Guía de estudios para “The Paths of Knowledge”

Hecho por: Héctor Daniel Rodríguez Patena

Muchas gracias a Alejandra Nuñez del grupo 121 que con sus presentaciones resumiendo
las primeras 2 etapas, facilito la elaboración de esta guía.

Stage 1

1-. What is knowledge?

Knowledge refers to the set of information, ideas and abilities that a person acquires during
their life and allows them to understand, interpret and act in the world around them.

 Gnoseology: Gnoseology focuses on issues such as what is knowledge, how

it is acquired, what nature is, and what conditions should it be defined as
knowledge.
 Epistemology: Epistemology focuses mainly on issues such as what science
is, scientific method and how is justified.
Elements of knowledge

 Subject: Is the one who possesses the knowledge.

 Object: It is what you want to know, it can be a physical object or an
abstract concept.
 Operation: It is a process in which you are learning about something.
 Representation: Is the mental image that the subject produces.
How is it acquired?
Rationalism: Rationalism states that true knowledge comes from reason and abstract
thoughts.
Important characters for the rationalism are:

 Plato: Considered as the originator of the rationalism, Plato stated that senses do
not give true knowledge because the world is in a constant change.
 Baruch Spinoza: Dutch philosopher that said that God and nature are one in the
same, and knowledge comes from reason and intuition.
  Gottfried Leibniz: German philosopher who defended the monads, and that true
knowledge is acquired through maths and reason.
 René Descartes: French philosopher who is known for the quote “I think, therefore,
I am”. Descartes stated that true knowledge is divided from reason and the mind and
the body are different substances.
Empiricis m: Empiricism holds that our mind is like a “blank book” at birth, and
everything we know is the result of the sensory experience that we acquire throughout our
lives.
Important characters for the empiricism are:
 John Locke: English philosopher who said that the mind at birth is a blank slate
filled with sensory experience, and that all knowledge is derived from observation
and experience.
 David Hume: Scottish philosopher who established that all knowledge must be
justified by experience, and that cause and effect are mere relation of ideas and can
not be known through reason.
 George Berkeley: Irish Philosopher who said that physical reality is an illusion and
that all that exists is the mind and the perceptions.
There were people who did not agree with rationalism nor empiricism, these people were:

 Aristotle: Aristotle stated that knowledge and truth depended on both reason and
experience.
 Immanuel Kant: German philosopher who stated that knowledge comes from both
reason and experience.
 John Stuart Mill: English philosopher who said that true knowledge is derived
from experience, but reason also plays a role in it.
 Francis Bacon: 17th century english philosopher who rejected both empiricsicm
and rationalism.
2-. Types of knowledge
 Philosophical: It focuses on the deep and abstract understanding of the world.
 Religious: It is based on the belief of a supreme being and the teaching of
scriptures.
 Everyday: It refers to knowledge acquired through everyday observation and
experience, and interaction with the world.
 Mythical: It is based on legends and myths of different cultures. Imagunary and
symbolic explanations
 Scientific: Through systematic observation and experimentation, verified by a
hypothesis
 Logical-mathematical: It is acquired through abstract processes. Analytical and
systematic way.
3-. Scientific knowledge characteristics
 Objective.
 Verifiable.
 Systematic.
 Accurate.
 Universal.
 Explanatory.
 Predictive.
 Fallible.

4-. Types of Sciences

 Formal sciences: Those based on logic, Mathematics and Computing Science are
examples of formal sciences.
 Factual sciences: Those based on empirical observation and facts
 Natural sciences: Those based on natural phenomena, Biology and Chemistry are
examples of natural sciences.
 Social sciences: Studies the human behavior, History and Economics are examples
of social sciences.

5-. Logic
Logic is the discipline that studies the forms of thought and rules that govern correct
reasoning. Though is the human ability to form ideas, concepts and judgments from the
info received through senses or memory.
A concept is an abstract idea that represents a class of objects, events, or relations.
An assertion is a proposition that is affirmed or denied about an object or a subject. An
example of an assertion is, “the sky is blue”
Basic elements of logic:

 Concepts
 Propositions
 Assertions
 Arguments
 Inferences
 Connectives
 Quantifiers
Types of assertions

Quantity
 Universal: All the members of a class.
 Particular: Some members of a class.
Quality
 Affirmative: Say something about the subject.
 Negative: Deny something about the subject.
Modality
 Cathegorical: Say or deny something without conditions.
 Hypothetical: Establish a conditional relation between two assertions.
Connectives and arguments
Connectives
 Words that are used to join prepositions.
 Quantifiers are used to indicate the number of something.
Arguments
 Arguments are a series of assertions that are presented to support or refute an
idea.

6-. Deductive and Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is based on the deduction of consequences
from general premises.
Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning is based on observation of particular facts to
reach a general conclusion.
Abductive reasoning: This type of reasoning starts from a particular observation and looks
for posible explanations that can justify that fact.
Analogical reasoning: This type is used to establish similarities between objects, situations
or concepts that, at first instance, are unrelated.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: This type of reasoning is used in the scientific method
to generate hypotheses and test them through observation and experimentation.

7-. Syllogism
Is a type of deductive reasoning consisting of two premises and a conclusion. It was
proposed by the greek philosopher Aristotle, the main exponent of classical Logic.
Aristotle considered the syllogism to be the most perfect form of DEDUCTIVE reasoning.

8-. Logical principles and fallacies

Logical principles are fundamental rules that guide human thinking and reasoning. They are
the foundation of critical thinking and informed decision making.
The types of logical principles are:
 Principle of non contradiction: This principle states that a statement can
not be true and false at the same time.
 Principle of identity: It establishes that each thing is identical to itself.
 Principle of excluded middle: There is no middle ground for true or false.
 Principle of sufficient reason: There has to be enough proof to sustain a
hypothesis.
A fallacy is an argument that at first appearance seems logical and verifiable but it is not,
and lacks validity.
The type of fallacies are:

 Attack on the person (Ad hominem): A person is attacked instead of their

arguments.
 Appeal to authority (Ad verecundiam): An authority is used instead of an
argument.
 Hasty generalization: A conclusión is draw from insufficient evidence.
 Of popularity (Ad populum): It claims something must be true because manyo r
most people agree.
 Appeal to feelings: They seek to provoke a feeling instead of making an argument.
This type of fallacy can be divided into: Ad baculum, Ad misericordiam and Ad
ignorantiam.
 Slippery slope: To argue that something will lead to bad consequences.
 False dichotomy: To present only two extreme options.
 Straw man: Distorting or exagerating the oponent’s argument.
 Begging the question: To assume as true what is being tried to prove.
 Incomplete proof: Omit the evidence that contradicts your argument.
 False causation: To assume that a correlation implies causation.
 Ice man: To use an exceptional example to refute a general statement.

9-. Pseudosciences
Pseudosciences are a set of beliefs or statements that are presented as scientific but without
any empirical basis or solid evidence to be considered as such.
Pseudosciences characteristics
  Lack of empirical evidence: They are based in anecdotes, personal beliefs,
testimonials or subjective experiences.
 They are not falsiable: Can not be proved or refuted by rigorous, controlled
experiments.
 Lack of scientific support: They claim to have scientific support, but they do not.
 Arguments based on logical fallacies: They often use fallacies to make claims or
misleading claims.

Stage 2

1-. Science in Antiquity

Prehistory: This period spans from the appearance of men on Earth, about 2.5 million
years, up to the invention of writing, around 3,000 BC.
Advancements were made in:

 Understanding of the enviroment.

 Invention of stone tools.
 Control of fire.
 Hunting and gathering.
 Domestication of plants and animals.
Antiquity: Spans from the invention of writing around 3,000 BC to the fall of the Roman
Empire in the 5th Century AD.
Advancements were made in:
 Mathematics.
 Philosophy.
 Astronomy.
 Medicine.
 Architecture.
The origin of the scientific method is located in Ancient Greece.
Some important characters of antiquity where:
 Aristarchus of Samos: Aristarchus developed the heliocentric theory.
 Aristotle: Classified plants and animals
 Pythagoras: Made mathematical and scientific discoveries. Contributions in Music,
Astronomy, Medicine, Philosophy, Education and Religion.
  Archimedes: Discovered a way to calculate the volume of any object, whether or
not it had a regular shape.
 Hippocrates: Untangled medicine from Religion and superstitions.
 Galen: Roman physician who made important contributions to the knowledge of
anatomy and physiology. Supported that health was a balance of blood and
humours.
 Claudius Ptolemy: Greek geographer and astronomer who is best know for his
work “Almagest”. “Almagest” had a great influence on Western Astronomy during
Middle Ages and Renassaince.
Middle Ages: This period spans from the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th Century to
the Renassaince in the 15th Century.
Advancements were made in:
 Algebra: The Arabic numeral system and the introduction of variables in math
permitted the development of Algebra.
 Architecture: The invention of the ribbed vault permitted the construction of taller
and more stable buildings.
 Medicine: Creations of hospitals and intro to more advanced medical processes.
 Optics: Alhazen’s work on optics led to vision correction.
 Chemistry: Distallation and purification of substances.
 China: Major advances in medicine were made (acupuncture). Techniques for
making paper, porcelain and silk.
 India: Aryabhata (5th century) developed a system for representing numbers using
symbols and notations. (Astronomy, Geometry and Algebra)
 Persia: Avicenna wrote important treatises on Medicine and Philosophy. (Influence
in Europe)
 Arab world: Abbasid dynasty (8th-13th centuries) advances in Philosophy,
Literature, Medicine and Science. (Al-Razi)
Modern ages: This period spans from the Renaissance in the 15th Century to the french
revolution in the 18th Century.
Science began to evolve at a increasingly fast pace and flourished in the Italian
Renaissance.
Some important characters for this period were:
 Leonardo Da Vinci: Da Vinci was one of the greatest exponents of the time.
 Francis Bacon: Bacon is considered as one of the founders of the scientific method.
 Galileo Galilei: Galilei’s works was essential to establish the heliocentric model of
the universe.
Contemporary age: This period spans from the French Revolution in the 18th Century to
the present age.
Some discoveries that were made in this period are:

 Cell theory: Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann stated that all living beings
are made up from cells.
 Evolution: Charles Darwin published “On the Origin of Species”, where he
proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection.
 Laws of Thermodynamics: These laws were established to describe the relations
between energy, heat and work.
 Electricity and Magnetism: Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric
current produces a magnetic field. This discovery paved the way for the
development of electromagnetism.
 Radioactivity: Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivty, which is the spontaneous
emission of particles or radiation from certain elements.
Important characters of this period are:
 Louis Pasteur: French microbiologist who made important contributions to the
field of microbiology and chemistry.
 Robert Koch: German physician and microbiologist who is known for his
contributions to the field of microbiology, and particularly for his work in the study
of infectious diseases.
 Michael Faraday: Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction. He established the Faraday’s law of electrolysis.
 Thomas Edison: American inventor who created the electric light bulb.
Discoveries of the 20th Century

 Electronic.
 Internet.
 Television.
 Mobile telephony.
 Computers
Discoveries of the 21th Century
 Artificial intelligence.
 Virtual and Augmented realities.
 Robotics.
 Biotechnology.
 Renewable energy.

2-. Scientific method

Scientific method is a fundamental tool for obtaining scientific knowledge.
Steps of the scientific method:
 1- Observation: Fully observing the object or phenomenon to be studied.
2- Formulation of Questions: The questions should be specific and focused on the
problem that is studied.
3- Hypothesis: Brief explanation of something; may be true or false.
4- Experimentation: Hypothesis are tested and data is collected to determine if
hypothesis is true of false.
5- Data Analysis: Identify patterns, trends and relations in the data collected.
6- Conclusions: We determine if the hypothesis is true or false.

3-. Scientific laws and theories

Scientific theory: Broad and detailed explanation of a set of observable phenomena that
can be verified through experimentation.
Scientific law: A pattern that has been repeatedly observed in nature and can be expressed
mathematically.
Examples of laws and theories
 Theory of Relativity: Describes how gravity works. (Developed by Einstein.)
 Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is neither created or destroyed.
 Theory of Evolution: How living beings develop over time. (Developed by
Darwin.)
 Law of Universal Gravitation: All objects in the universe are attached with a
proportional force. (Developed by Newton.)
 Big Bang Theory: Explains how the universe originated from a big explosion
13,800 million years ago.
 Ohm’s Law: Establishes the relations between the electric current that circulates
through a conductor.
4-. Science, technology and research
Technique: Refers to the set of abilities, skills, and procedures that are used to carry out a
specific activity.
Technology: Result of the application of science and technique to the development of
products.
Limits of technology
 Dependence.
 Privacy.
 Security risks.
 Environmental impact.
 Inequality.
Characteristics of a researcher
  Curiosity.
 Open-minded.
 Skeptical.
 Rigor.
 Creativity.
 Patience.
 Organization.
 Teamwork ability.
 Ability to analyze and synthesize info.
 Ethics.
Research in Mexico
The organizations that do researchs in Mexico are:
 CONACYT
 ININ
 INAOE
 CINVESTAV
 UNAM
 ITESM
Some examples of researches that have been done in Mexico are:
 Houses built with sargassum.
 Regenerate spine bones with crab shells.
 Solid rain.
 Anti-infection hospital clothing.

Stage 3

1-. Research Models or Approaches

Scientific inquiry models, also called research approaches, are theoretical frameworks or
systematic structures used to carry out scientific research in a organized and rigorous
manner.
Approaches can be QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATITVE or MIXED. When following a
research model, certain stages and processes are established that must be followed to
guarantee the validity and reliability of the results.
Quantitative approach
This approach focuses on the analysis and interpretation of numerical data, statistics and
indcators that are associated with the object of study.
The main characteristics of this approach are:
 It focuses on measurement.
 It uses deductive logic.
 It uses representative samples.
 It is based on measurement instruments.
 It seeks objectivity and neutrality.
The main advantages of this approach are:

 Precision.
 Objectivity.
 Generalization.
 Replicability.
 Study of causal relations.
 Efficiency.
Some disadvantages it has are:

 Inability to capture the complexity of social phenomena

 Lack of depth in understanding the contexts and perspectives of the participants.
Qualititative approach
The qualitative approach focuses on understanding the meaning and subjective experiences
of participants in a specific phenomenon.
The main characteristics of this approach are:

 It is exploratory.
 Is descriptive.
 Is subjective.
 Is inductive
 Is flexible.
 Is contextual.
 Is not generalizable.
 The researcher plays the role of the research instrument.
The main advantages of this approach are:
 It allows in-depth exploration of complex and little-known phenomena.
 It provides a rich and detailed understanding of the context in which phenomena
occur.
  You can capture and report the perspectives, experiences and opinions of the
participants.
 It favors the discovery of new topics and the generation of new theories.
 It offers flexibility in the research process.
Some disadvantages it has are:

 Data collection and analysis can be intensive and require a significant investment of
time and resources.
 Subjectivity and researcher biases can influence the interpretation of the data.
 Lack of standardization.
Mixed approach
The mixed approach combines elements of the previous approaches in a single study.
The main features of the mixed approach are:

 Data integration.
 Use of multiple methods.
 Flexibility.
 Integrated analysis.
The main advantages of this approach are:

 Provides more complete and detailed understanding of the phenomenon to be

studied.
 Allows cross-validation of the results.
 You can improve the quality of the research by using multiple methods and
techniques for data collection.
 It can be useful in addressing complex research questions that require a deep and
detailed understanding of the phenomenon under study.
Some disadvantages it has are:

 It requires an investment of significant time and resources.

 It can be complicated to analyze the data due to the diversity of methods and
techniques used.
 There may be methodological and theoretical conflicts between quantitative and
qualitative approaches.

2-. Types of Scientific research

 By type of approach. (Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed.).
 By purpose: Basic (they produce new theoretical knowledge) and applied (dedicated
to solving problems or finding practical solutions).
  By its scope: Exploratory (inquire about little studied topics), descriptive (specify
properties and characteristics of cases), correlational (to know the relations between
two or more concepts) and explanatory (determine the causes of phenomena or
problems).
 By the manipulation of variables: Experimental (includes experimentation with the
manipulation of variables) and non-experimental (the variables are not modified).
 By the source of data: Documentary (data is obtained from documentary sources
only) and field (data is obtained by direct observation of the phenomena or cases).
3-. Methods and Techniques
Method: Set of logical and systematic procedures that are used to obtain knowledge.
There are three important types of methods:
 Deductive method: Research approach that starts from a previous theoy to generate
specific and testable hypotheses that are tested by collecting data.
 Inductive method: Research approach that starts from the collection of data to
generate a theory.
 Research method: Logical and systematic set of steps that are followed to solve a
problema or answer a research question.
Technique: Is a specific procedure used to obtain the data necessary to answer the research
questions.
Techniques used in scientific research:
 Observation: Consists of carefully observing a phenomenon or situation to obtain
information about it. The observation can be direct (the researcher is in direct
contact with the object), indirect (the researcher uses observations made by others),
participant (the researcher joins a group and observes from within to obtain the
information) and non-participant (the researcher obtains the information without
intervening in the group).
 Interview: Conversation between the researcher and the interviewee in order to
obtain specific information.
 Questionnaire: Set of questions created and given to a group of people to answer.
 Survey: Similar to the Questionnaire, but presented to a larger group of people.
 Experimentation: One or several variables are manipulated in order to observe
their effect on the phenomenon studied.
 Document analysis: Written documents are analyzed in order to obtain
information.
 Case study: Specific case analyzed in detail so to obtain information.
 Focus group: This is a group technique in which several people meet to discuss on
a specific topic.
4-. Research Instruments.
Research instruments are tolos used to collect data and obtain relevant information in a
study or research.
Research instruments can be classified into two main categories: questionnaires and
measurement scales
Questionnaires
These include a series of written or verbal questions designed to collect information from
research participants.
Some examples of questionnaires are:
 Surveys: These are used to collect data from large groups.
 Structured interviews: These consist of a series of closed and standardized
questions that are asked to research participants.
 Semi-instructured interviews: They combine open and closed questions and
collect both quantitive and qualitative data.
 Focus groups: These are group interviews that are used to collect information about
attitudes and perceptions on a particular topic.
Measurement scales
These tolos are used to measure the magnitude of a concept or variable in the research.
Some examples of measurement scales are:
 Likert scales: These are used to measure attitudes and opinions. They consist of
statements that the participant must evaluate according to a range of options.
 Thurstone scales: These are used to measure attitudes and opinions. They consists
of statements that are ordered according to their degree of acceptance.
 Classification scales: These are used to order objects or situations according to
specific criteria.
 Intensity scales: These are used to measure the intensity of a concept or variable.

5-. Research planning

Chronogram: Tool used to plan and Schedule the different tasks and activities that must be
carried out.
Research planning
1- Selection and delimitation of the topic.
2- Statement of the problem and the research question.
3- Writing of the objectives and the rationale.
4- Make a theoretical framework.
5- Write the hypotheses.
Observation: Observation is defined as the process of collecting data through the use of
the senses or technological tolos to record an measure phenomena and behaviors.
Research question: The problem or research question addressed to the research.
How to write a research question
1- Identify the research topic.
2- Select a specific problem.
3- Formulate the question.
Objectives: Objectives are the specific and concrete results that are expected to be obtained
by conducting a research.
Some characteristics of the objectives are:

 They are specific.

 They are measurable.
 They are achievable.
 They are relevant.
 They are coherent.
 They are concrete
Rationale: Rationale refers to the presentation and explanation of the reason and motives
for which it is considered important and necessary to carry out the study.
The rational has several purposes:

 Justify the need for the research.

 Demonstrate the originality of the research.
 Identify the limitations of the existing knowledge.
 Contribute to social development.
 Demonstrate the feasibility of the research.
Theoretical framework: The theoretical framework is an important section of the project
that presents the theories, concepts, previous studies and models related to the topic that is
being investigated.
A theoretical framework serves to:
 Prevent mistakes that have been made before.
 Guide on how the study should be carried out.
 Document the need to carry out the project.
 Establish the research hypotheses.
 Provide a framework of reference in order to interpret the results and compare them
with what is already known about the problema or phenomenon studied.
Reliable sources
Some examples of reliable sources are:

 Google Scholar
 PubMed
 World Digital Library
 Institutional Repositories
 Government Organizations
 Redalyc
 SciELO
 Renati – Sunedu
 Alicia – Concytec
Hypotheses: Hypothesis are tentative statements that are formulated as provitional
explanations for a phenomenon or a problema to be investigated.
Hypotheses must have the following characteristics:

 Must be clear and precise.

 Must be founded on a theory.
 Must be verifiable.
 Must be coherent.
Variable: Variable is any characteristic, property or condition that can be measured,
observed, or manipulated in a study.
Independent variable: Is the variable that is manipulated or changed in a study to observe
its effect on other variables.
Dependent variable: Is the variable that is measured to determine if it is affected by
independent variables.