2/16/2014

TỐI ƯU HÓA VẬN HÀNH

HỆ THỐNG ĐIỆN

Chapter 5:
OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

Dr. Vo Ngoc Dieu

Department of Power Systems
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: [email protected]

Economic dispatch

L
A B C

• Objective: minimize the cost of generation

• Constraints
– Equality constraint: load generation balance
– Inequality constraints: upper and lower limits on
generating units output

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Limitations of economic dispatch

B C

Network

A D

• Generating units and loads are not all

connected to the same bus
• The economic dispatch may result in
unacceptable flows or voltages in the network

Example of network limitation

B
A
LA LB

Maximum flow on each line: 100MW

CA CB

50 $/MWh 100$/MWh
PA PB

PAMAX PBMAX

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Acceptable ED solution
100 MW 0 MW
300 MW
B
A

LA = 100 MW 100 MW LB = 200MW

The solution of this (trivial) economic dispatch is:

The flows on the lines are below the limit

The economic dispatch solution is acceptable

Unacceptable ED solution
200 MW 0 MW
500 MW
B
A

LA = 100 MW 200 MW LB = 400MW

The solution of the economic dispatch is:

The resulting flows exceed their limit

The economic dispatch solution is not acceptable

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Modified ED solution
100 MW 200 MW
300 MW
B
A

LA = 100 MW 100 MW LB = 400MW

In this simple case, the solution of the economic dispatch

can be modified easily to produce acceptable flows.
This could be done mathematically by adding the following
inequality constraint:
However, adding inequality constraints for each problem
is not practical in more complex situations
We need a more general approach
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Optimal Power Flow (OPF) - Overview

• Optimization problem
• Classical objective function
– Minimize the cost of generation
• Equality constraints
– Power balance at each node - power flow
equations
• Inequality constraints
– Network operating limits (line flows, voltages)
– Limits on control variables
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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (1)

• Decision variables (control variables)

– Active power output of the generating units
– Voltage at the generating units
– Position of the transformer taps
– Position of the phase shifter (quad booster) taps
– Status of the switched capacitors and reactors
– Control of power electronics (HVDC, FACTS)
– Amount of load disconnected
• Vector of control variables:

Mathematical formulation of the OPF (2)

• State variables
– Describe the response of the system to changes in
the control variables
– Magnitude of voltage at each bus
• Except generator busses, which are control variables
– Angle of voltage at each bus
• Except slack bus
• Vector of state variables:

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (3)

• Parameters
– Known characteristics of the system
– Assumed constant
• Network topology
• Network parameters (R, X, B, flow and voltage limits)
• Generator cost functions
• Generator limits
• …
• Vector of parameters:

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (4)

• Classical objective function:

– Minimize total generating cost:

• Many other objective functions are possible:

– Minimize changes in controls:

– Minimize system losses

–…

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (5)

• Equality constraints:
– Power balance at each node - power flow
equations

• Compact expression:

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (6)

• Inequality constraints:
– Limits on the control variables:

– Operating limits on flows:

– Operating limits on voltages

• Compact expression:

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (7)

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (8)

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Mathematical formulation of the OPF (8)

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Compact form of the OPF problem

Subject to:

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OPF Challenges

• Size of the problem

– 1000’s of lines, hundreds of controls
– Which inequality constraints are binding?
• Problem is non-linear
• Problem is non-convex
• Some of the variables are discrete
– Position of transformer and phase shifter taps
– Status of switched capacitors or reactors

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Solving the OPF

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Solving the OPF using gradient methods

• Build the Lagrangian function

• The gradient of the Lagrangian indicates the

direction of steepest ascent:

• Move in the opposite direction to the point

with the largest gradient
• Repeat until

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Problems with gradient methods

• Slow convergence
• Objective function and constraints must be
differentiable
• Difficulties in handling inequality constraints
– Binding inequality constraints change as the
solution progresses
– Difficult to enforce the complementary slackness
conditions

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Problems with gradient methods

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Problems with gradient methods

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Solving the OPF using interior point method

• Best technique when a full AC solution is

needed
• Handle inequality constraints using
barrier functions
• Start from a point in the “interior” of the
solution space
• Efficient solution engines are available

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Linearizing the OPF problem

• Use the power of linear programming

• Objective function
– Use linear or piecewise linear cost functions
• Equality constraints
– Use dc power flow instead of ac power flow
• Inequality constraints
– dc power flow provides linear relations between
injections (control variables) and MW line flows

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Sequential LP OPF
• Consequence of linear approximation
– The solution may be somewhat sub-optimal
– The constraints may not be respected exactly
• Need to iterate the solution of the linearized problem
• Algorithm:
1. Linearize the problem around an operating point
2. Find the solution to this linearized optimization
3. Perform a full ac power flow at that solution to find
the new operating point
4. Repeat

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Advantages and disadvantages

• Advantages of LPOPF method
– Convergence of linear optimization is guaranteed
– Fast
– Reliable optimization engines are available
– Used to calculate nodal prices in electricity
markets
• Disadvantages
– Need to iterate the linearization
– “Reactive power” aspects (VAr flows, voltages)
are much harder to linearize than the “active
power aspects” (MW flows)
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DC Power Flow Approximation

Power Flow Equations

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi[Gki cos(θ k − θ i ) + B ki sin(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1
N
QkI − ∑ Vk Vi[G ki sin(θ k − θ i ) − Bki cos(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1

• Set of non-linear simultaneous equations

• Need a simple linear relation for fast and
intuitive analysis
• dc power flow provides such a relation but
requires a number of approximations

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Neglect Reactive Power

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi[Gki cos(θ k − θ i ) + B ki sin(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1
N
QkI − ∑ Vk Vi[G ki sin(θ k − θ i ) − Bki cos(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi[Gki cos(θ k − θ i ) + B ki sin(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1

Neglect Resistance of the Branches

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi[Gki cos(θ k − θ i ) + B ki sin(θ k − θ i )] = 0
i=1

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi Bki sin(θ k − θ i ) = 0
i=1

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Assume All Voltage Magnitudes = 1.0 p.u.

N
PkI − ∑ Vk Vi Bki sin(θ k − θ i ) = 0
i=1

N
PkI − ∑ Bki sin(θ k − θ i ) = 0
i=1

Assume all angles are small

N
PkI − ∑ Bki sin(θ k − θ i ) = 0
i=1

If α is small: sin α ≈ α (α in radians)

N N
(θ k − θ i )
PkI − ∑ Bki (θ k − θ i ) = 0 or PkI − ∑ =0
i=1 i=1 x ki

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Interpretation
N
(θ k − θ i )
PkI − ∑ =0
i=1 x ki P1I P2I
P12
θ1 θ2
N
x12
PkI − ∑ Pki = 0 x13 x 23
i=1 P31 P23
(θ k − θ i ) θ3
Pki =
x ki P3I

(θ 1 − θ 2 ) (θ − θ 3 ) (θ − θ )
P12 = ; P23 = 2 ; P31 = 3 1
x12 x 23 x13

Why is it called DC power flow?

• Reactance plays the role of resistance in dc

circuit
• Voltage angle plays the role of dc voltage
• Power plays the role of dc current
(θ k − θ i ) (Vk − Vi )
Pki = I ki =
x ki R ki

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Example of LPOPF

• Solving the full non-linear OPF problem by

hand is too difficult, even for small systems
• We will solve linearized 3-bus examples by
hand

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Example
A B CA

1 2 10 $/MWh
PA

PAMAX=390MW

3
CB
450 MW

Economic dispatch:
PA = PAmax = 390 MW 20$/MWh
PB
PB = 60 MW PBMAX= 150
MW

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Flows resulting from the economic dispatch

390MW 60MW
A B

Fmax = 200MW

1 2

Fmax = 260MW Fmax = 200MW

450 MW

Assume that all the lines have the same reactance

Do these injection result in acceptable flows?

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Calculating the flows using superposition

Because we assume a linear model, superposition is
applicable
390 MW 60 MW

1 2

3
450 MW

390 MW 60 MW

1 2 1 2

3 3
390 MW
60 MW

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Calculating the flows using superposition (1)

390 MW

FA FB
1 2

3
390 MW

FA = 2 x FB because the path 1-2-3 has twice the reactance

of the path 1-3

FA + FB = 390 MW

FA = 260 MW
FB = 130 MW

Calculating the flows using superposition (2)

60 MW

FD FC
1 2

3
60 MW

FC = 2 x FD because the path 2-1-3 has twice the reactance

of the path 2-3

FC + FD = 60 MW

FC = 40 MW
FD = 20 MW

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Calculating the flows using superposition (3)

390 MW 60 MW

130 MW 20 MW
260 MW 40 MW
1 2 1 2

3 3
390 MW 60 MW

390 MW 60 MW
110 MW
280 MW 170 MW
1 2
Fmax = 260 MW
3
450 MW

Correcting unacceptable flows

390 MW 60 MW

280 MW
1 2

Must reduce flow F1-3 by 20 MW 3

450 MW

• Must use a combination of reducing the injection at bus 1 and

increasing the injection at bus 2 to keep the load/generation balance
• Decreasing the injection at 1 by 3 MW reduces F1-3 by 2 MW
• Increasing the injection at 2 by 3 MW increases F1-3 by 1 MW
• A combination of a 3 MW decrease at 1 and 3 MW increase at 2
decreases F1-3 by 1 MW
• To achieve a 20 MW reduction in F1-3 we need to shift 60 MW of
injection from bus 1 to bus 2

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Check the solution using superposition

330 MW 120 MW

110 MW 40 MW
220 MW 80 MW
1 2 1 2

3 3
330 MW 120 MW

330 MW 120 MW
70 MW
260 MW 190 MW
1 2
Fmax = 260 MW
3
450 MW

Comments (1)

• The OPF solution is more expensive than the

ED solution
– CED = 10 x 390 + 20 x 60 = $5,100
– COPF = 10 x 330 + 20 x 120 = $5,700
• The difference is the cost of security
– Csecurity = COPF - CED = $600
• The constraint on the line flow is satisfied
exactly
– Reducing the flow below the limit would cost
more

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Comments (2)

• We have used an “ad hoc” method to solve

this problem
• In practice, there are systematic techniques
for calculating the sensitivities of line flows to
injections
• These techniques are used to generate
constraint equations that are added to the
optimization problem

Security Constrained OPF (SCOPF)

• Conventional OPF only guarantees that the

operating constraints are satisfied under
normal operating conditions
– All lines in service
• This does not guarantee security
– Must consider N-1 contingencies

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Example: base case solution of OPF

330MW 120MW
A 70 MW B

1 2

260 MW 190 MW

450 MW

Example: contingency case

330MW 120MW
A 0 MW B

1 2

330 MW 120 MW

450 MW

Unacceptable because overload of line 1-3 could lead to

a cascade trip and a system collapse

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Formulation of the Security Constrained OPF

Subject to: Power flow equations

for the base case
Operating limits for
the base case
Power flow equations
for contingency k
∀k
Operating limits
for contingency k

Subscript 0 indicates value of variables in the base case

Subscript k indicates value of variables for contingency k

Preventive security formulation

subject to:

This formulation implements preventive security because

the control variables are not allowed to change after the
contingency has occurred: u k = u0 ∀k

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Corrective security formulation

subject to:

u k − u0 ≤ ∆u max
• This formulation implements corrective security because the
control variables are allowed to change after the contingency
has occurred
• The last equation limits the changes that can take place to
what can be achieved in a reasonable amount of time
• The objective function considers only the value of the control
variables in the base case

Size of the SCOPF problem

• Example - European transmission network:
– 13,000 busses 13,000 voltage constraints
– 20,000 branches 20,000 flow constraints
– N-1 security 20,000 contingencies
– In theory, we must consider
20,000 x (13,000 + 20,000) = 660 million
inequality constraints…
• However:
– Not all contingencies create limit violations
– Some contingencies have only a local effect

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Limitations of N-1 criterion

• Not all contingencies have the same probability
– Long lines vs. short lines
– Good weather vs. bad weather
• Not all contingencies have the same
consequences
– Local undervoltage vs. edge of stability limit
• N-2 conditions are not always “not credible”
– Non-independent events
• Does not ensure a consistent level of risk
– Risk = probability x consequences

Probabilistic security analysis

• Goal: operate the system at a given risk level

• Challenges
– Probabilities of non-independent events
• “Electrical” failures compounded by IT failures
– Estimating the consequences
• What portion of the system would be blacked out?
– What preventive measures should be taken?
• Vast number of possibilities

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