotation
curve for various cams. (Simulation on Virtual Lab)

Apparatus used: -. Model of various cam-follower’s arrangements

Theory: A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion
to another element known as follower. The cam and the follower have a line contact and
constitute a higher pair. The cams are usually rotated at uniform speed by a shaft, but the
follower is pre-determined and will be according to the shape of the cam.

Practical Applications: Operating the inlet and outlet valves of I.C. Engine, paper cutting
machine, feed mechanism of automatic lathes.

TYPES OF FOLLOWERS:
According to surface in contact

(i) Knife edge follower When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge, it is
called a knife edge follower as shown in figure 1.

(ii) Roller follower When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a roller
follower, as shown in figure 2. Since the rolling motion takes place between the contacting
surfaces, therefore the rate of wear is greatly reduced.

(iii) Flat faced follower When the contacting end of the follower is a perfectly flat face, it is
called a flat faced follower, as shown in figure 3. Side thrust between the follower and the
guide is much reduced in case of flat faced followers.

Figure 1. Knife edge follower Figure 2. Roller folloer Figure 3. Flat face follower

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 33 of 71

(iv) Spherical faced follower When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical shape, it
is called a spherical faced follower, as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4 (a) Figure 4 (b)

Figure 4 (a & b). Spherical faced followers

According to the motion of the follower

(i) Reciprocating follower When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam rotates
uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower, as shown in figure 4 (a).

(ii) Oscillating follower When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into
oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating follower, as shown in
figure 4 (b).

According to the path of motion of the follower

(i) Radial follower When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the
centre of the cam, it is known as radial follower, as shown in figure 4 (a).

(i) Off-set follower When the motion of the follower is along an axes away from the axis of the
cam centre, it is called off-set follower, as shown in figure 5.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 34 of 71

Figure 5 Off-set follower

TYPES OF CAM

Radial cam: In radial cams, the follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction perpendicular
to the cam axis, as shown in figure 4 (a).

Cylindrical cam: In cylindrical cam, the follower reciprocates or oscillates inn a direction
parallel to the cam axis. The follower rides in a groove at its cylindrical surface, as shown in
the figure 6.

Figure 6 Cylindrical cam with oscillating follower

Applications of cam-follower: The cam mechanism is used in clocks, printing machines,

automatic screw cutting machines, internal combustion engines for operating valves etc.in fact
all modern automatic machines require the help of a cam.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: The apparatus is designed to study the cam profile. At the free
end of the camshaft, a cam (interchangeable) can be easily mounted. A push rod assembly is
supported vertically and various type of follower (interchangeable) can be attached to this push
rod. As the follower is properly guided in gunmetal bushes and the type of the follower can be
changed to suit the cam under test. A graduated circular protractor is fitted coaxial with the
shaft and a dial gauge can be fitted to note the follower displacement for the angle of cam
rotation. A set of cams is provided consisting of eccentric, tangent and circular are type. A set
of followers is also provided consisting of mushroom, roller and knife-edge type.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Step 1: Select a suitable cam and follower combination.

Step 2: Fix the cam on the shaft.
Step 3: Fix the follower on push rod and properly tighten the check nut. Such that knife-edge of
follower (or axis of roller in case of roller follower) is parallel to axis of camshaft.
Step 4: Attach the dial gauge on the push rod.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 35 of 71

Step 5: Take the reading of the lift of the follower with the help of the dial indicator at various
cam angles.
Step 6: Draw the profile of the cam (i.e. the θ v/s displacement curve).

Step7: Repeat the above steps for other cam-follower combinations.

Figure: Cam and follower arrangement

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Cam Angle (θ) in degrees Follower displacement (in mm)

1 00
2 200
3 400
…. ....
.... ….
18 3400

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 36 of 71

Experimental Outcome:

1. We have successfully completed the study of various cam-follower arrangements.

2. Curve between displacement and angle of rotation for given cam and follower
arrangement is plotted.

Viva Questions

1. What is Cam and follower?

2. Write applications of cam and followers.
3. Explain various types of cam and followers with neat sketch.
4. Is cam-followers used in I C engines nowadays?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 37 of 71

Experiment No: - 6
Title: To determine co-efficient of friction using roller oscillating arrangement.

Apparatus used: Experimental setup

THEORY: It has been established since long that the surfaces of the bodies are never perfectly
smooth. It has been observed that whenever, even a very smooth surface is viewed under a
microscope, it is found to have some roughness and irregularities, which may not be detected
by an ordinary touch. It has also been observed that if a block of one substance is placed over
the level surface of the same or different material, a certain degree or interlocking of the
minutely projecting particles takes place. This does not involve any force, so long as the
block does not move or tends to move. But whenever a block moves or tends to move
tangentially with respect to the surface on which it rests, the interlocking property of the
projection particles opposes the motion. This opposing force, which acts in the opposite
direction of the movement of the block, is called force of friction or simply friction.

Figure: Body on an inclined plane

Consider a body of weight W, on a plane having an angle of inclination α, i.e. resulting on an

incline plane. Suppose it just tends to move up the inclined plane when a force P is applied.
Since the body tends to move upward the frictional force F will be acting downward. The
force on the can be resolved into two components perpendicular and parallel to the plane.

Resolving the forces parallel to the plane, we get,

P = µR + W sinα

The component (W cosα) perpendicular to the plane balance the normal reaction RN and the
component (W sinα) parallel to the plane provides the necessary force for the body to move
down the plane.

Substituting the value of R in above equation, we get

P = µ W cosα + W sinα

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 38 of 71

µ = (P - W sinα) / W cosα

This µ is the coefficient of friction.

APPARATUS: The apparatus consists of a metal plane with the wooden hinged on an
iron base to which a sector with graduate arc and vertical scale as provided. The plane
may be clamped up to 45°. A frictionless pulley is attached to the end by means of a
damp adjustable to any necessary position. Apparatus is supplied with a brass roller,
string, pan and a set of weights.

Figure: Experimental setup

EXPERIMENT WORK:

1. Place the block of known weight (W) on the inclined plane. Tie the slider to the pan
(of known weight) with the help of the thread passing over the frictionless pulley.
2. Put on weight in the pan and note this weight.
3. Start decreasing the angle of inclination (α) of the inclined planed till the slider just
begins to slide upwards and note this angle. The top surface of inclined plane is
wooden.
4. Repeat above procedure with different block of different materials.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Weight of Coefficient of
Surface of
S. Weight of pan + Inclination friction,
slider
No slider Weight in of plane µ=
(Material)
. W (in kg) pan α (𝐏 - 𝐖 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛂)
with wood
P (in kg) 𝐖 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛂

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 39 of 71

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Pulley should be frictionless.

2. There should not be any knot in the string.
3. Weight should be placed in effort pan only.
4. String should be parallel to the plane.
5. The surface of the inclined plane should be smooth and clean.
6. Proper lubrication of the pulley should be done to decrease friction.

EXPERIMENTAL OUTCOME: The calculated values of coefficient of friction (µ) for

different surface in contact with wood (inclined plane) by using equation [µ = (P- W sinα) / W
cosα] are

Viva Questions

1. What is friction? Is it blessing or curse? Justify your answer with examples.

2. Explain types of friction and laws of friction.
3. Explain the terms coefficient of friction, limiting angle of friction and angle of repose.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 40 of 71

Experiment No: - 7
Title: Study of various types of dynamometers, Brakes and Clutches.

Apparatus used: Demonstrating Models of dynamometers, brakes and clutches.

Dynamometers

Theory: A dynamometer is a brake but in addition it has a device to measure the frictional
resistance. Knowing the frictional resistance, we may obtain the torque transmitted and hence
the power of the engine.

Practical Application: Measuring the Break Power of an Engine

TYPES OF DYNAMOMETER:

(i) Absorption Dynamometer- In the absorption dynamometer, the entire energy or power
produced by the engine is absorbed by the friction resistance of the brake and is transmitted
into heat, during the process of measurement.

(ii) Transmission Dynamometer- In the transmission dynamometer, the energy is not wasted
in friction but is used for doing work. The energy or power produced by the engine is
transmitted through the dynamometer to some other machines where the power developed is
suitably measured.

Prony Brake Dynamometer: A simplest form of an absorption type dynamometer is a prony

brake dynamometer, as shown in figure 1. It consists of two wooden blocks placed around a
pulley fixed to the shaft of an engine whose power is required to be measured. The blocks are
clamped by means of two bolts and nuts, as shown in fig. A helical spring is provided between
the nut and the upper block to adjust the pressure on the pulley to control its speed. the upper
block has a long lever attached to it and carries a weight W at its outer end. A counter weight is
placed at the other end of the lever which balances the brake when unloaded. Two stops S, S
are provided to limit the motion of the lever.

Moment of the frictional resistance or torque on the shaft T= W.L N-m

Work done per minute = T * 2πN N-m

Brake power of the engine, B.P. = T * 2πN /60 watts

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 41 of 71

Figure 1. Prony brake dynamometer

Rope Brake Dynamometer: It is another form of absorption type dynamometer which is most
commonly used for measuring the brake power of the engine. It consists of one, two or more
ropes wound around the flywheel or rim of a pulley fixed rigidly to the shaft of the engine. The
upper end of the ropes is attached to a spring balance while the lower end of the rope is kept in
position by
applying a dead weight as shown in figure 2. In order to prevent the slipping of the rope over the
flywheel, wooden blocks are placed at intervals around the circumference of the flywheel. In the
operation of the brake, the engine is made to run at a constant speed. The frictional torque, due
to the rope, must be equal to the torque being transmitted by the engine.
Let,
W = dead load (N), S = Spring balance reading (N)
D = diameter of wheel (m), d = diameter of rope (m), N = speed of engine shaft (rpm)
Net load on the brake = (W-S) newtons
Workdone per revolution = (W-S) π (D+d)N N-m
Brake power of the engine
B > P = (W-S) π (D+d) N watts
60

Figure 2. Rope brake dynamometer

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 42 of 71

Brakes

THEORY: A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a

moving machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the process of
performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving member or
potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc. The energy
absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat.

TYPES OF BRAKES

(i) Single Block or Shoe Brake- A single block or shoe brake is shown in figure 3. It consists
of a block or shoe which is pressed against the rim of a revolving brake wheel drum. The block
is made of a softer material than the rim of the wheel. The friction between the block and the
wheel causes a tangential braking force to act on the wheel, which retard the rotation of the
wheel.
Practical Application: Railway trains

Figure 3. Single shoe brake

Double Shoe or Block Brake- When a single block brake is applied to a rolling wheel, an
additional load is thrown on the shaft bearings due to the normal force (Rn). This produces
bending of the shaft. In order to overcome this drawback, a double block or shoe brake, as
shown in figure 4. It consists of two brake block applied at the opposite ends of a diameter of the
wheel which eliminate or reduces the unbalanced force on the shaft.

Practical Application: Electric cranes

Band Brake- A band brake consists of a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or
steel band lined with friction material, which embraces a part of the drum. A band brake, as
shown in figure 5, is called a simple band brake in which one end of the band is attached to a
fixed
pin or fulcrum of the lever while the other end is attached to the lever at a distance from the

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 43 of 71

fulcrum. In differential band brake no end of the band is attached to the fulcrum, they
attached at a distance to a lever from the fulcrum.

Practical Application: Railway train

Figure 4. Double shoe or block brake

Figure 5. Band brake Figure 6. Differential band brake

Band and Block Brake- This is a band brake lined with blocks of wood or other friction
material as shown in figure 7. The friction between the blocks and the drum provides braking
action.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 44 of 71

Figure 7. Band and block brake

Internal Expanding Brake: An internal expanding brake consists of two shoes as shown
in figure 8. The outer surface of the shoes is lined with some friction material to increase the
coefficient of friction and to prevent wearing away of the metal. Each shoe is pivoted at one
end about a fixed fulcrum and made to contact a cam at the other end. When the cam rotates,
the shoes are pushed outwards against the rim of the drum. The friction between the shoes and
the drum produces the braking torque and hence reduces the speed of the drum.

Practical Application: Two and Four wheeled automobile

Figure 8. Internal Expanding Brake

Disc Brake- In this type of brake two shoes having a lining of friction material on them is
pushed over a metallic disc (attached with wheel axle) by means of a mechanical linkage.
Friction produces between the metal disc and shoes responsible for retarding the vehicle.

Practical Application: two and four wheeled vehicles

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 45 of 71

Figure 9. Disc brake

Hydraulic Brake- This is an internal expanding brake in which the cam is replaced by a wheel
cylinder, having two pistons in it. In between the two pistons the pressurized fluid is entered
from the master cylinder. A master cylinder is placed at a suitable place in the vehicle, having a
piston and cylinder arrangement, when driver pushes the lever, the fluid get pressurized and
supplied in to the wheel cylinder.

Practical Application: Four wheeled vehicles, truck, bus, etc.

Clutch: A clutch works on the principle of friction and used in the transmission of power of
shafts and machines which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found
in cases in which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of
friction is used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed
without excessive slipping of the friction surfaces.

Practical Application: Automobiles

TYPES OF CLUTCHES:

Single Plate Clutch- A single plate or disc clutch, as shown in figure 10, consists of a clutch
plate whose both sides are faced with a friction material. It is mounted on the hub which is free
to move axially along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the
clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate
with the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate
towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body.

When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inwards. The levers are forced
to turn on their suspended pivot and pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the knife
edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from the
clutch plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes stationary.
On the other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust bearing moves

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 46 of 71

back by the levers. This allows the spring to extend and thus the pressure plate pushes the
clutch plate back towards the flywheel. The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a
frictional force in the circumferential direction when the relative motion between the driving
and driven members tends to take place.

Figure 10. Single plate clutch

Multiple Disc Clutch- A multiple disc clutch, as shown in fig. may be used when a large
torque is to transmitted. The inside discs (usually of steel) are fastened to the driven shaft to
permit axial motion (except the last disc). The outside discs (usually of bronze) are held by
bolts and are fastened to the housing which is keyed to the driving shaft. The multiple disc
clutches are extensively used in motor cars, machine tools etc.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 47 of 71

Figure 11. Multi plate clutch

Cone Clutch- A cone clutch, as shown in figure 12, was extensively used in automobiles but
now-a days it has been replaced completely by disc clutch. It consists of one pair of friction
surface only. In a cone clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an
inside conical surface or face which exactly fits into the outside conical surface of the driven.
The driven member resting on the feather key in the driven shaft, may be shifted along the shaft
by a forked lever provided at B, in order to engage the clutch by bringing the two conical
surfaces in contact. Due to the frictional resistance set up at this contact surface, the torque is
transmitted from one shaft to another.

Figure 12. Cone clutch

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 48 of 71

Centrifugal Clutch- The centrifugal clutches are usually incorporated into the motor pulleys.
It consists of a number of shoes on the inside of a rim of the pulley, as shown in figure 13. The
outer surface is covered with a friction material. These shoes, which can move radially in
guides, are held against the boss (or spider) on the driving shaft by means of springs. The
springs exert a radially inward force which is assumed constant. The mass of the shoe, when
revolving, causes it to exert a radially outward force (i.e. centrifugal force). When the
centrifugal force exceeds the spring force, the shoe moves outward and comes into contact with
the driven member and presses against it. The force with which the shoe presses against the
driven member is the difference of the centrifugal force and the spring force. The increase of
speed causes the shoe to press harder and enables more torque to be transmitted.

Figure 13. Centrifugal clutch

Experimental outcome: We have successfully studied about principles, working and

applications of various types of dynamometer, brakes and clutches and differentiate among
them.

Viva questions

1. What is a brake? What is the difference between brake and dynamometer?

2. With the help of neat sketch explain the working of clutch, brake and dynamometers.
3. What are the applications of clutch, brake and dynamometers?
4. Why clutch and brake used in automobiles?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 49 of 71

Experiment No: - 8
Title: Study of differential and planetary gear box.

Apparatus: Working Models of differential gear box and differential.

Differential Gear: Differential is the main component of the power train. It is bolted on the
rear axle and connects the propeller shaft to the rear wheels. While a vehicle taking a turn, its
outer wheel run faster than the inner wheel. If we connect the propeller shaft by rear axle
without using of differential gear, then the torque transmitted both the rear wheels is equal in
any condition. So the both rear wheels will run at same speed while taking a turn which occur a
problem in driving a vehicle. To eliminate this problem a device is used which is known as
differential gear. Differential is the mechanism of gears by means of which outer wheel runs
faster than the inner wheel while taking a turn or moving over upheaval road. It is a part of the
driving axle housing assembly, which includes the differential, rear axles, wheels and bearings.
It consists of a system of gear arranged in such a way that connects the propeller shaft with the
rear axle and transmit the different torque to rear wheels if necessary.

Construction of differential gear: Differential is an arrangement of gears which work

together and allow the vehicle to take a turn smoothly. In the differential, bevel pinion gear is
fixed to the propeller shaft which rotates the crown wheel. The crown wheel has another unit
called the differential unit. It consists of two bevel gears (sun gear) and two bevel gears (planet
gear). The bevel gears are in contact with the half shaft of the rear axle. When the crown wheel
is rotating, it rotates the differential unit. The bevel (sun) gears of the differential rotate the two
shafts.

Working of differential gear: When the car is on a straight road, the ring gear, differential
case, differential pinion gears, and two differential side gears all turn as a unit. The two
differential pinion gears do not rotate on the pinion shaft. This is because they exert equal force
on the two differential side gears. As a result, the side gears turn at the same speed as the ring
gear, which causes both drive wheels to turn at the same speed also. However, when the car
begins to round a curve, the differential pinion gears rotate on the pinion shaft. This permits the
outer wheel to turn faster than the inner wheel.

Differential gearbox Location:

 In Front-engine front-wheel-drive layout – differential is located at the front next to
gearbox.
 In Rear engine rear-wheel-drive layout – differential is located at the rear next to
gearbox.
 Four wheels drive layout – differential is located at the front as well as rear.
 Front engine rear-wheel-drive layout – it is located at the rear in between two half shafts.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 50 of 71

Figure: Differential

Figure: Gear box with inbuilt differential

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 51 of 71

Experimental outcome: We have successfully studied about working and applications of

differential and differential gear box.

Viva questions

1. What is a differential gear of an automobile? How does it function?

2. What is the difference between sun and planet gears?
3. What type of gears are used in differential?
4. In which automobiles we have used differential gear box?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 52 of 71

Experiment No: - 9
Title: To verify the torque relation for gyroscope.

Apparatus: Gyroscopic experimental setup

THEORY:
(a) Axis of Spin: If a body is revolving about an axis, the latter is known as axis of spin.

(b) Gyroscopic Effect: To a body revolving (or spinning) about an axis say OX, if a couple
represented by a vector OY perpendicular to OX is applied, then the body tries to precess about
an axis OZ which is perpendicular both to OX and OY. Thus the plane of spin, plane of
precession and plane of gyroscopic couple are mutually perpendicular. The above combined
effect is known as precessional or gyroscopic effect.

(c) Precession: Precession means the rotation about the third axis OZ, which is perpendicular to
both the axis of spin OX and that of couple OY.

(d) Axis of Precession: The third axis OZ is perpendicular to both the axis of spin OX and that
of couple OY is known as axis of precession.

(e) Gyroscope: Gyroscope is a body while spinning about an axis is free to rotate in other
directions under the action of external forces, e.g. locomotive, Automobile and aero-plane taking
a turn. In certain cases, the gyroscope forces are undesirable whereas in other cases the
gyroscopic effect may be utilized in developing desirable forces. For minimizing rolling, yawing
and pitching of ship or air-craft Gyroscope is used. Balloons use Gyroscope for controlling
direction.

Figure: Gyroscopic axes and planes

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 53 of 71

When a body moves along a curved path with a uniform linear velocity, a force in the
direction of centripetal acceleration (known as centripetal force) has to be applied
externally over the body, so that it moves along the required curved path. This external
force applied is known as active force. When a body, itself, is moving with uniform
linear velocity along a circular path, it is subjected to the centrifugal force radially
outwards. This centrifugal force is called reactive force.
The change in angular momentum is known as active gyroscopic couple (I.ω.ωp).
When the axis of spin itself moves with angular velocity ωp, the disc is subjected to
reactive couple whose magnitude is same (i.e. I.ω.ωp ) but opposite in direction to that
of active couple.

OBSERVATION :-
 Mass of rotor = 5.9 kg.
 Rotor Diameter = 300 mm.
 Rotor Thickness = 10 mm.
 Moment of inertia of disc, coupling and motor rotor about the central axis ( mr2/2) =
0.68 kg.cm.sec.2
 Distance of bolt of weight pan from disc centre = 18.8 cm.
 DC motor = single phase. 6000 rpm

Observation table: -

S. No. N (rpm) W (kgf) δθ δt ( sec.)

1 438 0.5 110o 10
2
3

Sample calculations

2𝜋𝑁 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔= = 43.8
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝛿𝜃 110 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑝 = = 𝜋
= 0.191
𝛿𝑡 {10 ∗ (180)} 𝑠𝑒𝑐

T = Iωωp = 0.6843.80.191 = 5.95 N cm.

Ttheoritical = WL = 0.518.8 = 9.4 N cm.

𝑇−𝐶 𝑇−𝐶
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ( ) ∗ 100 = ( ) ∗ 100 = 36.07%
𝑇 𝑇

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 54 of 71

RESULT: - It is found that the equation T = Iωωp is verified and the graph between Tactual
and Ttheoritical is plotted.

VIVA – QUESTIONS: -
1. Define axis of spin, precession and gyroscopic couple.
2. What do you understand by gyroscopic couple? Derive a formula for its magnitude.
3. Explain the application of gyroscopic principles to aircrafts.
4. Discuss the effect of the gyroscopic couple on a two wheeled vehicle when taking a turn.
5. When the pitching of a ship is upward, the effect of gyroscopic couple acting on it will
be to movethe ship towards port side or to move the ship towards star-board.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 55 of 71

Experiment No: - 10
Title: To perform static and dynamic balancing on balancing set up.

APPARATUS: The apparatus basically consists of a steel shall mounted in ball bearings in a
stiff rectangular main frame. A set of four block of different weight is provided and may be
clamped in any position on the shaft, and also be easily detached from the shaft.
A disc carrying a circular protractor scale is fitted to one side of the rectangular frame shaft
carries a disc and rim of this disc is grooved to take a light cord provided with tow cylindrical
metal containers of exactly the same weight. A Scale is fitted to the lower member of the main
frame and when used in conjunction with the circular protractor scale allows the exact
longitudinal and angular position of each adjustable block to be determined.

For static balancing of individual weight, the main frame is suspended to the supported frame by
chains and in this position the motor driving belt is removed.

For dynamic balancing g of the rotating mass system the main frame is suspended from the
support frame by two short links such that the mains frame and the supporting frame are in the
same plane.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Static Balancing: Remove the drive belt. The value of Wr for each block is determined by
clamping each block in turn on the shaft and with the cord and container system suspended over
the protractor disc the number of steel balls, which are of equal weight are placed into one of the
containers to exactly balance the blocks on the shaft. When the block becomes horizontal, the
number of balls ‘N’ will give the value of Wr for the block. For finding out ‘Wr’ during static
balancing proceed as follows:

1. Remove the belt.

2. Screw the combined hook to the pulley with groove. (This pulley is different than the
belt pulley)
3. Attach the cord-ends of the pans to the above combined hook.
4. Attach the block No. 1 to the shaft at any convenient position and in vertical downward
direction.
5. Put steel balls in one of the pans till the block starts moving up (upto horizontal
position)
6. Number of balls gives the ‘Wr’ value of block 1 Repeat this for 2-3 times and find the average
no of balls.
7. Repeat the procedure for other blocks.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 56 of 71

Observation Table:
S. No. Block No. Steel ball (W*r)

Dynamic Balancing: It is necessary to leave the machine before the experiment. Using the
Values of Wr obtained as above, and if the angular positions and planes of rotation of three of
four blocks are known, the student can calculate the position of the other block (s) for balancing
of the complete system. From the calculation, the student finally clamps all the blocks on the
shaft in their appropriate positions Replace the motor belt, transfer the main frame to its hanging
position and then by running the motor, one can verify that these calculations are correct and the
blocks are perfectly balanced.

Observation table:

Plane Mass Radius [r] Cent. Distance Couple ÷ ω2

S.No. (m) kg. m Force ÷ ω2 from planex(l) (m.r.l) kg-
(m.r) kg- m m2
m

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not run the motor for more time in unbalanced positions
2. Place the weights/ balls gently in the pan.
3. While placing the balls the pan should be hold gently and check that it should not jump its
position.
4. Weight setting gauge should be check gently.

OUTCOME: Static and dynamic balancing is successfully studied and performed on given
balancing set up.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 57 of 71

Viva Questions:
1. Why is balancing of rotating parts necessary for high speed engines?
2. Explain the terms ‘static balancing’ and ‘dynamic balancing’. State the
necessary conditions toachieve them.
3. Discuss how a single revolving mass is balanced by two masses revolving in different
planes.
4. How the different masses rotating in different planes are balanced?
5. Explain the method of balancing of different masses revolving in the same plane.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Static and Dynamic balancing rig.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 58 of 71

Experiment No: - 11 (Beyond curriculum)

Title: Study of a lathe gear box, sliding mesh and Constant mesh automobile gear box.

Apparatus: Lathe gear box, sliding mesh gear box and synchromesh gear box.

Lathe Gear Box Theory:

(1) General. In cutting threads on a lathe, the pitch of the thread or the number of threads per
inch obtained is determined by the speed ratio of the headstock spindle and the lead screw which
drives the carriage. Lathes that are equipped for thread cutting have gear arrangements for
varying the speed of the lead screw. Most modern lathes have a quick-change gearbox for
varying the lead screw to the spindle ratio, but many older lathes, modern inexpensive lathes,
and special lathes come equipped with standard change gears which must be arranged by
computation to achieve the desired speed ratio.

(2) Quick-Change Gearbox. For lathes equipped with quick-change gearboxes, the operator
need only follow the instructions on the direction plates of the lathe to set the proper feed to
produce the desired number of threads per inch. Once set to a specific number of threads per
inch, the spindle speed can be varied depending upon the material being cut and the size of the
work piece, without affecting the threads per inch.

(3) Standard-Change Gears. Lathes equipped with standard-change gears require that the
operator be familiar with the methods of selecting the proper gears to produce the desired thread
pitch in case the manufacturer supplied gear tables are missing. On most lathes with standard
change gears, the gears may be arranged in a simple gear train or in a compound gear train.

Figure: Lathe gear box gear trains

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 59 of 71

Figure: Lathe gear box

Sliding mesh gearbox is a transmission system that consists of various sets of gears and shafts
that are arranged together in an organized fashion and the shifting or meshing of different gear
ratios is done by the sliding of gears towards right and left over the splined shaft with the help of
a gear lever operated by the driver.

Figure: Sliding mesh gear box

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 60 of 71

Main Shaft: It is the shaft used as an output shaft in a sliding-mesh over which the sets of gears
with internally splined grooves are arranged in an organised fashion. The outer surface of this
shaft is made splined so that the gears can easily slide over this shaft in order to mesh with the
appropriate gear.

Clutch Shaft-It is the shaft that is used to carry engine output to the transmission box with the
help of engaging and disengaging clutch which is mounting at the engine end, gear or a pair of
gear is mounted over this shaft which is used to transmit rotational motion to the lay shaft.

Lay Shaft: It is the shaft having gears mounted over its outer surface and is in continuous
rotation with the clutch shaft as one gear of this shaft is always in contact with a gear on the
clutch shaft, it is used as an intermediate shaft (between the main shaft and clutch shaft) that
provides the meshing of the gears of the main shaft in order to transmit appropriate output to the
final drive.

Two types of gear were usually used in sliding mesh gearbox.

1. Spur gear- This is the type of gears having straight-cut teethes over its surface, straight
teethes proving maximum meshing area.
2. Helical gear- This is the type of gear in which the teethes are cut in an angular fashion,
unlike spur gears this type of gears are smooth and less noisy.

 Synchromesh gear box: the latest version of the constants mesh model is the
synchromesh gearbox. It is a manually operated transmission in which transmission
changes occur between rotating gears at the same speed. the gears can roll freely, or they
can be locked on the layout shaft in such a gearbox.
 Synchromesh is an upgrade on the dog’s hug, actually. The synchronizer is the main
component of this speed that stabilizes the transmission. a synchronizer is a clutch that
allows components to rotate at different speeds. the cones are used to synchronize friction
motions.
 It consists of two parts, the centre cone and the bolt ring, which are synchronous. the cone
is an array part, and the synchronizer part is the ring part. Once they spin at the correct
speed, the bag ring stops the engaged gear. As the ring enters the circle, friction slows
down or speeds the gear wheel.
 Finally, the synchronizer and gear speeds will be balanced and rotated at the same speed.
The shaft gears are attached to them, while the gears of the shaft are free to rotate.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 61 of 71

Figure: Synchromesh Gear Box

Experimental Outcome: We have successfully studied and demonstrated about lathe, sliding
mesh and synchromesh gear boxes.

Viva Questions:

1. What is the function of a gear box?

2. Why gear box used in lathe machine?
3. Why gear box used in automobiles?
4. Explain working of lathe, sliding mesh and synchromesh gear boxes with neat sketch.
5. Which gear box is better either sliding mesh or synchromesh and why?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 62 of 71

Experiment No: - 12 (Beyond curriculum)

Title: To plot force vs. radius and lift vs. speed curves for watt and porter governors.

Apparatus: Apparatus of universal governor

Technical Specification& Attachment’s

 Drive D.C. Motor H.P. 1/2 Speed
 Speed Control Unit: 0 – 230 Volt, 0 – 2 Amps. Single Phase Autotransformer
 Separate Linkage for Watt Governor and Porter Governor
 Speed Displacement Measurement Scale 0 – 150 mm
 Speed Measurement by Manual Tachometer
 Additional Weights

Introduction & Theory: -The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an
engine, when there are variations in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its
speed decreases, therefore it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid.
When the load on the engine decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is
required. The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with
the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed within certain limits.
The governors may, broadly, be classified as
 Centrifugal governor
 Inertia governor
The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows:
 Pendulum type (Watt governor)
 Loaded type
 Dead weight governor (Porter governor and Proell governor)
 Spring controlled governors (Hartnell governor, Hartung
governor, Wilson- Hartnell governor and Pickering
governor)

Watt governor: -The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor. It is

basically a conical pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms of
the governor may be connected to the spindle.

Porter governor: -The porter governor is a modification of a Watt’s governor, with central load
attached to the sleeve. The load moves up down the central spindle. This additional downward
force increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to any to any pre-
determined level.

Description of the experimental set-up: -

1. The drive unit consists of a small electric motor connected through ‘V’ belt to
shaft drive. Motor & mai n shafts are mounted on a rigid M.S. Base plate in vertical
fashion. The spindle is supported in ball bearings.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 63 of 71

2. The control unit is switched on and knob of speed control slowly rotated, increasing
the governor speed until the center sleeve rises off the lower stop and aligns with the
first division on the graduated scale.
3. The sleeve position and speed are then recorded. Speed will be recorded attaching a
hand tachometeron the sleeve.
4. The governor speed is then increased in steps to give suitable sleeve movements,
and readings repeated at each stage throughout the range of sleeve movement
possible.
5. The result may be plotted as curves of speed against sleeve position. Further tests
are carried out changing the value of one variable at a time to produce a family of
curves.

Experimental procedure: -

1. Arrange the set up as a Watt governor. This can be done by removing the
upper sleeves on the vertical spindle of the governor and using proper linkages
provided.
2. Make proper connections of the motor.
3. Increase the motor speed slowly and gradually.
4. Note the speed by tachometer and sleeve displacement on the scale provided.
5. Plot the graph of speed v/s sleeve displacement for Watt governor.
6. Plot the graph of speed v/s governor height foe Watt governor.

Precautions: -
 Do not keep the mains ‘ON’ when trial is complete.
 Increase the speed of motor gradually.
 Take the sleeve displacement reading when the pointer remains steady.
 See that at higher speed the load on sleeve does not hit the upper sleeve of the
governor.

Observations: -
• Mass of each ball assembly (m) = 0.6 kg
• Initial radius of rotation (ro) = 136mm
• Length of each link (L) = 125mm
• Initial height of the governor (ho) = 94mm
• Mass of sleeve (M) = 5kg

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 64 of 71

Observation table: -

Watt governor

S.No Speed N Sleeve Heighth Angle of Radius of Force

(r.p.m) Displacem (mm) Inclinatio Rotationr = F = mω2r
entX nCosα = 50+L Sinα (kg)
(mm) h/L (mm)
(degree)
1.
2.
3.

Porter governor

S.No Speed Sleeve Height Angle of Radius of Force

N Displacement h (mm) Inclination Rotationr F = [(M+m)/m]ω2r
(r.p. X (mm) Cosα = h/L = 50+L (kg)
m) (degree) Sinα (mm)
1.
2.
3.

Sample calculations: -
Where
 speed N = 180 r.p.m and sleeve displacement X = 15mm
 Actual height h = [(ho)-(X/2)] = 86.5mm
 Angle of inclination of the arm to the vertical Cosα = h/L = 0.692
 Radius of rotation r = 50 + LSinα = 159.73mm
 Mass of ball = 2*0.6 = 1.2 kg
 Force F = mω2r = 3.45 kg for Watt governor and F = [(M+m)/m]ω2r for Porter
governor

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 65 of 71

Result
Graph is plotted between
1) Force vs. radius of rotation
2) Speed vs. sleeve displacement
3) Analyze and compare watt and porter governors.

Viva – Questions: -

1. What is the function of a governor? How does it differ from that of a flywheel?
2. State the different types of governors. What is the difference between centrifugal
and inertia typegovernors?
3. Explain the term height of the governor. What are the limitations of a Watt governor?
4. What is the stability of a governor?
5. Define the Sensitiveness of governor.
6. Which of the governor is used to drive a gramophone?
7. Differentiate between watt and porter governors.

Figure: Construction of watt governor

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 66 of 71

Figure: Schematic diagram of porter governor

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 67 of 71

Experiment No: - 13 (Beyond curriculum)

Title: To plot pressure distribution curves of a journal bearing.

Apparatus: Apparatus of journal bearing

Theory: A bearing is a machine element, which supports the moving machine element (known
as Journal). It permits the relative motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while
carrying the load.

Figure: (a) Journal at rest (b) Journal starts to rotate (c) Journal at full speed

Classification of bearings:

Depending upon the direction of load to be support

a) Radial Bearing
b) Thrust bearing

Figure: Radial and Thrust bearings

Depending upon the nature of contact
a) Sliding contact bearing
b) Rolling contact bearing

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 68 of 71

Figure: Sliding and Rolling contact bearings

Lubricants:

The lubricants are used in bearings to reduce friction between the rubbing surface and
to carry away the heat generated by friction. It also protects the bearings from
corrosion.

Lubricants are classified as

(a) Liquid lubricants mineral oil

(b) Semi liquid lubricants Grease

(c) Solid lubricants Graphite

Bearing characteristic number and bearing modulus for journal: For co-efficient of
friction is design of bearing is of great importance, because it affords a means for
determining the loss of power due to bearing friction.

Experimental Procedure: -

1) Fill the oil tank by using SAE 40 oil and position the tank at desired height.

2) Drain out the air from all tubes on the manometer & check the level balance with supply
level.

3) Check that cane oil leakage is there in the bearing. Leakage of oil is necessary for cooling
purpose.

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 69 of 71

4) Check the direction of rotation and increase the speed of motor slowly.

5) Set the speed and put the load on bearing if desired so and let the journal run for about 20
minutes until the oil in the bearing warms and check the steady oil level at various tubes on
manometer.

6) See that the balancing rod in horizontal position and observe steady levels.

7) When manometer levels have settled down, take the pressure readings on 16 manometer
tubes.

8) Repeat the experiment for various speeds and loads.

9) After the test is over set the dimmer to zero & switch off the power.

10) Keep the oil tank at lower most position so that there will be least leakage in ideal period.

Figure: Pressure distribution in Hydrodynamic bearing

Observation:

Journal dia = 55mm

Bearing dia = 68mm

Bearing width = 68mm.

Weight of bearing with attachment = 4.450 kg

Weights = 1.0 kg, 1.5kg.

motor = 0.5HP,3000rpm,DC

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 70 of 71

Recommended oil = SAE 40

=
Weight in kg

Supply head pressure (Ps ) = 55 cms

Length of arm to weight =

Journal pressure (P) =

Observation table:

Ps & P Radial pressure Axial pressure

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 A B C D

P in cms

of oil
P-Ps in cms

of oil

RESULT: We had drawn pressure distribution curve for journal bearing.

Viva questions

1. Define the term bearing.

2. What are the functions of a bearing?
3. Where do you find the applications of bearings and journal bearing?
4. Why not the journal bearing used in automobiles?

SKIT/ ME/ TOM LAB Page 71 of 71

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