AP Precalculus

COURSE FRAMEWORK AND EXAM OVERVIEW

February 2022
Preview
About College Board
College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to
college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, College Board was created to expand
access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of over 6,000
of the world’s leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence
and equity in education. Each year, College Board helps more than seven million students
prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college
readiness and college success—including the SAT® and the Advanced Placement®
Program. The organization also serves the education community through research and
advocacy on behalf of students, educators, and schools.
For further information, visit collegeboard.org.

Equity and Access

College Board strongly encourages educators to make equitable access a guiding
principle for their AP programs by giving all willing and academically prepared students
the opportunity to participate in AP. We encourage the elimination of barriers that restrict
access to AP for students from ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been
traditionally underrepresented. Schools should make every effort to ensure their AP
classes reflect the diversity of their student population. College Board also believes that all
students should have access to academically challenging coursework before they enroll
in AP classes, which can prepare them for AP success. It is only through a commitment to
equitable preparation and access that true equity and excellence can be achieved.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 2

Contents
Acknowledgements 4
About AP 5
Course Framework 8
Introduction 9
Course Framework Components 11
Mathematical Practices 12
Course at a Glance 13
Unit 1: Polynomial and Rational Functions 14
Unit 2: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 31
Unit 3: Trigonometric and Polar Functions 51
Unit 4: Functions Involving Parameters, Vectors, and Matrices 70
Exam Information 87
Exam Overview 88
Sample AP Precalculus Exam Questions 90

AP Precalculus Course Framework 3

Acknowledgements
College Board would like to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with and contributions to the
development of this course. All individuals’ affiliations were current at the time of contribution.

ADVISORY BOARD
David Bressoud, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN
Marilyn Carlson, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
Stephen Davis, Davidson College, Davidson, NC
Kristin Frank, Towson University, Towson, MD
Adrian Mims, The Calculus Project, Brookline, MA
Roberto Pelayo, University of California – Irvine, Irvine, CA

CONTENT WRITING TEAM

Grace Cook, Bloomfield College, Bloomfield, NJ
Tracey Etheredge-Alford, Barack Obama Male Leadership Academy, Dallas, TX
Rebecca George, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
Jerome Heaven, Indiana Institute of Technology, Fort Wayne, IN
Roberto Pelayo, University of California – Irvine, Irvine, CA
Paul Rodriguez, Troy High School, Fullerton, CA

SPECIAL CONTENT REVIEWER

Michael Boardman, Pacific University, Forest Grove, OR

PACING AND IMPLEMENTATION REVIEWERS

Julio Avasan, Olympian High School, Chula Vista, CA
Vicki Carter, West Florence High School, Florence, SC
Virge Cornelius, Lafayette County High School, Oxford, MS
Tracey Etheredge-Alford, Barack Obama Male Leadership Academy, Dallas, TX
Eliel Gonzalez, East Longmeadow High School, East Longmeadow, MA
Mark Howell, Gonzaga College High School, Washington, DC
Jon Kawamura, West Salem High School, Salem, OR
Christina Martin, Faith West Academy, Katy, TX
Brendan Murphy, John Bapst High School, Bangor, ME
Andrew Oberlies, Sequoyah High School, Canton, GA
Melissa Walton, Metamora Township High School, Metamora, IL

COLLEGE BOARD STAFF

Jason VanBilliard, Director, AP Precalculus
Natasha Vasavada, Executive Director, New Course Development

AP Precalculus Course Framework 4

About AP
College Board’s Advanced Placement® Program formative assessments—Progress Checks—that
(AP®) enables willing and academically prepared teachers can assign throughout the year to measure
students to pursue college-level studies—with the students’ progress as they acquire content knowledge
opportunity to earn college credit, advanced and develop skills.
placement, or both—while still in high school. Through
AP courses in 38 subjects, each culminating in a Enrolling Students:
challenging exam, students learn to think critically,
construct solid arguments, and see many sides of an Equity and Access
issue—skills that prepare them for college and College Board strongly encourages educators to
beyond. Taking AP courses demonstrates to college make equitable access a guiding principle for their AP
admission officers that students have sought the most programs by giving all willing and academically
challenging curriculum available to them, and prepared students the opportunity to participate in AP.
research indicates that students who score a 3 or We encourage the elimination of barriers that restrict
higher on an AP Exam typically experience greater access to AP for students from ethnic, racial, and
academic success in college and are more likely to socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally
earn a college degree than non-AP students. Each underserved. College Board also believes that all
AP teacher’s syllabus is evaluated and approved by students should have access to academically
faculty from some of the nation’s leading colleges and challenging coursework before they enroll in AP
universities, and AP Exams are developed and classes, which can prepare them for AP success. It is
scored by college faculty and experienced AP only through a commitment to equitable preparation
teachers. Most four-year colleges and universities in and access that true equity and excellence can be
the United States grant credit, advanced placement, achieved.
or both on the basis of successful AP Exam scores;
more than 3,300 institutions worldwide annually Offering AP Courses:
receive AP scores.
The AP Course Audit
AP Course Development The AP Program unequivocally supports the principle
that each school implements its own curriculum that
In an ongoing effort to maintain alignment with best
will enable students to develop the content
practices in college-level learning, AP courses and
understandings and skills described in the course
exams emphasize challenging, research-based
framework.
curricula aligned with higher education expectations.
While the unit sequence presented in this publication
Individual teachers are responsible for designing their
is optional, the AP Program does have a short list of
own curriculum for AP courses and selecting
curricular and resource requirements that must be
appropriate college-level readings, assignments, and
fulfilled before a school can label a course “Advanced
resources. This course framework document presents
Placement” or “AP.” Schools wishing to offer
the content and skills that are the focus of the
AP courses must participate in the AP Course Audit, a
corresponding college course and that appear on the
process through which AP teachers’ course materials
AP Exam. It also organizes the content and skills into
are reviewed by college faculty. The AP Course Audit
a series of units that represent a sequence found in
was created to provide teachers and administrators
widely adopted college textbooks and that many AP
with clear guidelines on curricular and resource
teachers have told us they follow in order to focus
requirements for AP courses and to help colleges and
their instruction. The intention of this publication is to
universities validate courses marked “AP” on
respect teachers’ time and expertise by providing a
students’ transcripts. This process ensures that AP
roadmap that they can modify and adapt to their local
teachers’ courses meet or exceed the curricular and
priorities and preferences. Moreover, by organizing
resource expectations that college and secondary
the AP course content and skills into units, the AP
school faculty have established for college-level
Program is able to provide teachers and students with
courses.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 5

The AP Course Audit form is submitted by the
AP teacher and the school principal (or designated
How AP Exams Are Scored
administrator) to confirm awareness and The exam scoring process, like the course and exam
understanding of the curricular and resource development process, relies on the expertise of both
requirements. A syllabus or course outline, detailing AP teachers and college faculty. While multiple-
how course requirements are met, is submitted by the choice questions are scored by machine, the free-
AP teacher for review by college faculty. response questions and through-course performance
assessments, as applicable, are scored by thousands
Please visit collegeboard.org/apcourseaudit for of college faculty and expert AP teachers. Most are
more information to support the preparation and scored at the annual AP Reading, while a small
submission of materials for the AP Course Audit. portion are scored online. All AP readers are
thoroughly trained, and their work is monitored
How the AP Program throughout the Reading for fairness and consistency.
In each subject, a highly respected college faculty
Is Developed member serves as Chief Faculty Consultant and, with
The scope of content for an AP course and exam is the help of AP readers in leadership positions,
derived from an analysis of hundreds of syllabi and maintains the accuracy of the scoring standards.
course offerings of colleges and universities. Using Scores on the free-response questions and
this research and data, a committee of college faculty performance assessments are weighted and
and expert AP teachers work within the scope of the combined with the results of the computer-scored
corresponding college course to articulate what multiple-choice questions, and this raw score is
students should know and be able to do upon the converted into a composite AP score on a 1–5 scale.
completion of the AP course. The resulting course
framework serves as a blueprint of the content and AP Exams are not norm-referenced or graded on a
skills that can appear on an AP Exam. curve. Instead, they are criterion-referenced, which
means that every student who meets the criteria for an
The AP Test Development Committees are AP score of 2, 3, 4, or 5 will receive that score, no
responsible for developing each AP Exam, ensuring matter how many students that is. The criteria for the
the exam questions are aligned to the course number of points students must earn on the AP Exam to
framework. The AP Exam development process is a receive scores of 3, 4, or 5—the scores that research
multiyear endeavor; all AP Exams undergo extensive consistently validates for credit and placement
review, revision, and analysis to ensure that questions purposes—include:
are accurate, fair, and valid and that there is an
appropriate spread of difficulty across the questions. • The number of points successful college
students earn when their professors administer
Committee members are selected to represent a AP Exam questions to them
variety of perspectives and institutions (public and
private, small and large schools and colleges) and a • The number of points researchers have found
range of gender, racial/ethnic, and regional groups. A to be predictive that an AP student will succeed
list of each subject’s current AP Test Development when placed into a subsequent, higher-level
Committee members is available on college course
apcentral.collegeboard.org. • Achievement-level descriptions formulated by
Throughout AP course and exam development, college faculty who review each AP Exam
College Board gathers feedback from various question
stakeholders in both secondary schools and higher
education institutions. This feedback is carefully
considered to ensure that AP courses and exams are
able to provide students with a college-level learning
experience and the opportunity to demonstrate their
qualifications for advanced placement or college
credit.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 6

 BECOMING AN AP READER
Using and Interpreting
Each June, thousands of AP teachers and college
AP Scores faculty members from around the world gather for
The extensive work done by college faculty and AP seven days in multiple locations to evaluate and score
teachers in the development of the course and exam the free-response sections of the AP Exams. Ninety-
and throughout the scoring process ensures that AP eight percent of surveyed educators who took part in
Exam scores accurately represent students’ the AP Reading say it was a positive experience.
achievement in the equivalent college course.
There are many reasons to consider becoming an
Frequent and regular research studies establish the
AP reader, including opportunities to:
validity of AP scores as follows:
• Bring positive changes to the classroom: Surveys
Credit College Grade show that the vast majority of returning AP
AP Score Recommendation Equivalent readers—both high school and college
educators—make improvements to the way they
5 Extremely well qualified A teach or score because of their experience at the
AP Reading.
4 Well qualified A-, B+, B
• Gain in-depth understanding of AP Exam and
3 Qualified B-, C+, C AP scoring standards: AP readers gain exposure
to the quality and depth of the responses from
2 Possibly qualified n/a the entire pool of AP Exam takers and thus are
better able to assess their own students’ work in
1 No recommendation n/a
the classroom.
• Receive compensation: AP readers are
While colleges and universities are responsible for compensated for their work during the Reading.
setting their own credit and placement policies, most Expenses, lodging, and meals are covered for
private colleges and universities award credit and/or readers who travel.
advanced placement for AP scores of 3 or higher. • Score from home: AP readers have online
Additionally, most states in the U.S. have adopted distributed scoring opportunities for certain
statewide credit policies that ensure college credit for subjects. Check collegeboard.org/apreading
scores of 3 or higher at public colleges and for details.
universities. To confirm a specific college’s AP
credit/placement policy, a search engine is available • Earn Continuing Education Units (CEUs): AP
at apstudent.org/creditpolicies. readers earn professional development hours
and CEUs that can be applied to professional
development or professional learning
requirements by states, districts, and schools.

How to Apply
Visit collegeboard.org/apreading for eligibility
requirements and to start the application process.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 7

 AP PRECALCULUS

Course
Framework

AP Precalculus Course Framework 8

Introduction
AP Precalculus centers on functions modeling AP Precalculus fosters the development of a deep
dynamic phenomena. This research-based conceptual understanding of functions. Students learn
exploration of functions is designed to better prepare that a function is a mathematical relation that maps a
students for college-level calculus and provide set of input values—the domain—to a set of output
grounding for other mathematics and science values—the range—such that each input value is
courses. In this course, students study a broad uniquely mapped to an output value. At various points
spectrum of function types that are foundational for and over various intervals, a function takes on
careers in mathematics, physics, biology, health characteristics that can be classified with varying
science, social science, and data science. levels of precision and justification, depending on the
Furthermore, as AP Precalculus may be the last function representation and available mathematical
mathematics course of a student’s secondary tools. Furthermore, a function can be classified as
education, the course is structured to provide a part of a function family based on the way in which
coherent capstone experience and is not exclusively values of different variables change simultaneously.
focused on preparation for future courses.
Research indicates that deep understanding of
During this course, students acquire and apply functions and their graphs as embodying dynamic
mathematical tools in real-world modeling situations in covariation of quantities best supports student
preparation for using these tools in college-level preparation for calculus. With each function type,
calculus. Modeling, a central instructional theme for students develop and validate function models based
the course, helps students come to a deeper on the characteristics of a bivariate data set,
understanding of each function type. By examining characteristics of covarying quantities and their
scenarios, conditions, and data sets, as well as relative rates of change, or a set of characteristics
determining and validating an appropriate function such as zeros, asymptotes, and extrema. These
model, students develop a greater comprehension of models are used to interpolate, extrapolate, and
the nature and behavior of the function itself. The interpret information with varying degrees of accuracy
formal study of a function type through multiple for a given context or data set. Additionally, students
representations (e.g., graphical, numerical, verbal, also learn that every model is subject to assumptions
analytical), coupled with the application of the function and limitations related to the context. As a result of
type to a variety of contexts, provides students with a examining functions from many perspectives,
rich study of precalculus. students develop a conceptual understanding not only
of specific function types but also of functions in
Throughout this course, students develop and hone
general. This type of understanding helps students to
symbolic manipulation skills needed for future
engage with both familiar and novel contexts.
mathematics courses. They also solve equations and
manipulate expressions for the many function types
throughout the course. Students also learn that Unit Outline
functions and their compositions, inverses, and Unit 1: Polynomial and Rational Functions
transformations are understood through graphical,
numerical, verbal, and analytical representations, Unit 2: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
which reveal different attributes of the functions and Unit 3: Trigonometric and Polar Functions
are useful for solving problems in mathematical and
applied contexts. In turn, the skills learned in this Unit 4: Functions Involving Parameters, Vectors, and
course are widely applicable in a variety of future Matrices
courses that involve quantitative reasoning.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 9

 However, it is important to note that technology
Unit Notes should not replace the development of symbolic
Each unit includes these features: manipulation skills. When algebraic expressions and
• Exploration, analysis, and application of new equations are accessible with precalculus-level
function types. algebraic manipulation, students are expected find
zeros, solve equations, and calculate values without
• Deep development of a key function concept the help of technology. Most of the AP Exam will need
applicable across function types such as to be completed without the use of technology.
transformations, compositions, and inverses. However, selected questions will require students to
• Examination of how variables change relative use a graphing calculator to complete the tasks
to each other for each of the function types. delineated above.

Use of each function type to model contexts

Expected Prior Knowledge
•

and data sets.

• Rigorous application of the algebraic skills
and Skills
needed to engage with each function type.
• Proficiency in polynomial addition and
multiplication

Technology Notes • Proficiency in factoring quadratic trinomials

Technology should be used throughout the course as • Proficiency in using the quadratic formula
a tool to explore concepts. In AP Precalculus,
students should specifically practice using technology • Proficiency in solving right triangle problems
to do the following: involving trigonometry

• Perform calculations (e.g., exponents, roots, • Proficiency in solving linear and quadratic
trigonometric values, logarithms) equations

• Graph functions and analyze graphs • Proficiency in algebraic manipulation of linear

equations and expressions
• Generate a table of values for a function
• Proficiency in solving linear and quadratic
• Find real zeros of functions inequalities
• Find points of intersection of graphs of functions • Familiarity with piecewise defined functions
• Find minima/maxima of functions • Familiarity with exponential functions and rules
• Find numerical solutions to equations in one for exponents
variable • Familiarity with radicals (e.g., square roots, cube
• Find regressions equations to model data roots)

• Perform matrix operations (e.g., multiplication, • Familiarity with complex numbers

finding inverses)

AP Precalculus Course Framework 10

Course Framework
Components
Overview
This course framework provides a clear and detailed description of the course requirements necessary for student
success. The framework specifies what students should know, be able to do, and understand to qualify for college
credit or placement.
The course framework includes two essential components:

MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES
The mathematical practices are central to the study and practice of precalculus. Students should develop and apply
the described skills on a regular basis over the span of the course.

COURSE CONTENT
The course content is organized into units of study that provide a suggested sequence for the course. These units
comprise the content and conceptual understandings that colleges and universities typically expect students to
master to qualify for college credit and/or placement.

COURSE FRAMEWORK CONVENTIONS:

Common language usage (e.g., “area of a triangle”) replaces precise mathematical phrasing (e.g., “area of the interior
of a triangle”) in the following instances:
• When the framework refers to modeling a data set, it is referring to a bivariate data set.
• When the framework refers to modeling a context or phenomenon, it is referring to two aspects of the context or
phenomena.
• When the framework refers to the sine, cosine, and so on of an angle, it is referring to the sine, cosine, and so on
of the measure of the angle.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 11

Mathematical Practices
The eight distinct skills are associated with three mathematical practices. Students should build and master these
skills throughout the course. While many different skills can be applied to any one content topic, the framework
supplies skill focus recommendations for each topic to help assure skill distribution throughout the course.

Practice 1 Practice 2 Practice 3

Procedural and Symbolic Fluency Multiple Representations Communication and Reasoning

Algebraically manipulate functions, Translate mathematical information Communicate with precise language,
equations, and expressions. between representations. and provide rationales for conclusions.

Skill 1.A: Solve equations and Skill 2.A: Identify information from Skill 3.A: Describe the
inequalities represented analytically, graphical, numerical, analytical, and characteristics of a function with
with and without technology. verbal representations to answer varying levels of precision, depending
a question or construct a model, with on the function representation
Skill 1.B: Express functions,
and without technology. and available mathematical tools.
equations, or expressions in
analytically equivalent forms that Skill 2.B: Construct equivalent Skill 3.B: Apply numerical results
are useful in a given mathematical graphical, numerical, analytical, and in a given mathematical or applied
or applied context. verbal representations of functions context.
that are useful in a given
Skill 1.C: Construct new functions, Skill 3.C: Support conclusions
mathematical or applied context,
using transformations, compositions, or choices with a logical rationale
with and without technology.
inverses, or regressions, that may be or appropriate data.
useful in modeling contexts, criteria,
or data, with and without technology.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 12

Course at a Glance
Unit 1 Polynomial and Rational Functions Unit 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
6–6.5 weeks 6–6.5 weeks
1.1 Change in Tandem 2.1 Change in Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences
1.2 Rates of Change 2.2 Change in Linear and Exponential Functions
1.3 Rates of Change in Linear and Quadratic 2.3 Exponential Functions
Functions
1.4 Polynomial Functions and Rates of Change 2.4 Exponential Function Manipulation
1.5 Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros 2.5 Exponential Function Context and Data Modeling
1.6 Polynomial Functions and End Behavior 2.6 Competing Function Model Validation
1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior 2.7 Composition of Functions
1.8 Rational Functions and Zeros 2.8 Inverse Functions
1.9 Rational Functions and Vertical Asymptotes 2.9 Logarithmic Expressions
1.10 Rational Functions and Holes 2.10 Inverses of Exponential Functions
1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and 2.11 Logarithmic Functions
Rational Expressions
1.12 Transformations of Functions 2.12 Logarithmic Function Manipulation
1.13 Function Model Selection and Assumption 2.13 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and
Articulation Inequalities
1.14 Function Model Construction and Application 2.14 Logarithmic Function Context and Data Modeling
2.15 Semi-log Plots

Unit 3 Trigonometric and Polar Functions Unit 4 Functions Involving Parameters, Vectors, and
7–7.5 weeks Matrices
7–7.5 weeks
3.1 Periodic Phenomena 4.1 Parametric Functions
3.2 Sine, Cosine, and Tangent 4.2 Parametric Functions Modeling Planar Motion
3.3 Sine and Cosine Function Values 4.3 Parametric Functions and Rates of Change
3.4 Sine and Cosine Function Graphs 4.4 Parametrically Defined Circles and Lines
3.5 Sinusoidal Functions 4.5 Implicitly Defined Functions
3.6 Sinusoidal Function Transformations 4.6 Conic Sections
3.7 Sinusoidal Function Context and Data Modeling 4.7 Parametrization of Implicitly Defined Functions
3.8 The Tangent Function 4.8 Vectors
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 4.9 Vector-Valued Functions
3.10 Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 4.10 Matrices
3.11 The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions 4.11 The Inverse and Determinant of a Matrix
3.12 Equivalent Representations of Trigonometric 4.12 Linear Transformations and Matrices
Functions
3.13 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates 4.13 Matrices as Functions
3.14 Polar Function Graphs 4.14 Matrices Modeling Contexts
3.15 Rates of Change in Polar Functions

AP Precalculus Course Framework 13

UNIT 1:
Polynomial and
Rational Functions
6–6.5 WEEKS

AP Precalculus Course Framework 14

Unit at a Glance
Instructional Suggested Skill
Topic # Topic Title
Periods Focus

1.1 Change in Tandem 2 2.B, 3.A

1.2 Rates of Change 2 2.A, 3.A

1.3 Rates of Change in Linear and Quadratic Functions 2 3.B, 3.C

1.4 Polynomial Functions and Rates of Change 2 2.A, 3.A

1.5 Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros 2 1.B, 2.B

1.6 Polynomial Functions and End Behavior 1 3.A

1.7 Rational Functions and End Behavior 2 1.B, 3.A

1.8 Rational Functions and Zeros 1 1.A

1.9 Rational Functions and Vertical Asymptotes 1 2.A

1.10 Rational Functions and Holes 1 3.C

1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Expressions 2 1.B, 3.B

1.12 Transformations of Functions 2 1.C, 3.A

1.13 Function Model Selection and Assumption Articulation 2 2.A, 3.C

1.14 Function Model Construction and Application 2 1.C, 3.B

AP Precalculus Course Framework 15

TOPIC 1.1

Change in Tandem
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.1.A Describe how the input and • 1.1.A.1 A function is a mathematical relation that maps a set of
output values of a function vary input values to a set of output values such that each input value is
together by comparing function mapped to exactly one output value. The set of input values is
values. called the domain of the function, and the set of output values is
called the range of the function. The variable representing input
values is called the independent variable, and the variable
representing output values is called the dependent variable.
• 1.1.A.2 The input and output values of a function vary in tandem
according to the function rule, which can be expressed graphically,
tabularly, analytically, or verbally.
• 1.1.A.3 A function is increasing over an interval of its domain if,
as the input values increase, the output values always increase.
That is, for all a and b in the interval, if a < b , then f ( a ) < f ( b ) .

• 1.1.A.4 A function is decreasing over an interval of its domain if,

as the input values increase, the output values always decrease.
That is, for all a and b in the interval, if a < b , then f ( a ) > f ( b ) .

1.1.B Construct a graph • 1.1.B.1 The graph of a function displays a set of input-output
representing two quantities that pairs and shows how the values of the function’s input and output
vary with respect to each other in a values vary.
contextual scenario. • 1.1.B.2 A verbal description of the way aspects of phenomena
change together can be the basis for constructing a graph.
• 1.1.B.3 The graph of a function is concave up on intervals in
which the rate of change is increasing.
• 1.1.B.4 The graph of a function is concave down on intervals in
which the rate of change is decreasing.
• 1.1.B.5 The graph intersects the x-axis when the output value is
zero. The corresponding input values are said to be zeros of the
function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 16

TOPIC 1.2

Rates of Change
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.2.A Compare the rates of • 1.2.A.1 The average rate of change of a function over an interval
change at two points using of the function’s domain is the constant rate of change that yields
average rates of change near the the same change in the output values as the function yielded on
points. that interval of the function’s domain. It is the ratio of the change
in the output values to the change in input values over that
interval.
• 1.2.A.2 The rate of change of a function at a point quantifies the
rate at which output values would change were the input values to
change at that point. The rate of change at a point can be
approximated by the average rates of change of the function over
small intervals containing the point, if such values exist.
• 1.2.A.3 The rates of change at two points can be compared
using average rate of change approximations over sufficiently
small intervals containing each point, if such values exist.

1.2.B Describe how two • 1.2.B.1 Rates of change quantify how two quantities vary
quantities vary together at different together.
points and over different intervals • 1.2.B.2 A positive rate of change indicates that as one quantity
of a function.
increases or decreases, the other quantity does the same.
• 1.2.B.3 A negative rate of change indicates that as one quantity
increases, the other decreases.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 17

TOPIC 1.3

Rates of Change in Linear and

Quadratic Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 3.B, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.3.A Determine the average • 1.3.A.1 Over any length input-value interval, the average rate of
rates of change for linear and change for a linear function is constant.
quadratic sequences and • 1.3.A.2 For consecutive equal-length input-value intervals, the
functions.
average rate of change of a quadratic function can be given by a
linear function.
• 1.3.A.3 The average rate of change over the closed interval
a, b  is the slope of the secant line from the point ( a, f ( a ) ) to
(b, f (b ) ) .

1.3.B Determine the change of • 1.3.B.1 Because the average rate of change of a linear function
average rates of change for linear over any length input-value interval is constant, the rate of change
and quadratic functions. of the average rates of change of a linear function is zero.
• 1.3.B.2 Because the average rate of change of a quadratic
function over consecutive equal-length input-value intervals can
be given by a linear function, the rate of change of the average
rates of change of a quadratic function is constant.
• 1.3.B.3 When the average rate of change over equal-length
input-value intervals is increasing for all small-length intervals, the
graph of the function is concave up. When the average rate of
change over equal-length input-value intervals is decreasing for all
small-length intervals, the graph of the function is concave down.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 18

TOPIC 1.4

Polynomial Functions and Rates of

Change
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.4.A Identify key characteristics • 1.4.A.1 A nonconstant polynomial function of x is any function
of polynomial functions related to representation that is equivalent to the analytical form
rates of change. p (=
x ) an x n + an−1 x n−1 + an −2 x n−2 +…+ a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , where n
is a positive integer, ai is a real number for each i from 1 to n ,
and an is nonzero. The polynomial has degree n , the leading
n
term is an x , and the leading coefficient is an . A constant is also
a polynomial function of degree zero.
• 1.4.A.2 Where a polynomial function switches between
increasing and decreasing, or at the included endpoint of
polynomial with a restricted domain, the polynomial function will
have a local, or relative, maximum or minimum output value. Of all
local maxima, the greatest is called the global, or absolute,
maximum. Likewise, the least of all local minima is called the
global, or absolute, minimum.
• 1.4.A.3 Between every two distinct real zeros of a nonconstant
polynomial function, there must be at least one input value
corresponding to a local maximum or minimum.
• 1.4.A.4 Polynomial functions of an even degree will have either a
global maximum or a global minimum.
• 1.4.A.5 Points of inflection of a polynomial function occur at input
values where the rate of change of the function changes from
increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing. This
occurs where the graph of a polynomial changes from concave up
to concave down or from concave down to concave up.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 19

TOPIC 1.5

Polynomial Functions and Complex

Zeros
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.5.A Identify key characteristics • 1.5.A.1 If a is a complex number and p ( a ) = 0 , then a is called
of a polynomial function related to
a zero of p , or a root of the polynomial function p . If a is a real
its zeros when suitable
factorizations are available or with number, then ( x − a ) is a linear factor of p if and only if a is a
technology. zero of p .

• 1.5.A.2 If a linear factor ( x − a ) is repeated n times, the

corresponding zero of the polynomial function has a multiplicity n .
A polynomial of degree n has at exactly n complex zeros when
counting multiplicities.
• 1.5.A.3 If a is a real root of a polynomial function p , then the

( )
graph of y = p ( x ) has an x-intercept at the point a, 0 .
Consequently, real zeros of a polynomial are endpoints for
intervals satisfying polynomial inequalities.
• 1.5.A.4 If a + bi is a non-real zero of a polynomial p , then its
conjugate a − bi is also a zero of p .

• 1.5.A.5 If the real zero, a , of a polynomial function has even

multiplicity, then the signs of the output values are the same for
input values near x = a . For these polynomials, the graph will be
tangent to the x-axis at x = a .
• 1.5.A.6 The degree of a polynomial function can be found by
examining the successive differences of the output values over
equal-interval input values. The degree of the polynomial function
is equal to the least value n for which the successive nth
differences are constant.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 20

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.5.B Determine if a polynomial is • 1.5.B.1 An even function is graphically symmetric over the line
even or odd. x = 0 and analytically has the property f ( −x ) =f ( x ) . If n is
even, then a polynomial of the form p ( x ) = an x , where n≥ 1
n

and an ≠ 0 , is an even function.

• 1.5.B.2 An odd function is graphically symmetric about the point

( 0, 0 ) and analytically has the property f ( −x ) =− f ( x ) . If n is
odd, then a polynomial of the form p ( x ) = an x , where n≥ 1 and
n

an ≠ 0 , is an odd function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 21

TOPIC 1.6

Polynomial Functions and End

Behavior
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.6.A Describe end behaviors of • 1.6.A.1 As input values of a nonconstant polynomial function
polynomial functions. increase without bound, the output values will either increase or
decrease without bound. The corresponding mathematical
notation is lim p ( x ) = ∞ or lim p ( x ) = − ∞ .
x→ ∞ x→ ∞

• 1.6.A.2 As input values of a nonconstant polynomial function

decrease without bound, the output values will either increase or
decrease without bound. The corresponding mathematical
notation is lim p ( x ) = ∞ or lim p ( x ) = − ∞ .
x→ − ∞ x→ − ∞

• 1.6.A.3 The degree and sign of the leading term of a polynomial

determines the end behavior of the polynomial function, because
as the input values increase or decrease without bound, the
values of the leading term dominate the values of all lower-degree
terms.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 22

TOPIC 1.7

Rational Functions and End Behavior

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.7.A Describe end behaviors of • 1.7.A.1 A rational function is analytically represented as a

rational functions. quotient of two polynomial functions and gives a measure of the
relative size of the polynomial function in the numerator compared
to the polynomial function in the denominator for each value in the
rational function’s domain.
• 1.7.A.2 The end behavior of a rational function will be affected
most by the polynomial with the greater degree, as its values will
dominate the values of the rational function for input values of
large magnitude. For input values of large magnitude, a
polynomial is dominated by its leading term. Therefore, the end
behavior of a rational function can be understood by examining
the corresponding quotient of the leading terms.
• 1.7.A.3 If the polynomial in the numerator dominates the
polynomial in the denominator for input values of large magnitude,
then the quotient of the leading terms is a nonconstant
polynomial, and the original rational function has the end behavior
of that polynomial. If that polynomial is linear, then the rational
function has slant asymptote parallel to the graph of the line.
• 1.7.A.4 If neither polynomial in a rational function dominates the
other for input values of large magnitude, then the quotient of the
leading terms is a constant, and that constant indicates the
location of a horizontal asymptote of the original rational function.
• 1.7.A.5 If the polynomial in the denominator dominates the
polynomial in the numerator for input values of large magnitude,
then the quotient of the leading terms is a rational function with a
constant in the numerator and nonconstant polynomial in the
denominator, and the original rational function has a horizontal
asymptote at y = 0 .
• 1.7.A.6 When the graph of a rational function has a horizontal
asymptote y = b , where b is a constant, the output values of the
rational function get arbitrarily close to b and stay arbitrarily close
to b as input values increase or decrease without bound. The
corresponding mathematical notation is lim r ( x ) = b or
x→ ∞

lim r ( x ) = b .
x→ − ∞

AP Precalculus Course Framework 23

TOPIC 1.8

Rational Functions and Zeros

Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 1.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.8.A Determine the zeros of • 1.8.A.1 The real zeros of a rational function correspond to the
rational functions. real zeros of the numerator for such values in its domain.
• 1.8.A.2 The real zeros of both polynomials of a rational function
are endpoints or asymptotes for intervals satisfying the rational
function inequalities r ( x ) ≥ 0 or r ( x ) ≤ 0 .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 24

TOPIC 1.9

Rational Functions and Vertical

Asymptotes
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 2.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.9.A Determine vertical • 1.9.A.1 If the value a is a real zero of the polynomial in the
asymptotes of rational functions. denominator of a rational function and is not also a real zero of the
polynomial in the numerator, then the graph of the rational
function has a vertical asymptote at x = a . Furthermore, a vertical
asymptote also occurs at x = a if the multiplicity of a as a real
zero in the denominator is greater than its multiplicity as a real
zero in the numerator.
• 1.9.A.2 Near a vertical asymptote, x = a , of a rational function,
the values of the polynomial in the denominator are arbitrarily
close to zero, so the values of the rational function increase or
decrease without bound. The corresponding mathematical
notation is lim+ r ( x ) = ∞ or lim+ r ( x ) = −∞ for input values near
x→a x→a

a and greater than a , and lim− r ( x ) = ∞ or lim− r ( x ) = − ∞ for

x→a x→a
input values near a and less than a .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 25

TOPIC 1.10

Rational Functions and Holes

Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.10.A Determine holes in graphs of • 1.10.A.1 If the multiplicity of a real zero in the numerator is greater
rational functions. than or equal to its multiplicity in the denominator, then the graph of
the rational function has a hole at the corresponding input value.
• 1.10.A.2 If the graph of a rational function has a hole at x = c , then
the location of the hole can be determined by examining the output
values corresponding to input values arbitrarily close to c . If input
values arbitrarily close to c correspond to output values arbitrarily
close to L , then the hole is located at the point with coordinates
( c, L ) . The corresponding mathematical notation is limr ( x ) = L .
x→c

=
It should be noted that lim−
r ( x ) lim
=+
r ( x ) lim r ( x ) = L .
x→c x →c x →c

AP Precalculus Course Framework 26

TOPIC 1.11

Equivalent Representations of
Polynomial and Rational Expressions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.11.A Rewrite polynomial and • 1.11.A.1 Because the factored form of a polynomial or rational
rational expressions in equivalent function readily provides information about real zeros, it can reveal
forms. information about x-intercepts, asymptotes, holes, domain, and
range.
• 1.11.A.2 The standard form of a polynomial or rational function
can reveal information about end behavior of the function.
• 1.11.A.3 The information extracted from different analytic
representations of the same polynomial or rational function can be
used to answer questions in context.

1.11.B Determine the quotient of • 1.11.B.1 Polynomial long division is an algebraic process similar
two polynomials using long to numerical long division involving a quotient and remainder. If the
division. polynomial f is divided by the polynomial g , then f can be
as f ( x ) g ( x ) q ( x ) + r ( x ) , where q is the quotient, r
rewritten=
is the remainder and the degree of r is less than the degree of g .

• 1.11.B.2 The result of polynomial long division is helpful in finding

equations of slant asymptotes.

1.11.C Rewrite the repeated • 1.11.C.1 The binomial theorem utilizes the entries in a single row
product of binomials using the of Pascal’s Triangle to more easily expand expressions of the form
binomial theorem.
( a + b ) , including polynomial functions of the form
n

p ( x=) ( x + c ) , where c is a constant.

n

AP Precalculus Course Framework 27

TOPIC 1.12

Transformations of Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.12.A Construct a function that • (x)

1.12.A.1 The function g= f ( x ) + k is an additive
is an additive and/or multiplicative
transformation of the function f that results in a vertical
transformation of another function.
translation of the graph of f by k units.

• 1.12.A.2 The function g (=

x) f ( x + h ) is an additive
transformation of the function f that results in a horizontal
translation of the graph of f by −h units.

• 1.12.A.3 The function g ( x ) = af ( x ) , where a ≠ 0 , is a

multiplicative transformation of the function f that results in a
vertical dilation of the graph of f by a factor of a . If a < 0 , the
transformation involves a reflection over the x-axis.

• 1.12.A.4 The function g ( x ) = f ( bx ) , where b ≠ 0 , is a

multiplicative transformation of the function f that results in a
1
horizontal dilation of the graph of f by a factor of . If b < 0 ,
b
the transformation involves a reflection over the y-axis.
• 1.12.A.5 Additive and multiplicative transformations can be
combined, resulting in combinations of horizontal and vertical
translations and dilations.
• 1.12.A.6 The domain and range of a function that is a
transformation of a parent function may be different from those of
the parent function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 28

TOPIC 1.13

Function Model Selection and

Assumption Articulation
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.13.A Identify an appropriate • 1.13.A.1 Linear functions model data sets or aspects of
function type to construct a contextual scenarios that demonstrate roughly constant rates of
function model for a given change.
scenario. • 1.13.A.2 Quadratic functions model data sets or aspects of
contextual scenarios that demonstrate roughly linear rates of
change, or data sets that are roughly symmetric with a unique
maximum or minimum value.
• 1.13.A.3 Geometric contexts involving area or two dimensions
can often be modeled by quadratic functions. Geometric contexts
involving volume or three dimensions can often be modeled by
cubic functions.
• 1.13.A.4 Polynomial functions model data sets or contextual
scenarios with multiple real zeros or multiple maxima or minima.
• 1.13.A.5 A polynomial function of degree n models data sets or
contextual scenarios that demonstrate roughly constant nonzero
nth differences.
• 1.13.A.6 A polynomial function of degree n or less can be used
to model a graph of n +1 points with distinct input values.
• 1.13.A.7 A piecewise-defined function consists of a set of
functions defined over nonoverlapping domain intervals and is
useful for modeling a data set or contextual scenario that
demonstrates different characteristics over different intervals.

1.13.B Describe assumptions • 1.13.B.1 A model may have underlying assumptions about what
and restrictions related to building is consistent in the model.
a function model. • 1.13.B.2 A model may have underlying assumptions about how
quantities change together.
• 1.13.B.3 A model may require domain restrictions based on
mathematical clues, contextual clues, or extreme values in the
data set.
• 1.13.B.4 A model may require range restrictions, such as
rounding values, based on mathematical clues, contextual clues,
or extreme values in the data set.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 29

TOPIC 1.14

Function Model Construction and

Application
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1.14.A Construct a linear, • 1.14.A.1 A model can be constructed based on restrictions

polynomial, or related piecewise- identified in a mathematical or contextual scenario.
defined function model. • 1.14.A.2 A model of a data set or a contextual scenario can be
constructed using transformations of the parent function.
• 1.14.A.3 A model of a data set can be constructed using
technology and regressions.
• 1.14.A.4 A piecewise-defined function model can be constructed
through a combination of modeling techniques.

1.14.B Construct a rational • 1.14.B.1 Data sets and aspects of contextual scenarios involving
function model based on a quantities that are inversely proportional can often be modeled by
context. rational functions. For example, the magnitudes of both
gravitational force and electromagnetic force between objects are
inversely proportional to the objects’ squared distance.

1.14.C Apply a function model to • 1.14.C.1 A model can be used to draw conclusions about the
answer questions about a data set modeled data set or contextual scenario, including answering key
or contextual scenario. questions and predicting values, rates of change, average rates of
change, and changing rates of change. Appropriate units of
measure should be extracted or inferred from the given context.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 30

UNIT 2:
Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions
6–6.5 WEEKS

AP Precalculus Course Framework 31

Unit at a Glance
Instructional Suggested Skill
Topic # Topic Title
Periods Focus

2.1 Change in Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences 2 1.B, 3.A

2.2 Change in Linear and Exponential Functions 2 1.C, 3.B
2.3 Exponential Functions 1 3.A
2.4 Exponential Function Manipulation 2 1.B, 3.A
2.5 Exponential Function Context and Data Modeling 2 1.C, 3.B

2.6 Competing Function Model Validation 2 2.A, 3.C

2.7 Composition of Functions 2 1.C, 2.B
2.8 Inverse Functions 2 1.A, 2.B
2.9 Logarithmic Expressions 1 1.B
2.10 Inverses of Exponential Functions 2 1.C, 2.B
2.11 Logarithmic Functions 1 3.A
2.12 Logarithmic Function Manipulation 2 1.B, 3.A
2.13 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 3 1.A, 1.B, 1.C
2.14 Logarithmic Function Context and Data Modeling 2 1.C, 3.B
2.15 Semi-log Plots 2 2.B, 3.C

AP Precalculus Course Framework 32

TOPIC 2.1

Change in Arithmetic and Geometric

Sequences
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.1.A Express arithmetic • 2.1.A.1 A sequence is a function from the whole numbers to the
sequences found in mathematical real numbers. Consequently, the graph of a sequence consists of
and contextual scenarios as discrete points instead of a curve.
functions of the natural numbers. • 2.1.A.2 Successive terms in an arithmetic sequence have a
common difference, or constant rate of change.
• 2.1.A.3 The nth term of an arithmetic sequence with a common
difference d is denoted as an and is given by a=
n a0 + dn ,
where a0 is the initial value, or by an =ak + d ( n − k ) , where ak
is the kth term of the sequence.

2.1.B Express geometric • 2.1.B.1 Successive terms in a geometric sequence have a

sequences found in mathematical common ratio, or constant proportional change.
and contextual scenarios as
• 2.1.B.2 The nth term of a geometric sequence with a common
functions of the natural numbers.
n
ratio r is denoted by g n and is given by g n = g 0 r , where g 0 is
(n − k )
the initial value, or by g n = g k r , where g k is the kth term of
the sequence.
• 2.1.B.3 Increasing arithmetic sequences increase equally with
each step, whereas increasing geometric sequences increase by
a larger amount with each successive step.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 33

TOPIC 2.2

Change in Linear and Exponential

Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.2.A Construct functions of the • 2.2.A.1 Linear functions of the form f ( x )= b + mx are similar to
real numbers that are comparable
arithmetic sequences of the form a= a0 + dn , as both can be
to arithmetic and geometric n

sequences. expressed as an initial value ( b or a0 ) plus repeated addition of a

constant rate of change, the slope ( m or d ).
• 2.2.A.2 Similar to arithmetic sequences of the form
an =ak + d ( n − k ) , which are based on a known difference, d ,
and a kth term, linear functions can be expressed in the form
f (x) =yi + m ( x − xi ) based on a known slope, m , and a point,
(x , y ) .
i i

2.2.A.3 Exponential functions of the form f ( x ) = ab are similar

x
•

n
to geometric sequences of the form g n = g 0 r , as both can be
expressed as an initial value ( a or g 0 ) times repeated
multiplication by a constant proportion ( b or r ).
(n − k )
• 2.2.A.4 Similar to geometric sequences of the form g n = g k r ,
which are based on a known ratio, r , and a kth term, exponential
functions can be expressed in the form f ( x ) = yi r
( x − xi )
based on

( )
a known ratio, r , and a point, xi , yi .

• 2.2.A.5 Sequences and their corresponding functions may have

different domains.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 34

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.2.B Describe similarities and • 2.2.B.1 Over equal-length input-value intervals, if the output
differences between linear and values of a function change at constant rate, then the function is
exponential functions. linear; if the output values of a function change proportionally, then
the function is exponential.

• 2.2.B.2 Linear functions of the form f ( x )= b + mx and

exponential functions of the form f ( x ) = ab can both be
x

expressed analytically in terms of an initial value and a constant

involved with change. However, linear functions are based on
addition, while exponential functions are based on multiplication.
• 2.2.B.3 Arithmetic sequences, linear functions, geometric
sequences, and exponential functions all have the property that
they can be determined by two distinct sequence or function
values.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 35

TOPIC 2.3

Exponential Functions
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.3.A Identify key characteristics • 2.3.A.1 The general form of an exponential function is
of exponential functions. f ( x ) = ab x , with the initial value a , where a ≠ 0 , and the base
b , where b > 0 , and b ≠ 1 . When a > 0 and b > 1 , the
exponential function is said to demonstrate exponential growth.
When a > 0 and 0 < b < 1 , the exponential function is said to
demonstrate exponential decay.
• 2.3.A.2 When the natural numbers are input values in an
exponential function, the input value specifies the number of
factors of the base to be applied to the function’s initial value. The
domain of an exponential function is all real numbers.
• 2.3.A.3 Because the output values of exponential functions in
general form are proportional over equal-length input-value
intervals, exponential functions are always increasing or always
decreasing, and their graphs are always concave up or always
concave down. Consequently, exponential functions do not have
extrema except on a closed interval, and their graphs do not have
inflection points.
• 2.3.A.4 If the values of the additive transformation function
( x ) f ( x ) + k of any function f are proportional over equal-
g=
length input-value intervals, then f is exponential.

• 2.3.A.5 For an exponential function in general form, as the input

values increase or decrease without bound, the output values will
increase or decrease without bound or will get arbitrarily close to
zero. That is, for an exponential function in general form,
lim ab x = ∞ , lim ab x = −∞ , or lim ab x = 0 .
x→ ± ∞ x→ ± ∞ x→ ± ∞

AP Precalculus Course Framework 36

TOPIC 2.4

Exponential Function Manipulation

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.4.A Rewrite exponential • 2.4.A.1 The product property for exponents states that
expressions in equivalent forms. b m bn = b (
m+n)
. Graphically, this property implies that every
horizontal translation of an exponential function, f ( x ) = b
(x +k)
, is

( x ) b = b=
equivalent to a vertical dilation, f =
(x +k)
b ab , where x k x

a = bk .
• 2.4.A.2 The power property for exponents states that

(b )
n
= b(
m mn )
. Graphically, this property implies that every

horizontal dilation of an exponential function, f ( x ) = b

( cx )
, is
equivalent to a change of the base of an exponential function,

( )
x
f ( x ) = bc , where bc is a constant and c ≠ 0 .

−n 1
• 2.4.A.3 The negative exponent property states that b =
bn
• 2.4.A.4 The value of an exponential expression involving an
(1 k )
exponential unit fraction, such as b where k is a natural
number, is the kth root of b , when it exists.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 37

TOPIC 2.5

Exponential Function Context and Data

Modeling
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.5.A Construct a model for • 2.5.A.1 Exponential functions model growth patterns where
situations involving proportional successive output values over equal-length input-value intervals
output values over equal-length are proportional. When the input values are whole numbers,
input-value intervals. exponential functions model situations of repeated multiplication
of a constant to an initial value.
• 2.5.A.2 A constant may need to be added to the dependent
variable values of a data set to reveal a proportional growth
pattern.
• 2.5.A.3 An exponential function model can be constructed from
an appropriate ratio and initial value or from two input-output
pairs. The initial value and the base can be found by solving a
system of equations resulting from the two input-output pairs.
• 2.5.A.4 Exponential function models can be constructed by
applying transformations to f ( x ) = ab based on characteristics
x

of a contextual scenario or data set.

• 2.5.A.5 Exponential function models can be constructed for a
data set with technology using exponential regressions.
• 2.5.A.6 The natural base e , which is approximately 2.718, is
often used as the base in exponential functions that model
contextual scenarios.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 38

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.5.B Apply exponential models 2.5.B.1 For an exponential model in general form f ( x ) = ab ,
x
•

to answer questions about a data

the base of the exponent, b , can be understood as a growth
set or contextual scenario.
factor in successive unit changes in the input values and is related
to a percent change in context.
• 2.5.B.2 Equivalent forms of an exponential function can reveal
different properties of the function. For example, if d represents
number of days, then the base of f ( d ) = 2 indicates that the
d

quantity increases by a factor of 2 every day, but the equivalent

7 (
d 7)
form f ( d ) = 2 ( ) indicates that the quantity increases by a
7
factor of 2 every week.
• 2.5.B.3 Exponential models can be used to predict values for the
dependent variable, depending on the contextual constraints on
the domain.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 39

TOPIC 2.6

Competing Function Model Validation

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.6.A Construct linear, quadratic, • 2.6.A.1 Two variables in a data set that demonstrate a slightly
and exponential models based on changing rate of change can be modeled by linear, exponential,
a data set. and quadratic function models.
• 2.6.A.2 Models can be compared based on contextual clues and
applicability to determine which model is most appropriate.

2.6.B Validate a model • 2.6.B.1 A model is justified as appropriate for a data set if the
constructed from a data set. graph of the residuals of a regression appear without pattern.
• 2.6.B.2 The difference between the predicted and actual values
is the error in the model. Depending on the data set and context, it
may be more appropriate to have an underestimate or
overestimate for any given interval.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 40

TOPIC 2.7

Composition of Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.7.A Evaluate the composition of • 2.7.A.1 If f and g are functions, the composite function
two or more functions for given
f ( g ( x ) ) maps a set of input values to a set of output values
values.
such that the output values of g are used as input values of f .
For this reason, the domain of the composite function is restricted
to those input values of g for which the corresponding output
value is in the domain of f . The composite function f g ( x ) ( )
uniquely maps input values of g to output values of f ,
dependent on the domain restrictions of f and g . The

( )
composite function f g ( x ) can also be represented as

f  g (x) .

•
(
2.7.A.2 Values for the composite function f g ( x ) can be )
calculated or estimated from the analytical, graphical, numerical,
or verbal representations of f and g by using output values
from g as input values for f .

• 2.7.A.3 The composition of functions is not commutative; that is,

f ( g ( x ) ) and g ( f ( x ) ) are typically different functions.

• 2.7.A.4 If the function f ( x ) = x is composed with any function

g , the resulting composite function is the same as g ; that is,
( f ( x ) ) f=
g= ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) . The function f ( x ) = x is called
the identity function. When composing two functions, the identify
function acts in the same way as 0, the additive identity, when
adding two values and 1, the multiplicative identity, when
multiplying two numbers.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 41

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.7.B Construct a representation • 2.7.B.1 Function composition is useful for relating two quantities
of the composition of two or more that are not directly related by an existing formula.
functions.
• 2.7.B.2 When analytic representations of the functions f and
g are available, an analytic representation of f ( g ( x ) ) can be
constructed by substituting g ( x ) for every instance of x in f .

•
(
2.7.B.3 A numerical or graphical representation of f g ( x ) )
can often be constructed by calculating or estimating values for
( x, f ( g ( x ))) .
2.7.C Rewrite a given function as • 2.7.C.1 Functions given analytically can often be decomposed
a composite of two or more into less complex functions. When properly decomposed, the
functions. variable in one function should replace each instance of the
function with which it was composed.
• 2.7.C.2 An additive transformation of a function, f , that results
in vertical and horizontal translations can be understood as the
composition of g ( x )= x + k with f .

• 2.7.C.3 A multiplicative transformation of a function, f , that

results in vertical and horizontal dilations can be understood as
the composition of g ( x ) = kx with f .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 42

TOPIC 2.8

Inverse Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.A, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.8.A Determine the input-output • 2.8.A.1 On a specified domain, a function, f , has an inverse
pairs of the inverse of a function. function, or is invertible, if each output value of f is mapped from
a unique input value. The domain of a function may be restricted
in many ways to make the function invertible.
• 2.8.A.2 An inverse function can be thought of as a reverse
−1
mapping of the function. An inverse function, f , maps the
output values of a function, f , on its invertible domain to their
corresponding input values; that is, if f ( a ) = b , then f (b ) = a .
−1

Alternately, on its invertible domain, if a function consists of input-

( )
output pairs a, b , then the inverse function consists of input-

output pairs ( b, a ) .

2.8.B Determine the inverse of a • 2.8.B.1 The composition of a function, f , and its inverse
function on an invertible domain. −1
function, f , is the identity function; that is,

(
f ( x ) f=
f= −1 −1
)
( f ( x )) x .
• 2.8.B.2 On a function’s invertible domain, the function’s range
and domain are the inverse function’s domain and range,
respectively. The inverse of the table of values of y = f ( x ) can
be found by reversing the input-output pairs; that is, a, b ( )
corresponds to b, a .( )
• 2.8.B.3 The inverse of the graph of the function y = f ( x ) can
be found by reversing the roles of the x- and y-axes; that is, by
reflecting the graph of the function over the graph of the identity
function h ( x ) = x .

• 2.8.B.4 The inverse of the function can be found by determining

the inverse operations to reverse the mapping. One method for
finding the inverse of the function f is reversing the roles of x
and y in the equation y = f ( x ) , then solving for y = f (x) .
−1

• 2.8.B.5 In addition to limiting the domain of a function to obtain

an inverse function, contextual restrictions may also limit the
applicability of an inverse function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 43

TOPIC 2.9

Logarithmic Expressions
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 1.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.9.A Evaluate logarithmic • 2.9.A.1 The logarithmic expression log b c is equal to, or
expressions.
represents, the value that the base b must be exponentially
raised to in order to obtain the value c . That is, log b c = a if and
only if ba = c , where a and c are constants, b > 0 , and b ≠ 1 .
• 2.9.A.2 The values of some logarithmic expressions are readily
accessible through basic arithmetic while other values can be
estimated through the use of technology.
• 2.9.A.3 On a logarithmic scale, each unit represents a
multiplicative change of the base of the logarithm. For example,
on a standard scale, the units might be 0,1,2,… , while on a
logarithmic scale, using log base 10, the units might be
100 ,101 ,102 ,… .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 44

TOPIC 2.10

Inverses of Exponential Functions

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.10.A Construct representations • 2.10.A.1 The general form of a logarithmic function is

of the inverse of an exponential f ( x ) = a log b x , with base b , where b > 0 , b ≠ 1 , and a ≠ 0 .
function with an initial value of 1.
• 2.10.A.2 The way in which input and output values vary together
have an inverse relationship in exponential and logarithmic
functions. Output values of general-form exponential functions
change proportionately as input values increase in equal-length
intervals. However, input values of general-form logarithmic
functions change proportionately as output values increase in
equal-length intervals. Alternately, exponential growth is
characterized by output values changing multiplicatively as input
values change additively, whereas logarithmic growth is
characterized by output values changing additively as input values
change multiplicatively.

2.10.A.3 f ( x ) = log b x and g ( x ) = b , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 ,

x
•

(
f (x)
are inverse functions. That is, g= ) ( g ( x )) x .
f=

• 2.10.A.4 The graph of the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log b x ,

where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 , is a reflection of the graph of the
exponential function g ( x ) = b , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 , over the
x

graph of the identity function h ( x ) = x .

•
( )
2.10.A.5 If s, t is an ordered pair of the exponential function

g ( x ) = b , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 , then ( t , s ) is an ordered pair

x

of the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log b x , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 45

TOPIC 2.11

Logarithmic Functions
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.11.A Identify key • 2.11.A.1 The domain of a logarithmic function in general form is
characteristics of logarithmic any real number greater than zero, and its range is all real
functions. numbers.
• 2.11.A.2 Because logarithmic functions are inverses of
exponential functions, logarithmic functions are also always
increasing or always decreasing, and their graphs are either
always concave up or always concave down. Consequently,
logarithmic functions do not have extrema except on a closed
interval, and their graphs do not have inflection points.

• 2.11.A.3 The additive transformation function g (=

x) f (x + k) ,
where k ≠ 0 , of a logarithmic function f in general form does not
have input values that are proportional over equal-length output-
value intervals. However, if the output values of the additive
transformation function, g (=
x) f ( x + k ) ,of any function f are
proportional over equal-length input-value intervals, then f is
logarithmic.
• 2.11.A.4 With their limited domain, logarithmic functions in
general form are vertically asymptotic to x = 0 , with an end
behavior that is unbounded. That is, for a logarithmic function in
general form, lim+ a log b x = ± ∞ and lim a log b x = ± ∞ .
x→0 x→ ∞

AP Precalculus Course Framework 46

TOPIC 2.12

Logarithmic Function Manipulation

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.12.A Rewrite logarithmic • 2.12.A.1 The product property for logarithms states that
expressions in equivalent forms. ( xy ) logb x + logb y . Graphically, this property implies that
log b=
every horizontal dilation of a logarithmic function,
f ( x ) = log b ( kx ) , is equivalent to a vertical translation,
f (x) =
log b ( kx ) = a + log b x , where a = log b k
log b k + log b x =
.
• 2.12.A.2 The power property for logarithms states that
log b x n = n log b x . Graphically, this property implies that raising
the input of a logarithmic function to a power, f ( x ) = log b x ,
k

f ( x ) log
results in a vertical dilation,= = b x
k
k log b x .
• 2.12.A.3 The change of base property for logarithms states that
log a x
log b x = , where a > 0 and a ≠ 1 . This implies that all
log a b
logarithmic functions are vertical dilations of each other.

• 2.12.A.4 The function f ( x ) = ln x is a logarithmic function with

the natural base e ; that is, ln x = log e x .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 47

TOPIC 2.13

Exponential and Logarithmic

Equations and Inequalities
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.A, 1.B, 1.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.13.A Solve exponential and • 2.13.A.1 Properties of exponents, properties of logarithms, and
logarithmic equations and the inverse relationship between exponential and logarithmic
inequalities. functions can be used to solve equations and inequalities
involving exponents and logarithms.
• 2.13.A.2 When solving exponential and logarithmic equations
found through analytical or graphical methods, the results should
be examined for extraneous solutions precluded by the
mathematical or contextual limitations.
• 2.13.A.3 Logarithms can be used to rewrite expressions
involving exponential functions in different ways that may reveal
( log c b )( x )
helpful information. Specifically, b x = c .

2.13.B Construct the inverse • f ( x ) ab

2.13.B.1 The function =
( x −h )
+ k is a combination of
function for exponential and
additive transformations of an exponential function in general
logarithmic functions.
form. The inverse of y = f ( x ) can be found by determining the
inverse operations to reverse the mapping.

• ( x ) a logb ( x − h ) + k is a
2.13.B.2 The function f=
combination of additive transformations of a logarithmic function in
general form. The inverse of y = f ( x ) can be found by
determining the inverse operations to reverse the mapping.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 48

TOPIC 2.14

Logarithmic Function Context and

Data Modeling
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.14.A Construct a logarithmic • 2.14.A.1 Logarithmic functions are inverses of exponential

function model. functions and can be used to model situations involving
proportional growth, or repeated multiplication, where the input
values change proportionally over equal-length output-value
intervals. Alternately, if the output value is a whole number, it
indicates how many times the initial value has been multiplied by
the proportion.
• 2.14.A.2 A logarithmic function model can be constructed from
an appropriate proportion and a real zero or from two input-output
pairs.
• 2.14.A.3 Logarithmic function models can be constructed by
applying transformations to f ( x ) = a log b x based on
characteristics of a context or data set.
• 2.14.A.4 Logarithmic function models can be constructed for a
data set with technology using logarithmic regressions.
• 2.14.A.5 The natural log function is often useful in modeling
natural phenomena.
• 2.14.A.6 Logarithmic function models can be used to predict
values for the dependent variable.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 49

TOPIC 2.15

Semi-log Plots
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

2.15.A Determine if an • 2.15.A.1 In a semi-log plot, one of the axes is logarithmically

exponential model is appropriate scaled. When the y-axis of a semi-log plot is logarithmically
by examining a semi-log plot of a scaled, data or functions that demonstrate exponential
data set. characteristics will appear linear.
• 2.15.A.2 An advantage of semi-log plots is that a constant never
needs to be added to the dependent variable values to reveal that
an exponential model is appropriate.

2.15.B Construct the linearization • 2.15.B.1 Techniques used to model linear functions can be
of exponential data. applied to a semi-log graph.
x
• 2.15.B.2 For an exponential model of the form y = ab , the
corresponding linear model for the semi-log plot is
=y ( logn b ) x + logn a , where n > 0 and n ≠ 1 . Specifically, the
linear rate of change is log n b , and the initial linear value is
log n a .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 50

UNIT 3:
Trigonometric and
Polar Functions
7–7.5 WEEKS

AP Precalculus Course Framework 51

Unit at a Glance
Instructional Suggested Skill
Topic # Topic Title
Periods Focus

3.1 Periodic Phenomena 2 2.B, 3.A

3.2 Sine, Cosine, and Tangent 2 2.A, 3.A
3.3 Sine and Cosine Function Values 2 2.A, 3.B
3.4 Sine and Cosine Function Graphs 2 2.A, 3.A
3.5 Sinusoidal Functions 2 2.A, 3.A

3.6 Sinusoidal Function Transformations 2 1.C, 2.B

3.7 Sinusoidal Function Context and Data Modeling 2 1.C, 3.C
3.8 The Tangent Function 2 2.A, 3.A
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 2 1.C, 2.B
3.10 Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities 3 1.A, 2.A, 3.B
3.11 The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions 2 2.B, 3.A
3.12 Equivalent Representations of Trigonometric Functions 3 1.A, 1.B, 3.B
3.13 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates 2 1.B, 2.A
3.14 Polar Function Graphs 2 2.B, 3.A

3.15 Rates of Change in Polar Functions 2 3.A, 3.C

AP Precalculus Course Framework 52

TOPIC 3.1

Periodic Phenomena
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.1.A Construct graphs of • 3.1.A.1 A periodic relationship can be identified between two
periodic relationships based on aspects of a context if, as the input values increase, the output
verbal representations. values demonstrate a repeating pattern over successive equal-
length intervals.
• 3.1.A.2 The graph of a periodic relationship can be constructed
from the graph of a single cycle of the relationship.

3.1.B Describe key • 3.1.B.1 The period of the function is the smallest positive value
characteristics of a periodic k such that f ( x + k ) =f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
function based on a verbal
Consequently, the behavior of a periodic function is completely
representation.
determined by any interval of width k .
• 3.1.B.2 The period can be estimated by investigating successive
equal-length output values and finding where the pattern begins to
repeat.
• 3.1.B.3 Periodic functions take on characteristics of other
functions, such as intervals of increase and decrease, different
concavities, and various rates of change. However, with periodic
functions, all characteristics found in one period of the function will
be in every period of the function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 53

TOPIC 3.2

Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.2.A Determine the sine, cosine, • 3.2.A.1 In the coordinate plane, an angle is in standard position
and tangent of an angle using the when the vertex coincides with the origin and one ray coincides
unit circle. with the positive x-axis. The other ray is called the terminal ray.
Positive and negative angle measures indicate rotations from the
positive x-axis in the counterclockwise and clockwise direction,
respectively. Angles in standard position that share a terminal ray
differ by an integer number of revolutions.
• 3.2.A.2 The radian measure of an angle in standard position is
the ratio of the length of the arc of a circle centered at the origin
subtended by the angle to the radius of that same circle. For a unit
circle, which has radius 1, the radian measure is the same as the
length of the subtended arc.
• 3.2.A.3 Given an angle in standard position and a circle centered
at the origin, there is a point, P , where the terminal ray intersects
the circle. The sine of the angle is the ratio of the vertical
displacement of P from the x-axis to the distance between the
origin and point P . Therefore, for a unit circle, the sine of the
angle is the y-coordinate of point P .
• 3.2.A.4 Given an angle in standard position and a circle centered
at the origin, there is a point, P , where the terminal ray intersects
the circle. The cosine of the angle is the ratio of the horizontal
displacement of P from the y-axis to the distance between the
origin and point P . Therefore, for a unit circle, the cosine of the
angle is the x-coordinate of point P .
• 3.2.A.5 Given an angle in standard position, the tangent of the
angle is the slope, if it exists, of the terminal ray. Because the
slope of the terminal ray is the ratio of the vertical displacement to
the horizontal displacement over any interval, the tangent of the
angle is the ratio of the y-coordinate to the x-coordinate of the
point at which the terminal ray intersects the unit circle;
alternately, it is the ratio of the angle’s sine to its cosine.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 54

TOPIC 3.3

Sine and Cosine Function Values

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.3.A Determine coordinates of • 3.3.A.1 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a
points on a circle centered at the circle with radius r centered at the origin, there is a point, P ,
origin. where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The coordinates of
( )
point P are r cos θ , r sin θ .

• 3.3.A.2 The geometry of isosceles right and equilateral triangles,

while attending to the signs of the values based on the quadrant
of the angle, can be used to find exact values for the cosine and
π π
sine of angles that are multiples of and radians and whose
4 6
terminal rays do not lie on an axis.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 55

TOPIC 3.4

Sine and Cosine Function Graphs

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.4.A Construct representations • 3.4.A.1 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a
of the sine and cosine functions unit circle centered at the origin, there is a point, P , where the
using the unit circle. terminal ray intersects the circle. The sine function, f (θ ) = sinθ ,
gives the y-coordinate, or vertical displacement from the x-axis, of
point P . The domain of the sine function is all real numbers.
• 3.4.A.2 As the input values, or angles, of the sine function
increase, the output values oscillate between negative one and
one, taking every value in between and tracking the vertical
distance of points on the unit circle from the x-axis.
• 3.4.A.3 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a
unit circle centered at the origin, there is a point, P , where the
terminal ray intersects the circle. The cosine function,
f (θ ) = cos θ , gives the x-coordinate, or horizontal displacement
from the y-axis, of point P . The domain of the cosine function is
all real numbers.
• 3.4.A.4 As the input values, or angles, of the cosine function
increase, the output values oscillate between negative one and
one, taking every value in between and tracking the horizontal
distance of points on the unit circle from the y-axis.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 56

TOPIC 3.5

Sinusoidal Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.5.A Identify key characteristics • 3.5.A.1 A sinusoidal function is any function that involves
of the sine and cosine functions. additive and multiplicative transformations of f (θ ) = sinθ . The
sine and cosine functions are both sinusoidal functions, with
 π
=
cos θ sin  θ +  .
 2
• 3.5.A.2 The period and frequency of a sinusoidal function are
reciprocals. The period of f (θ ) = sinθ and g (θ ) = cos θ is 2π ,
1
and the frequency is .
2π
• 3.5.A.3 The amplitude of a sinusoidal function is half the
difference between its maximum and minimum values. The
amplitude of f (θ ) = sinθ and g (θ ) = cos θ is 1.

• 3.5.A.4 The midline of the graph of a sinusoidal function is

determined by the average, or arithmetic mean, of the maximum
and minimum values of the function. The midline of the graphs of
y = sin θ and y = cos θ is y = 0 .
• 3.5.A.5 As input values increase, the graphs of sinusoidal
functions oscillate between concave down and concave up.
• 3.5.A.6 The graph of y = sin θ has rotational symmetry about
the origin and is therefore an odd function. The graph of
y = cos θ has reflective symmetry over the y-axis and is therefore
an even function.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 57

TOPIC 3.6

Sinusoidal Function Transformations

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.6.A Identify the amplitude, • 3.6.A.1 Functions that can be written in the form
vertical shift, period, and phase (θ ) a sin (b (θ + c ) ) + d or =
f= g (θ ) a cos ( b (θ + c ) ) + d ,
shift of a sinusoidal function.
where a , b , c , and d are real numbers and a ≠ 0 , are
sinusoidal functions and are transformations of the sine and
cosine functions. Additive and multiplicative transformations are
the same for both sine and cosine, because the cosine function is
π
a phase shift of the sine function by − units.
2
• 3.6.A.2 The graph of the additive transformation
(θ ) sinθ + d of the sine function f (θ ) = sinθ is a vertical
g=
translation of the graph of f , including its midline, by d units.
The same transformation of the cosine function has the same
effect.
• 3.6.A.3 The graph of the additive transformation
(θ ) sin (θ + c ) of the sine function f (θ ) = sinθ is a
g=
horizontal translation, or phase shift, of the graph of f by −c
units. The same transformation of the cosine function yields the
same result.
• 3.6.A.4 The graph of the multiplicative transformation
g (θ ) = a sin θ of the sine function f (θ ) = sin θ is a vertical
dilation of the graph of f and differs in amplitude by a factor of
a . The same transformation of the cosine function yields the
same result.
• 3.6.A.5 The graph of the multiplicative transformation
g (θ ) = sin ( bθ ) of the sine function f (θ ) = sin θ is a horizontal
1
dilation of the graph of f and differs in period by a factor of .
b
The same transformation of the cosine function yields the same
result.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 58

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.6.A Identify the amplitude, • 3.6.A.6 The graph of y= f (θ )= a sin ( b (θ + c ) ) + d has an

vertical shift, period, and phase
shift of a sinusoidal function. 1
amplitude of a units, a period of 2π units, a midline vertical
b
shift of d units from y = 0 , and a phase shift of −c units. The
same transformations of the cosine function yield the same
results.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 59

TOPIC 3.7

Sinusoidal Function Context and Data

Modeling
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.7.A Construct sinusoidal • 3.7.A.1 The smallest interval of input values over which the
function models of periodic maximum or minimum output values start to repeat can be used to
phenomena by estimating key determine or estimate the period and frequency for a sinusoidal
values. function model.
• 3.7.A.2 The maximum and minimum output values can be used
to determine or estimate the amplitude and vertical shift for a
sinusoidal function model.
• 3.7.A.3 An actual pair of input-output values can be compared to
pairs of input-output values produced by a sinusoidal function
model to determine or estimate a phase shift for the model.
• 3.7.A.4 Technology can be used to find an appropriate
sinusoidal function model for a data set.
• 3.7.A.5 Sinusoidal functions that model a data set are frequently
only useful over their contextual domain and can be used to
predict values of the dependent variable from a value of the
independent variable.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 60

TOPIC 3.8

The Tangent Function

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.8.A Construct representations • 3.8.A.1 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a
of the tangent function using the unit circle centered at the origin, there is a point, P , where the
unit circle. terminal ray intersects the circle. The tangent function,
f (θ ) = tan θ , gives the slope of terminal ray.
• 3.8.A.2 Because the slope of the terminal ray is the ratio of the
change in the y-values to the change in the x-values between any
two points on the ray, the tangent function is also the ratio of the
sin θ
sine function to the cosine function. Therefore, tan θ = ,
cos θ
where cos θ ≠ 0 .

3.8.B Describe key • 3.8.B.1 Because the slope values of the terminal ray repeats
characteristics of the tangent every one-half revolution of the circle, the tangent function has a
function. period of π .
• 3.8.B.2 The tangent function demonstrates periodic asymptotic
π
behavior at input values θ= + kπ , for integer values of k ,
2
because cos θ = 0 at those values.
• 3.8.B.3 The tangent function increases and its graph changes
from concave down to concave up between consecutive
asymptotes.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 61

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.8.C Describe additive and • 3.8.C.1 The graph of the additive transformation
multiplicative transformations (θ ) tanθ + d of the tangent function f (θ ) = tanθ is a
g=
involving the tangent function.
vertical translation of the graph of f and the line containing its
inflection points by d units.
• 3.8.C.2 The graph of the additive transformation
g (θ ) tan (θ + c ) of the tangent function f (θ ) = tan θ is a
=
horizontal translation, or phase shift, of the graph of f by −c
units.
• 3.8.C.3 The graph of the multiplicative transformation
g (θ ) = a tan θ of the tangent function f (θ ) = tan θ is a vertical
dilation of the graph of f by a factor of a . If a < 0 , the
transformation involves a reflection over the x-axis.
• 3.8.C.4 The graph of the multiplicative transformation
g (θ ) = tan ( bθ ) of the tangent function f (θ ) = tan θ is a
horizontal dilation of the graph of f and differs in period by a
1
factor of . If b < 0 , the transformation involves a reflection over
b
the y-axis.

• 3.8.C.5 The graph of y= f (θ )= a tan ( b (θ + c ) ) + d is a

vertical dilation of the graph of y = tan θ by a factor of a , has a
1
period of π units, is a vertical shift of the line containing the
b
inflection points of the graph of y = tan θ by d units, and is a
phase shift of −c units.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 62

TOPIC 3.9

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.9.A Construct analytical and • 3.9.A.1 For inverse trigonometric functions, the input and output
graphical representations of the values are switched from their corresponding trigonometric
inverse of the sine, cosine, and functions, so the output value of an inverse trigonometric function
tangent functions over a restricted is often interpreted as an angle measure and the input is a value
domain. in the range of the corresponding trigonometric function.
• 3.9.A.2 The inverse trigonometric functions are called arcsine,
arccosine, and arctangent (also represented as sin −1 x , cos −1 x ,
and tan −1 x ). Because the corresponding trigonometric functions
are periodic, they are only invertible if they have restricted
domains.
• 3.9.A.3 In order to define their respective inverse functions, the
 π π
domain of the sine function is restricted to  −,  , the cosine
 2 2
 π π
 π  , and the tangent function to  −
function to 0, , .
 2 2

AP Precalculus Course Framework 63

TOPIC 3.10

Trigonometric Equations and

Inequalities
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.A, 2.A, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.10.A Solve equations and • 3.10.A.1 Inverse trigonometric functions are useful in solving
inequalities involving trigonometric equations and inequalities involving trigonometric functions, but
functions. solutions may need to be modified due to domain restrictions.
• 3.10.A.2 Because trigonometric functions are periodic, there are
often infinite solutions to trigonometric equations.
• 3.10.A.3 In trigonometric equations and inequalities arising from
a contextual scenario, there is often a domain restriction that can
be implied from the context, which limits the number of solutions.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 64

TOPIC 3.11

The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent

Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.11.A Identify key • 3.11.A.1 The secant function, f (θ ) = secθ , is the reciprocal of
characteristics of functions that
the cosine function, where cos θ ≠ 0 .
involve quotients of the sine and
cosine functions. • 3.11.A.2 The cosecant function, f (θ ) = cscθ , is the reciprocal
of the sine function, where sin θ ≠ 0 .
• 3.11.A.3 The secant and cosecant functions have vertical
asymptotes where cosine and sine are zero, respectively, and
( [
have a range of − ∞, −1 ∪ 1, ∞ ) .

• 3.11.A.4 The cotangent function, f (θ ) = cot θ , is the reciprocal

of the tangent function, where tan θ ≠ 0 . Equivalently,
cos θ
cot θ = , where sin θ ≠ 0 .
sin θ
• 3.11.A.5 The cotangent function has vertical asymptotes for
domain values where tan θ = 0 and is decreasing between
consecutive asymptotes.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 65

TOPIC 3.12

Equivalent Representations of
Trigonometric Functions
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.A, 1.B, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.12.A Rewrite trigonometric • 3.12.A.1 The Pythagorean theorem can be applied to right
expressions in equivalent forms
with the Pythagorean identity.
( )
triangles with points on the unit circle at coordinates cos θ , sin θ ,

resulting in the Pythagorean identity: sin2 θ + cos2 θ =

1.
• 3.12.A.2 The Pythagorean identity can be algebraically
manipulated into other forms involving trigonometric functions,
=
such as tan 2
θ sec2 θ −1 , and can be used to establish other
trigonometric relationships, such as =arcsin x arccos 1− x 2 ,
with appropriate domain restrictions.

3.12.B Rewrite trigonometric • 3.12.B.1 The sum identity for sine is

expressions in equivalent forms sin (α=
+ β ) sin α cos β + cos α sin β .
with sine and cosine sum identities.
• 3.12.B.2 The sum identity for cosine is
cos (α=
+ β ) cos α cos β − sin α sin β .
• 3.12.B.3 The sum identities for sine and cosine can also be used
as difference and double-angle identities.
• 3.12.B.4 Properties of trigonometric functions, known
trigonometric identities, and other algebraic properties can be used
to verify additional trigonometric identities.

3.12.C Solve equations using • 3.12.C.1 A specific equivalent form involving trigonometric
equivalent analytic representations expressions can make information more accessible.
of trigonometric functions. • 3.12.C.2 Equivalent trigonometric forms may be useful in solving
trigonometric equations and inequalities.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 66

TOPIC 3.13

Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 2.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.13.A Determine the location of • 3.13.A.1 The polar coordinate system is based on a grid of
a point in the plane using both circles centered at the origin and on lines through the origin. Polar
rectangular and polar coordinates. ( )
coordinates are defined as an ordered pair, r, θ , such that r
represents the radius of the circle on which the point lies, and θ
represents the measure of an angle in standard position whose
terminal ray includes the point. In the polar coordinate system, the
same point can be represented many ways.
• 3.13.A.2 The coordinates of a point in the polar coordinate
( )
system, r, θ , can be converted to coordinates in the

( )
rectangular coordinate system, x , y , using x = r cos θ and
y = r sin θ .
• 3.13.A.3 The coordinates of a point in the rectangular coordinate
( )
system, x , y , can be converted to coordinates in the polar

y
( )
coordinate system, r, θ , using
= r x 2 + y 2 and θ = arctan
x
y
0 or θ arctan
for x >= + π for x < 0 .
x
• 3.13.A.4 A complex number can be understood as a point in the
complex plane and can be determined by its corresponding
rectangular or polar coordinates. When the complex number has
( )
the rectangular coordinates a,b , it can be expressed as a + bi .

( )
When the complex number has polar coordinates r, θ , it can be

expressed as ( r cos θ ) + i ( r sin θ ) .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 67

TOPIC 3.14

Polar Function Graphs

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.14.A Construct graphs of polar • 3.14.A.1 The graph of the function r = f (θ ) in polar
functions.
coordinates consists of input-output pairs of values where the
input values are angle measures and the output values are radii.

• 3.14.A.2 The domain of the polar function r = f (θ ) , given

graphically, can be restricted to a desired portion of the function by
selecting endpoints corresponding to the desired angle and radius.

• 3.14.A.3 When graphing polar functions in the form of r = f (θ ) ,

changes in input values correspond to changes in angle measure
from the positive x-axis, and changes in output values correspond
to changes in distance from the origin.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 68

TOPIC 3.15

Rates of Change in Polar Functions

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 3.A, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

3.15.A Describe characteristics • 3.15.A.1 If a polar function, r = f(θ ) , is positive and increasing
of the graph of a polar function.
or negative and decreasing, then the distance between f (θ )
and the origin is increasing.

• 3.15.A.2 If a polar function, r = f (θ ) , is positive and

decreasing or negative and increasing, then the distance between
f (θ ) and the origin is decreasing.

• 3.15.A.3 For a polar function, r = f (θ ) , if the function changes

from increasing to decreasing or decreasing to increasing on an
interval, then the function has a relative extremum on the interval
corresponding to a point relatively closest to or farthest from the
origin.
• 3.15.A.4 The average rate of change of r with respect to θ
over an interval of θ is the ratio of the change in the radius
values to the change in θ over an interval of θ . Graphically, the
average rate of change indicates the rate at which the radius is
changing per radian.
• 3.15.A.5 The average rate of change of r with respect to θ
over an interval of θ can be used to estimate values of the
function within the interval.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 69

UNIT 4:
Functions Involving
Parameters, Vectors,
and Matrices
7–7.5 WEEKS

AP Precalculus Course Framework 70

Unit at a Glance
Instructional Suggested Skill
Topic # Topic Title
Periods Focus
4.1 Parametric Functions 2 1.A, 2.B

4.2 Parametric Functions Modeling Planar Motion 2 3.A, 3.B

4.3 Parametric Functions and Rates of Change 2 3.B, 3.C
4.4 Parametrically Defined Circles and Lines 2 1.B, 1.C
4.5 Implicitly Defined Functions 2 2.B, 3.A
4.6 Conic Sections 3 1.B, 2.A, 2.B

4.7 Parametrization of Implicitly Defined Functions 2 1.B, 2.A

4.8 Vectors 3 2.A, 3.A, 3.B
4.9 Vector-Valued Functions 1 3.C
4.10 Matrices 2 1.B, 3.B
4.11 The Inverse and Determinant of a Matrix 2 1.B, 3.B

4.12 Linear Transformations and Matrices 1 1.B

4.13 Matrices as Functions 3 1.B, 2.A, 3.A
4.14 Matrices Modeling Contexts 3 1.C, 3.B, 3.C

AP Precalculus Course Framework 71

TOPIC 4.1

Parametric Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.A, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.1.A Construct a graph or table of • 4.1.A.1 A parametric function in R 2 , the set of all ordered pairs of
values for a parametric function two real numbers, consists of a set of two parametric equations in
represented analytically. which two dependent variables, x and y , are dependent on a
single independent variable, t , called the parameter.
• 4.1.A.2 Because variables x and y are dependent on the

(
independent variable, t , the coordinates xi , yi ) at time t can be
i

written as functions of t and can be expressed as the single

( )
parametric function f ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) , where in this case x and
y are names of two functions.
• 4.1.A.3 A numerical table of values can be generated for the
( )
parametric function f ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) by evaluating xi and yi
at several values of t i within the domain.

• 4.1.A.4 A graph of a parametric function can be sketched by

connecting several points from the numerical table of values in
order of increasing value of t .
• 4.1.A.5 The domain of the parametric function f is often
restricted, which results in start and end points on the graph of f .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 72

TOPIC 4.2

Parametric Functions Modeling Planar

Motion
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 3.A, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.2.A Identify key characteristics •

( )
4.2.A.1 A parametric function given by f ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) can
of a parametric planar motion
be used to model particle motion in the plane. The graph of this
function that are related to
function indicates the position of a particle at time t .
position.
• 4.2.A.2 The horizontal and vertical extrema of a particle’s motion
can be determined by identifying the maximum and minimum
values of the functions x ( t ) and y ( t ) , respectively.

• 4.2.A.3 The real zeros of the function x ( t ) correspond to y-

intercepts, and the real zeros of y ( t ) correspond to x-intercepts.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 73

TOPIC 4.3

Parametric Functions and Rates of

Change
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 3.B, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.3.A Identify key characteristics • 4.3.A.1 As the parameter increases, the direction of planar
of a parametric planar motion motion of a particle can be analyzed in terms of x and y
function that are related to independently. If x ( t ) is increasing or decreasing, the direction of
direction and rate of change.
motion is to the right or left, respectively. If y ( t ) is increasing or
decreasing, the direction of motion is up or down, respectively.
• 4.3.A.2 At any given point in the plane, the direction of planar
motion may be different for different values of t .
• 4.3.A.3 The same curve in the plane can be parametrized in
different ways and can be traversed in different directions with
different parametric functions.

• 4.3.A.4 Over a given interval t

 1 , t 2  within the domain, the
average rate of change can be computed for x ( t ) and y ( t )
independently. The ratio of the average rate of change of y to the
average rate of change of x gives the slope of the graph
between the points on the curve corresponding to t1 and t 2 , so
long as the average rate of change of x ( t ) ≠ 0 .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 74

TOPIC 4.4

Parametrically Defined Circles and

Lines
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 1.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.4.A Express motion around a • 4.4.A.1 A complete counterclockwise revolution around the unit
circle or along a line segment circle that starts and ends at (1,0 ) and is centered at the origin
parametrically.
( ) (
can be modeled by x ( t ) , y ( t ) = cost, sin t ) with domain
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
• 4.4.A.2 Transformations of the parametric function
( x (t ) , y (t ) ) = ( cost, sin t ) can model any circular path traversed
in the plane.
• 4.4.A.3 A linear path along the line segment from the point
( x , y ) to the point ( x , y )
1 1 2 2 can be parametrized many ways,

(
including using an initial position x1 , y1 ) and rates of change for
x with respect to t and y with respect to t .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 75

TOPIC 4.5

Implicitly Defined Functions

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.5.A Construct a graph of an • 4.5.A.1 An equation involving two variables can implicitly
equation involving two variables. describe one or more functions.
• 4.5.A.2 An equation involving two variables can be graphed by
finding solutions to the equation.
• 4.5.A.3 Solving for one of the variables in an equation involving
two variables can define a function whose graph is part or all of
the graph of the equation.

4.5.B Determine how the two • 4.5.B.1 For ordered pairs on the graph of an implicitly defined
quantities related in an implicitly function that are close together, if the ratio of the change in the
defined function vary together. two variables is positive, then the two variables simultaneously
increase or both decrease; conversely, if the ratio is negative,
then as one variable increases, the other decreases.
• 4.5.B.2 The rate of change of x with respect to y or of y with
respect to x can be zero, indicating vertical or horizontal
intervals, respectively.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 76

TOPIC 4.6

Conic Sections
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.B, 2.A, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.6.A Represent conic sections • 4.6.A.1 A parabola with vertex h, k ( ) can, if a ≠ 0 , be

with horizontal or vertical
represented analytically as ( y − k ) = a ( x − h ) if it opens left or
2
symmetry analytically.

right, or as a ( y − k ) = ( x − h ) if it opens up or down.

2

• 4.6.A.2 An ellipse centered at h, k ( ) with horizontal radius a

and vertical radius b can be represented analytically as
( x − h) ( y − k)
2 2

+ =
1 . A circle is a special case of an ellipse
a2 b2
where a = b .

• 4.6.A.3 A hyperbola centered at h, k ( ) with vertical and

horizonal lines of symmetry can be represented algebraically as
( x − h) ( y − k)
2 2

− =
1 for a hyperbola opening left and right, or
a2 b2
( x − h) ( y − k)
2 2

as − + =
1 for a hyperbola opening up and
a2 b2
down.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 77

TOPIC 4.7

Parametrization of Implicitly Defined

Functions
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 2.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.7.A Represent a curve in the •

( )
4.7.A.1 A parametrization x ( t ) , y ( t ) for an implicitly defined
plane parametrically.
function will, when x ( t ) and y ( t ) are substituted for x and y ,
respectively, satisfy the corresponding equation for every value of
t in the domain.
• 4.7.A.2 If f is a function of x , then y = f ( x ) can be

( ) ( )
parametrized as x ( t ) , y ( t ) = t, f ( t ) . If f is invertible, its

inverse can be parametrized as ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) ) = ( f ( t ) , t ) for an

appropriate interval of t .

4.7.B Represent conic sections • 4.7.B.1 A parabola can be parametrized in the same way that any
parametrically. equation that can be solved for x or y can be parametrized.
Equations that can be solved for x can be parametrized as
( x (t ) , y (t ) ) = ( f (t ) , t ) by solving for x and replacing y with t
. Equations that can be solved for y can be parametrized as

( x (t ) , y (t ) ) = (t, f (t ) ) by solving for y and replacing x with t .

• 4.7.B.2 An ellipse can be parametrized using the trigonometric

functions x ( t )= h + a cos t and y ( t )= k + b sint for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

• 4.7.B.3 A hyperbola can be parametrized using trigonometric

functions. For a hyperbola that opens left and right, the functions
are x ( t )= h + a sect and y ( t )= k + b tant for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π . For a
hyperbola that opens up and down, the functions are
x ( t )= h + a tant and y ( t )= k + b sect for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

AP Precalculus Course Framework 78

TOPIC 4.8

Vectors
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.A, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.8.A Identify characteristics of a • 4.8.A.1 A vector is a directed line segment. When a vector is
vector. placed in the plane, the point at the beginning of the line segment
is called the tail, and the point at the end of the line segment is
called the head. The length of the line segment is the magnitude
of the vector.

• 4.8.A.2 A vector P1 P2 with two components can be plotted in the

( ) ( )
xy-plane from P1 = x1 , y1 to P2 = x2 , y2 . The vector is
identified by a and b , where =
a x2 − x1 and =
b y2 − y1 . The
vector can be expressed as a, b . A zero vector 0, 0 is the
trivial case when P1 = P2 .

• 4.8.A.3 The direction of the vector is parallel to the line segment

( )
from the origin to the point with coordinates a, b . The
magnitude of the vector is the square root of the sum of the
squares of the components.
• 4.8.A.4 For a vector represented geometrically in the plane, the
components of the vector can be found using trigonometry.

4.8.B Determine sums and • 4.8.B.1 The multiplication of a constant and a vector results in a
products involving vectors. new vector whose components are found by multiplying the
constant by each of the components of the original vector. The
new vector is parallel to the original vector.

• 4.8.B.2 The sum of two vectors in R 2 is a new vector whose

components are found by adding the corresponding components
of the original vectors. The new vector can be represented
graphically as a vector whose tail corresponds to the tail of the
first vector and whose head corresponds to the head of the
second vector when the second vector’s tail is located at the first
vector’s head.
• 4.8.B.3 The dot product of two vectors is the sum of the products
of their corresponding components. That is,
a1 , b1 ⋅ a2 , b2 =
a1a2 + b1b2 .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 79

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.8.C Determine a unit vector for • 4.8.C.1 A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1. A unit vector in
a given vector. the same direction as a given nonzero vector can be found by
scalar multiplying the vector by the reciprocal of its magnitude.
 
• 4.8.C.2 The vector a, b can be expressed as ai + bj in R 2 ,
 
where i and j are unit vectors in the x and y directions,
 
respectively. That is, i = 1, 0 and j = 0, 1 .

4.8.D Determine angles between • 4.8.D.1 The dot product is geometrically equivalent to the
vectors and magnitudes of vectors product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the
involved in vector addition. angle between them. Therefore, if the dot product of two nonzero
vectors is zero, then the vectors are perpendicular.
• 4.8.D.2 The Law of Sines and Law of Cosines can be used to
determine side lengths and angles of triangles formed by vector
addition.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 80

TOPIC 4.9

Vector-Valued Functions
Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.9.A Represent planar motion in • 4.9.A.1 The position of a particle moving in a plane that is given
terms of vector-valued functions. ( )
by the parametric function f ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) may be
 
p ( t ) x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j or
expressed as a vector-valued function, =
p ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) .The magnitude of the position vector at time
t gives the distance of the particle from the origin.
• 4.9.A.2 The vector-valued function v ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) can be
used to express the velocity of a particle moving in a plane at
different times, t . At time t , the sign of x ( t ) indicates if the
particle is moving right or left, and the sign of y ( t ) indicates if the
particle is moving up or down. The magnitude of the velocity
vector at time t gives the speed of the particle.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 81

TOPIC 4.10

Matrices
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.10.A Determine the product of • 4.10.A.1 An n × m matrix is an array consisting of n rows and
two matrices. m columns.
• 4.10.A.2 Two matrices can be multiplied if the number of
columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the
second matrix. The product of the matrices is a new matrix in
which the component in the ith row and jth column is the dot
product of the ith row of the first matrix and the jth column of
the second matrix.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 82

TOPIC 4.11

The Inverse and Determinant of a

Matrix
Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.B, 3.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.11.A Determine the inverse of • 4.11.A.1 The identity matrix, I , is a square matrix consisting of
a 2 × 2 matrix. ones on the diagonal from the top left to bottom right and zeros
everywhere else.
• 4.11.A.2 Multiplying a square matrix by its corresponding identity
matrix results in the original square matrix.
• 4.11.A.3 The product of a square matrix and its inverse, when it
exists, is the identity matrix of the same size.
• 4.11.A.4 The inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, when it exists, can be
calculated with or without technology.

4.11.B Apply the value of the a b 

determinant to invertibility and • 4.11.B.1 The determinant of the matrix   is ad − bc . The
vectors. c d 
determinant can be calculated with or without technology as is
denoted det ( A ) .

• 4.11.B.2 If a 2 × 2 matrix consists of two column or row vectors

from R 2 , then the nonzero absolute value of the determinant of
the matrix is the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors
represented in the columns or rows of the matrix. If the
determinant equals zero, then the vectors are parallel.
• 4.11.B.3 The square matrix A has an inverse if and only if
det ( A ) ≠ 0 .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 83

TOPIC 4.12

Linear Transformations and Matrices

Instructional Periods: 1
Skills Focus: 1.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.12.A Determine the output • 4.12.A.1 A linear transformation is a function that maps an input
vectors of a linear transformation vector to an output vector such that each component of the output
using a 2 × 2 matrix. vector is the sum of constant multiples of the input vector
components.
• 4.12.A.2 A linear transformation will map the zero vector to the
zero vector.

• 4.12.A.3 A single vector in R 2 can be expressed as a 2 × 1

matrix. A set of n vectors in R 2 can be expressed as a 2×n
matrix.

• 4.12.A.4 For a linear transformation, L , from R 2 to R 2 , there is

 
a unique 2 × 2 matrix, A , such that L ( v ) = Av for vectors in R 2 .
 
Conversely, for a given 2 × 2 matrix, A , the function L ( v ) = Av
is a linear transformation from R 2 to R 2 .
• 4.12.A.5 Multiplication of a 2 × 2 transformation matrix, A , and a
2×n matrix of n input vectors gives a 2×n matrix of the n
 
output vectors for the linear transformation L ( v ) = Av .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 84

TOPIC 4.13

Matrices as Functions
Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.B, 2.A, 3.A

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.13.A Determine the association • 4.13.A.1 The linear transformation mapping x , y to

between a linear transformation
and a matrix. a a12 
a11 x + a12 y, a21 x + a22 y is associated with the matrix  11
a21 a22 
.
• 4.13.A.2 The mapping of the unit vectors in a linear
transformation provides valuable information for determining the
associated matrix.
• 4.13.A.3 The matrix associated with a linear transformation of
vectors that maps every vector to the vector that is an angle θ
counterclockwise rotation about the origin from the original vector
cos θ −sin θ 
is  .
 sin θ cos θ 

• 4.13.A.4 The absolute value of the determinant of a 2 × 2

transformation matrix gives the magnitude of the dilation of
regions in R 2 under the transformation.

4.13.B Determine the • 4.13.B.1 The composition of two linear transformations is a

composition of two linear linear transformation.
transformations. • 4.13.B.2 The matrix associated with the composition of two
linear transformations is the product of the matrices associated
with each linear transformation.

4.13.C Determine the inverse of • 4.13.C.1 Two linear transformations are inverses if their
a linear transformation. composition maps any vector to itself.
 
• 4.13.C.2 If a linear transformation, L , is given by L ( v ) = Av ,
 
then its inverse transformation is given by L
−1
( v ) = A−1v , where
A−1 is the inverse of the matrix A .

AP Precalculus Course Framework 85

TOPIC 4.14

Matrices Modeling Contexts

Instructional Periods: 3
Skills Focus: 1.C, 3.B, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

4.14.A Construct a model of a • 4.14.A.1 A contextual scenario can indicate the rate of
scenario involving transitions transitions between states as percent changes. A matrix can be
between two states using constructed based on these rates to model how states change
matrices. over discrete intervals.

4.14.B Apply matrix models to • 4.14.B.1 The product of a matrix that models transitions
predict future and past states for between states and a corresponding state vector can predict
n transition steps. future states.
• 4.14.B.2 Repeated multiplication of a matrix that models the
transitions between states and corresponding resultant state
vectors can predict the steady state, a distribution between states
that does not change from one step to the next.
• 4.14.B.3 The product of the inverse of a matrix that models
transitions between states and a corresponding state vector can
predict past states.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 86

 AP PRECALCULUS

Exam
Information

AP Precalculus Course Framework 87

Exam Overview
The AP Precalculus Exam assesses student understanding of the mathematical practices and learning objectives
outlined in the course framework. The exam is 2.5 hours long and includes 48 multiple-choice questions and four
6-point free-response questions. The details of the exam, including exam weighting, timing, and calculator
requirements, can be found below:

Number of Exam
Section Question Type Questions Weighting Timing

I MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Part A: Graphing calculator not permitted 36 50.0% 75 minutes

Part B: Graphing calculator required 12 16.7% 25 minutes

II FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

Part A: Graphing calculator required 2 16.7% 25 minutes

Part B: Graphing calculator not permitted 2 16.7% 25 minutes

EXAM WEIGHTING FOR SKILLS

Unit Exam Weighting

Practice 1: Procedural and Symbolic Fluency

1.A: Solve equations and inequalities 14–17%

1.B: Express equivalent forms 8–11%

1.C: Construct new functions 14–17%

Practice 2: Multiple Representations

2.A: Identify information from representations 14–17%

2.B: Construct equivalent representations 8–11%

Practice 3: Communication and Reasoning

3.A: Describe characteristics 14–17%

3.B: Apply results 8–11%

3.C: Support conclusions 8–11%

AP Precalculus Course Framework 88

EXAM WEIGHTING BY FUNCTION TYPE AND UNIT IN THE MULTIPLE-CHOICE SECTION

Function Type Unit Exam Weighting

General Functions (e.g., transformation or composition of Varies 13–17%

functions presented non-analytically)

Polynomial and Rational Functions Unit 1 13–17%

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Unit 2 13–17%

Trigonometric Functions Unit 3 17–21%

Polar Functions* Unit 3 10%

Parametric, Vector-Valued, and Implicitly Defined Functions* Unit 4 17%

Linear Transformations and Matrix-Vector Functions* Unit 4 10%

*Note: These function types are only assessed in the multiple-choice section.

FREE-RESPONSE TASK MODEL OVERVIEW

Unit Calculator? Context

Free-Response Task Type Focus

Modeling Data 1 or 2 or 3 Yes Real-world

Modeling a Context 1 or 2 Yes Real-world

Modeling a Periodic Context 3 No Real-world

Symbolic Manipulations 2 and 3 No Pure Math

AP Precalculus Course Framework 89

Sample AP Precalculus Exam
Questions
The sample exam questions that follow illustrate the relationship between the course framework and the AP
Precalculus Exam and serve as examples of the types of questions that appear on the exam.

Section I: Multiple-Choice
PART A
Graphing calculators are not permitted on this part of the exam.

1. Which of the following is equivalent to the expression 4 ln ( xy ) − 2 ln y for all values of x and y for which both
expressions are defined?

(A) 2 ln x
(B) 2 ln xy( ) 2

(C) ln ( x y )
4 2

(D) ln ( x y )
4 6

x 0 1 2

f (x) 3 6 12

The function f is an exponential function of the form f ( x ) = ab . The table above gives values of f for
x
2.
selected values of x . Which of the following expressions defines f
−1
(x) ?
(A) 3 log 2 x
(B) 2 log 3 x
x
(C) log 2  
3
x
(D) log 3  
2

AP Precalculus Course Framework 90

3. (
The graphs of the functions f and g are given. What is the value of g f ( −1) ? )
(A) −2
(B) −1
(C) 1
(D) 2

4. ( )
The function f is given by f ( x ) = ( x −1) x − 5x + 6 . For what values of x is f ( x ) > 0 ?
2

(A) 1 < x < 2 and x > 3 only

(B) x < 1 and 2 < x < 3 only
(C) −1 < x < 1 and x > 6 only
(D) x < −1 and 1 < x < 6 only

5. ( )
What are all the solutions to the equation 2sin ( 2x ) = 3 on the interval 0, 2π ?
π 5π
(A) andonly
12 12
π 5π 13π 17π
(B) , , , and
12 12 12 12
π π
(C) and only
6 3
π π 7π 4π
(D) , , , and
6 3 6 3

AP Precalculus Course Framework 91

6. The figure above shows the total number of cars that have passed through an intersection over the course of a
given day, where time measured in hours after midnight. At which of the following times is the rate at which cars
are passing through the intersection the greatest?

(A) 8 hours after midnight

(B) 12 hours after midnight
(C) 16 hours after midnight
(D) 24 hours after midnight

  2 0 
7. The function L is a linear transformation function of vectors given by L ( v ) = Av , where A =   and
1 −1
 a 
=v a, b   . Which of the following is the image of −2, 3 under the linear transformation L ?
=
b 

(A) 1, − 3
(B) −4, − 5
(C) −4, − 3
(D) −4, 0

PART B
A graphing calculator is required on this part of the exam.

8. (
At time t , the position of a particle in the xy-plane is given by the parametric function f ( t ) = x ( t ) , y ( t ) ),
(t ) and y ( t )
t ( t −1) = ( cost ) ( ln (t +1) ) for t = 0 to t = 5
3
where x= seconds. At which of the following
times does the path of the particle intersect the line y = 2x ?

(A) 1.399 seconds

(B) 1.449 seconds
(C) 1.491 seconds
(D) 1.571 seconds

AP Precalculus Course Framework 92

9. The relationship between two variables in a certain scenario is modeled with a linear function. The residual plot
for the linear regression is given. Which of the following reasoned conclusions is the best interpretation of the
residual plot?

(A) A linear function is valid because the residual plot demonstrates a pattern.
(B) A linear function is invalid because the residual plot demonstrates a pattern.
(C) A linear function is valid because the residual plot demonstrates no pattern.
(D) A linear function is invalid because the residual plot demonstrates no pattern.

10. In a certain region around a major city, the number of megawatts drawn from the power grid at different times
was calculated. The function M given by M ( t ) =
4 3 2
−0.3t +15.3t − 268t +1954t − 2668 models the number of
megawatts drawn t hours after midnight. The model is only consistent with the data for 4 < t < 22 hours, and on
this interval, there are two local maximum values. What is the average rate of change of M , in megawatt-hours,
on the interval between the maxima?

(A) 82.4
(B) 92.8
(C) 97.5
(D) 132.8

11. In terms of weather, days can be divided into clear days and rainy days, where a rainy day is one that has a
measurable amount, or at least 0.01 inch, of accumulated precipitation in a rain gauge. Based on previous data
for a certain time period, if one day is a rainy day, there is a 70 percent chance that the next day will be a clear
day, and if one day is a clear day, there is a 60 percent chance the next day will also be a clear day. Based on
this information, if today has an 80 percent chance of being a rainy day and a 20 percent chance of being a clear
day, which of the following gives the probabilities that a day 10 days from today will be rainy or clear?

10
0.60 0.70  0.80 
(A)    
0.40 0.30  0.20 
10
0.60 0.40  0.80 
(B)    
0.70 0.30  0.20 
10
0.70 0.60  0.80 
(C)    
0.30 0.40  0.20 
10
0.70 0.30  0.80 
(D)    
0.60 0.40  0.20 

AP Precalculus Course Framework 93

Section II: Free-Response
The following are examples of the kinds of free-response questions found on the exam.

PART A
A graphing calculator is required on this part of the exam.
1. It has been approximated that the number of mosquitos in a certain area has grown by a factor of 10 over the
five-year period from 2012 to 2017. In 2017, the number of mosquitos in the area was estimated to be 12,000.

(A) If the number of mosquitos is modeled by the function P ( t ) = ab , where P is the number of mosquitoes t
t

years after 2012, what would be appropriate values for a and b ? Provide a rationale for each value.

(B) Describe domain limitations based on the context related to the model from Part A. Explain how these
limitations impact the use of the model.

(C) Including correct units, find the average rate of change of P from t = 0 to t = 2.5 years and the average
rate of change of P from t = 2.5 to t = 5 years. Explain what the differing values mean in the context of the
problem.

PART B
Graphing calculators are not permitted on this part of the exam.

2. A wheel with a diameter of 0.8 meters rolls on flat ground at a constant rate. The wheel completes a full rotation
every 4 seconds. Point P is located on the wheel where the wheel is touching the ground at time t = 0 seconds.
As the wheel rolls, the height of point P above the ground periodically increases and decreases. The function h
gives the height of point P at time t seconds.

(A) Sketch a graph of y = h ( t ) for two full rotations of the wheel starting at time t = 0 . Label axes and
appropriate tick marks on the axes indicating maxima, minima, start time, and end time.

( )
h ( t ) a cos b ( t − c ) + d for the scenario. Provide a rationale
(B) Write a sinusoidal function model of the form =
for each value.

(C) On the graph in part A, label a point on the graph, I , at which the function is increasing, and label a point,
D , at which the function is decreasing. Then in part C, indicate whether the values of the change in the rate
of change of the function h are positive or negative at point I and at point D . Explain your conclusions.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 94

 f ( x ) = 3(
x +4 )

x
g ( x ) = cos −1  
3
ln ( x + 3 ) + ln ( x − 3 )
h(x) =
2
k ( x ) = ( cos x )( cot x )
m ( x ) = 2sin ( 3x )

3. The above functions, f , g , h , k , and m , are defined for values in their respective domains.

(A) Solve the following equations for x . Show the work that leads to your answers.
π
(i) f ( x ) = (The solution should involve a logarithmic expression.)
3
π
(ii) g ( x ) =
3

(B) Rewrite the expressions below as follows. Show the work that leads to your answers.
(i) Rewrite h as a single expression involving the natural logarithm of a single expression, for values of x
for which both expressions are defined.
(ii) Rewrite k as a single expression involving only sin x and no other trigonometric functions.

(C) Solve m ( x ) = 2 for x . Express the solutions in numeric values not involving a trigonometric function, if
possible. Show the work that leads to your answers.

AP Precalculus Course Framework 95