Energy and Power Engineering, 2013, 5, 785-791

doi:10.4236/epe.2013.54B151 Published Online July 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/epe)

Research on Security Assessment Index System for

Operating Reserve in Large Interconnected Power Grid
Mingsong Liu1, Huadong Sun1, Jian He1, Hengxu Zhang2, Jun Yi1, Jian Zhang1
1
China Electric Power Research Institute, Beijing, China
2
Shandong University, Jinan, China
Email: [email protected]

Received April, 2013

ABSTRACT
Optimization and placement of spinning reserve is an important issue in power system planning and operation. System-
atic way for security assessment of operating reserve needs to study. A security assessment index system for operating
reserve in large interconnected power grids is presented in this paper. Firstly, classification and determination methods
of operating reserve at home and abroad are investigated, and operating reserve is divided into transient state operating
reserve and quasi-steady state operating reserve from the view of security assessment. Secondly, assessment indexes
and optimization methods for transient state operating reserve are studied. Thirdly, optimization model, deterministic
and probabilistic optimization methods for quasi-steady state operating reserve are explored. Finally, some principles
for determination of operating reserve are suggested, and a security assessment index system is put forward. The pro-
posed index system, considering both transient and quasi-steady state, both deterministic and probabilistic methods,
provides a systematic way to assessment and arrangement of operating reserve.

Keywords: Security Assessment Index System; Operating Reserve; Spinning Reserve; Large Interconnected Power
Grid

1. Introduction system planning and operation. However, systematic way

for security assessment of operating reserve needs to
Several major blackouts occurred in the world recent
study. A security assessment index system for operating
years, causing great economic losses and severe social
reserve in large interconnected power grids is presented
influence [1-5]. Insufficient reserve capacity and im-
in this paper. Firstly, classification and determination
proper placement of operating reserve are among several
methods of operating reserve at home and abroad are
main reasons. Optimization and placement of spinning
investigated, and operating reserve is divided into tran-
reserve is an important issue in power system planning
sient state operating reserve and quasi-steady state oper-
and operation [6-10]. In China, power load grows rapidly
ating reserve from the view of security assessment. Sec-
with the development of economy, while power supply is
ondly, assessment indexes for transient state operating
far behind demand. Spinning reserve is often insufficient
reserve are studied, and optimization methods are intro-
in period of peak load in many provinces, which is a
duced. Thirdly, optimization model, deterministic and
great threat to security and stability of power system op-
probabilistic optimization methods for quasi-steady state
eration. How to arrange spinning reserve reasonably and
operating reserve are explored. Finally, some principles
effectively in a large interconnected power grid becomes
for determination of operating reserve are suggested, and
a technical problem urgent to be solved.
a security assessment index system is put forward. The
The arrangement of spinning reserve in China is
proposed index system, considering transient and quasi-
mainly according to a certain proportion of overall gen-
steady state, deterministic and probabilistic methods,
eration load [11], which is relatively rough. As regional
provide a systematic way to assessment and arrangement
interconnected power grids, intermittent renewable en-
of operating reserve.
ergy and power electronic devices increase, system
characteristics and operation modes of power grids be-
2. Classification and Determination Methods
come more and more complicated. Higher requirements
have been put forward to spinning reserve.
of Operating Reserve
Much work has been done on optimization and place- 2.1. Classification and Determination of
ment of operating reserve, which is very helpful to power Operating Reserve in China

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786 M. S. LIU ET AL.

 Classification of operating reserve Operating reserve consists of spinning reserve and

In China, according to its function, operating reserve is nonspinning reserve. Spinning reserve means unloaded
divided into load reserve, contingency reserve and main- generation which is synchronized and ready to serve ad-
tenance reserve [11]. Load reserve is used to balance ditional demand. Nonspinning reserve means that oper-
instantaneous load fluctuation and load forecasting errors, ating reserve not connected to the system but capable of
which should be spinning reserve. Contingency reserve, serving demand within a specified time, or interruptible
activated in a certain period after disturbance, is used to load that can be removed from the system in a specified
compensate large active power imbalance caused by con- time.
tingencies, part of which should be put into operation  Determination of operating reserve
automatically when system frequency decreases. Main- In America, operating reserve is arranged in a deter-
tenance reserve meets the requirements of maintaining all ministic way [13]. Regulating reserve is to provide suffi-
generators periodically. cient regulating margin to meet NERC's control per-
Spinning reserve usually consists of the following formance criteria, while contingency reserve is to meet
generators: NERC disturbance control standard, considering the most
1) Generators that are already put into operation, severe single contingency and a certain proportion of
without reaching their operating limits, including thermal hydro, thermal generation load. The combined unit ramp
power generators, hydro power generators, etc. rate of each balancing authority's on-line, unloaded gen-
2) Hydro power generators that can be put into opera- erating capacity must be capable of responding within
tion quickly, usually within several minutes. ten minutes.
 Determination of operating reserve
In China, operating reserve is arranged according to a 2.3. Classification and Determination of
certain proportion of maximum generation load [11]. Operating Reserve in Europe
Load reserve is 2%-5% of maximum generation load.
 Classification of operating reserve
Lower proportion is suitable for large systems, while
In Europe, according to its function, operating reserve
higher proportion is for small systems. Contingency re-
is divided into primary control reserve, secondary control
serve is about 10% of maximum generation load, which
reserve, and tertiary control reserve, as shown in Figure
should be greater than the largest generator of a system.
1 [13]. Primary control reserve is activated within sec-
Maintenance reserve is about 8%-10% of maximum gen-
onds, while secondary control reserve is activated within
eration load.
minutes. Tertiary control reserve implies changes in gen-
eration or load on a contractual, market or regulatory
2.2. Classification and Determination of
basis, activated for a period of time, e.g. 15 minutes.
Operating Reserve in America
 Determination of operating reserve
 Classification of operating reserve In Europe, operating reserve is determined as follows
In America, according to its function, operating re- [13]. Primary control reserve, proportionally distributed
serve is divided into regulating reserve, contingency re- among each control area, is agreed to be 3000 MW,
serve, additional reserve for interruptible imports, and which is the maximum instantaneous power deviation for
additional reserve for on-demand obligations [12]. the UCTE synchronous area, based on operational char-
Regulating reserve is similar to load reserve in China, acteristics concerning system reliability and size of loads
and the same is contingency reserve. Additional reserve and generation units. Secondary control reserve must be
for interruptible imports and on-demand obligations available to cover expected demand and generation fluc-
should be made effective within ten minutes, which meet tuations. A total tertiary control reserve must be available
interruptible imports and on-demand obligations to other to cover the largest expected loss of power in the control
entities or balancing authorities. area.

Figure 1. Principle frequency deviation and subsequent activation of reserves.

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 M. S. LIU ET AL. 787

2.4. Classification of Operating Reserve take effect at once. System frequency decreases sharply.
According to Response Rate Several seconds later, governors start regulating, and
active power of each generator is adjusted according to
There are some other kinds of classification of operating
its moment of inertia and system frequency deviation.
reserve. In [14], reserve is divided into 10-minute spin-
Ten or more seconds later, primary frequency control is
ning reserve, 10-minute nonspinning reserve, 30-minute
over, but system frequency does not recover to normal
reserve, 60-minute reserve and cold reserve. In [15], re-
value. Several minutes later, AGC takes effect, restoring
serve is divided into instantaneous reserve, fast reserve,
system frequency to normal value.
slow reserve and cold reserve. It is obvious that response
rate is the fundamental characteristics of operating re-
3.2. Assessment Index for Transient State
serve. Therefore in power market, it is prone to divide
Operating Reserve
operating reserve into instantaneous reserve, 10-minute
spinning reserve, 10-minute nonspinning reserve, 30- Dynamic characteristics of system frequency and assess-
minute reserve, 60-minute reserve and cold reserve, as ment index for system frequency and spinning reserve
shown in Table 1. have been studied [17-23]. There are mainly three kinds
of index shown as follows.
2.5. Classification of Operating Reserve from the  Transient frequency deviation index
View of Security Assessment Overall spinning reserve capacity affects system
frequency response after loss of active power. On the
Instantaneous reserve takes effect during transient state
other hand, transient frequency deviation reflects overall
process immediately after a contingency, which affects
spinning reserve capacity. If overall spinning reserve
system frequency deviation much. While other kinds of
capacity is small, transient frequency deviation becomes
operating reserve take effect during quasi-steady state
process, usually at least several minutes after a distur- large. If overall spinning reserve capacity is large,
bance, which mainly affect power flow regulation. transient frequency deviation becomes small.
From the view of security assessment for power sys- There are several indexes for transient frequency
tem operation, operating reserve can be divided into deviation shown as follows.
transient state operating reserve and quasi-steady state 1) Maximum transient frequency deviation. This index,
operating reserve. Transient state operating reserve con- intuitive and easy, is widely adopted in power system
sists of instantaneous reserve, while quasi-steady state analysis.
operating reserve consists of other kinds of operating 2) Transient frequency deviation index using two-
reserve. element table [18]. A set of two-element tables, made up
of transient frequency deviation and its duration, is used
3. Transient State Operating Reserve to describe transient frequency deviation acceptability for
individual bus or generator.
3.1. System Frequency Response after Loss of 3) Transient frequency deviation index considering
Generation cumulative effect [19]. The index, defined by integration
System frequency response after loss of generation is of frequency deviation and its duration, is used to
introduced in [16]. When a large generator trips, the dis- quantitatively assess transient frequency deviation
turbance spreads to each generator immediately. Due to security by taking into account the frequency deviation
dead zone and delay block, generator governors do not cumulative effect．
 Transient frequency time-space distribution index
Table 1. Classification of reserve according to response After a disturbance causing large active power
rate. imbalance, transient frequency presents time-space
distribution features. Since network structure, load level,
Reserve Response Time Synchronous
generation capacity, spinning reserve capacity, dynamic
instantaneous reserve several seconds Yes model parameters are different among areas, transient
frequency deviation may be different at different
10-minute spinning reserve <10min Yes
locations.
10-minute nonspinning reserve <10min No Some transient frequency time-space distribution
indexes are used in [21], shown as follows.
30-minute reserve (10min, 30min) No
1) Mean changing rate of frequency. Shortly after a
60-minute reserve (30min, 60min) No disturbance, the frequency response curve is usually
linear. The index reflects type and severity of the
cold reserve >60min No
disturbance and information of network and generators.

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788 M. S. LIU ET AL.

2) Maximum transient frequency deviation at different loss, generation cost, reserve procurement cost, social
locations. The index is used to assess influence degree on cost, or some other kinds of cost. The objective is to
different locations by the disturbance. minimize given kind of cost.
3) Transient frequency response delay at different The equality constraint G  X  =0 represents power
locations. This index reflects frequency spreading flow equations.
process. The inequality constraint AX  B represents a set of
 Response rate of generators in primary frequency constraints, shown as follows.
control 1) Constraints of generator operation limits.
After a large disturbance of active power, different 2) Constraints of generator reserve capacity.
generators may response in different rates. Generators of 3) Constraints of generator ramp rates.
different types, years and capacity have different re- 4) Constraints of line current limits.
sponse rate. Generally speaking, thermal generators of 5) Constrains of section transfer capability.
new type, with large capacity response fast. The faster 6) Constrains of overall reserve capacity.
the generators with reserve capacity response, the less the 7) Constrains of area reserve capacity limits.
maximum transient frequency deviation is, and the 8) Constrains of system stability.
shorter the duration to maximum deviation is. Response These inequality constraints can be used as security
rates of generators in primary frequency control are re- assessment indexes for quasi-state operating reserve.
lated to difference coefficients and dead blocks of their
governors [17, 24]. 4.2. Deterministic Optimization Methods
In traditional power industry, generation, transmission
3.3. Optimization of Transient State Operating
and distribution belong to one power company. Reserve
Reserve
capacity is provided and used by the same company.
In [22], an optimization method for spinning reserve, Therefore economic affairs are easy to be coordinated
considering transient frequency security, is proposed. The within the company. Power supply reliability and system
algorithm is separated into two steps. Critical spinning operation security are the most important issues. Spinning
reserve capacity is calculated based on sensitivity reserve capacity is usually determined according to a
analysis. Then critical spinning reserve capacity is put certain proportion of maximum generation load, or the
into optimization model as a constraint, and the model is largest generator of a system. These methods are easy
solved using priority list method. and widely used. However, they are not economically
In [23], an optimization method in which the transient optimal.
frequency deviation of power system is taken into Some optimization methods are studied to minimize
account is proposed. The maximum active power of each reserve capacity, reserve procurement cost, etc. In [25],
generation unit that is allowed to undertake during optimal reserve model of interconnected regional power
primary frequency regulation is calculated. Then both systems is built up. The adaptive immune genetic algorithm
spinning reserve cost and moment of inertia of each is used to calculate the optimal reserve capacity, taking
generation are comprehensively considered to give the into account offset frequency, load fluctuation and security
optimization configuration scheme of spinning reserve. reliability constraints of the regional inter- connected
power system. In [26], two approaches are adopted, the
4. Quasi-Steady State Operating Reserve independent modeling of multi-step optimization and
unified modeling of joint optimization for daily spinning
4.1. Optimization Model of Quasi-steady State
reserve and generation scheduling. Different energy-
Operating Reserve
saving generation dispatching models are established.
When quasi-steady state operating reserve takes effect, a
system is usually in a quasi-steady state. Transient state 4.3. Probabilistic Optimization Methods
process can be ignored, and it becomes a problem of
Power supply reliability is a most important issue for
power flow. Optimization of quasi-steady state operating
both traditional power industry and power markets.
reserve is a problem of optimal power flow with several
Security and adequacy are two aspects of reliability.
constraints, as shown in (1).
Probabilistic indexes, such as loss of load probability and
min F  X  value of lost load, are often used to evaluate system reli-
(1) ability.
s.t. G  X  =0 Much has been done on probabilistic optimization
AX  B methods of spinning reserve. In [27], a stochastic variable
The objective function F  X  represents network called spinning reserve's gain or loss is defined, to

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 M. S. LIU ET AL. 789

analyze the risks of spinning reserve scheme from the operating reserve in large interconnected power grid is
prospective of power generating system. A utility shown in Table 2.
expectation decision-making model is proposed, reflect- For transient state operating reserve, deterministic as-
ing both the objective risk of a spinning reserve scheme sessment methods are mainly adopted. Transient fre-
and the decision-maker's attitude to risks. In [28], a quency deviation indexes, such as maximum transient
method and standards of shareable operational reserve frequency deviation, index using two-element table and
reliability evaluation for multi-area power networks are index considering cumulative effect, are used to assess
proposed. Such random factors as the constraints of tie- overall spinning reserve capacity. Transient frequency
lines, the status of on-line generations, loss of network time-space distribution indexes, such as mean changing
elements, load fluctuations are considered. The reliability rate of frequency, maximum transient frequency devia-
of each area and the whole power system are evaluated tion and transient frequency response delay at different
separately. In [29], an extended state-space partitioning locations, are used to assess spinning reserve distribution
based method to assess operating reserve of power grid characteristics. Response rate of generators in primary
connected with large-scale wind farm is proposed. frequency control is used to assess spinning reserve re-
Multi-state model of wind turbine generator is adopted, sponse.
and the total state space, divided into two subspaces, can For quasi-steady state operating reserve, both determi-
be chosen by state enumeration method and Monte Carlo nistic and probabilistic methods are adopted. Indexes
simulation respectively. In [30], a mathematical model such as available transfer capability and generator ramp
for deploying distributed generation as reserve is built up. rates are used to assess security of operating reserve.
Loss of load probability is used to evaluate the reliability Indexes such as loss of load probability and value of lost
of power supply, and different optimal deployment load are used to assess operating risk considering operat-
scheme for distributed generators are given under ing reserve.
different reliability targets.
6. Conclusions
5. Security Assessment Index System for Optimization and placement of spinning reserve is an
Operating Reserve important issue in power system planning and operation.
5.1. Some Principles for Operating Reserve Classification and determination methods of operating
reserve at home and abroad are investigated at first, and a
Requirements of operating reserve capacity are closely
new classification of operating reserve from the view of
related to system scale, network structure, characteristics
security assessment is presented. Then assessment in-
of load and generation, etc. It is better to make system-
dexes and optimization methods for both transient state
atic assessment for a power grid before arranging its re-
and quasi-steady state operating reserve are studied. At
serve capacity, instead of using a certain proportion roughly.
last a security assessment index system for operating
When a DC line with large active power is connected
reserve in large interconnected power grids is put for-
to a power grid, severe impacts on the grid may be
ward. The proposed index system takes into account
caused if an outage occurs in one pole of the DC line.
Spinning reserve capacity needs improving, according to Table 2. Recommended security assessment index system.
frequency response characteristics after the outage.
When large amount of wind power is connected to a Assessment Assessment Assessment
power grid, wind power, with characteristics of fluctua- Reserve Type
Methods Object Indexes
tion and intermittence, requires even higher spinning
reserve capacity. Spinning reserve capacity needs im- Capacity
Transient frequency
proving, and the spinning reserve for wind power should deviation index
be close to wind power. Transient Transient frequency
Transient frequency deviation is close related to active state Distribution time-space distribution
Deterministic
operating index
power disturbance. For a power grid, the active power reserve
disturbance should be maximum active power imbalance Response rate of
considering N-1 contingencies. However, if control Response generators in primary
frequency control
measures are designed for a contingency, it should be
analyzed separately. Available transfer
Quasi-steady Deterministic Security capability, generator
state ramp rates, etc.
5.2. Recommended Security Assessment Index operating
System reserve Operating loss of load probability,
Probabilistic
risk value of lost load, etc.
A recommended security assessment index system for

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790 M. S. LIU ET AL.

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