Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate

Deedhiti Das
The earliest appearance of Islamic architecture in India, and referred to as the Imperial style,
may be divided into five phases corresponding to the five Mohammedan dynasties which
prevailed in Hindustan from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries. They are designated
(1) Slave (A.D. 1191-1246); (2) Khalji (1290-1320); (3) Tughluq (1320-1413): (4) Sayyid
(1414-1444); and (5) Lodi (1451-1551).
Slave dynasty
Qutbuddin Aibak
Qutbuddin proceeded to consolidate his power by erecting monumental buildings on the site
of the captured Hindu stronghold of Qila Rai Pithaura, which he converted into the Moslem
capital of Delhi. Before the advent of the Ghorids, the whole site had been dominated by the
Hindu Rajput citadel of Lal Kot, and the immediate area of the mosque had been occupied by
the citadel's Vaishnavite temple. This ruler's first effort was the creation of the Quwwut-ul
Mosque in II95. erected on the spacious substructure of a Hindu temple. It was merely an
assortment of pillars and other temple components arranged in columned aisles to produce the
necessary mosque enclosure.
But, a few years later, in II99 arrangements were made for an expansive arched screen across
the western or Mecca side of this enclosure. It was pierced by five openings, consisting of a
large, central archway measuring 45 feet high with a span of 22 feet, while on each side were
two lesser archways, each 25 feet in height. There is the rich pattern of carving with which its
entire surface is covered. Such a structure was an entirely original work and may be regarded
as the first example remaining of a definite Islamic order erected on Indian soil. That this facade
was of indigenous workmanship is obvious from its method of construction, a fact particularly
noticeable by the manner in which the arches have been formed. For centuries before this,
masons in all countries under Moslem rule had employed the true arch, inherited from the
Romans but here the rudimentary system of corbelling out the arch was used. Moreover, the
shape of these arches shows their ancient Indian lineage, as it can be traced back to the curved
eave over a village hut.
Thus, the founding of a mosque in this spot by Sultan Muizuddin and his general Qutbuddin
Aibak meant not only the destruction of the existing temple, it also signified the symbolic
appropriation of the land itself. This symbol of the conquest was amplified in a more traditional
way by the construction of the great minar against the mosque's southern wall, for the minar
functions as a visible commemoration of victory and as a means of marking a landscape as part
of the Dar al-Islam. As originally completed, the Qutb Minar consisted of four stories
diminishing as they ascended, with a projecting balcony dividing each stage.
One more important structure has been attributed to Aibak, in this instance not at Delhi, but at
the subsidiary stronghold of Ajmer in Rajputana. Here, shortly after its occupation by the
Muslims, the same course as that of the capital city was adopted i.e. of dismantling a large
number of the neighbouring temples and re-erecting them in the form of a mosque, known as
the Adhaidin-ki Jhompra. Its general plan carried out the same system as the Mosque at Delhi,
with interior aisles constructed of temple spoils but its arched facade also originally devised. It
covers more than twice the space occupied by the Delhi mosque it was on a much larger scale,
thus allowing additional scope to its designers. Increased height was obtained by super-
imposing not two, but three of the Hindu shafts to form each pillar, so that the ceilings are
twenty feet from the pavement.
Iltutmish
Qutbuddin’s successor, Iltutmish was responsible was for the addition of a façade in the
Ajmeri Mosque, which makes a notable contribution to the architecture of the period. The
mosque facade at Ajmer is the, clearly inspired by his predecessor, Qutbuddin and similar
addition to the mosque at Delhi, is in much the same style. The Ajmer screen consists of seven
arches extending over a width of 200 feet. However, the free and flexible handiwork of the
Hindus, as expressed on the Qutb-screen, has become rigid under the strict application of the
Koranic prohibition. Gone is the exquisitely modelled floral decoration supplied by the
indigenous workmen at Delhi, and in its place, wherever an inscription is not required,
conventional patterns of a rather stylized and mechanical order are introduced.
Qutbuddin’s successor, Iltutmish proceeded to enlarge the original place of prayer in the
Quwwut-ul-Islam mosque erected by his predecessor. Debarred by the strict tenets of Islam
from demolishing and rebuilding this mosque, he had to content himself with retaining the
original structure but enveloping it within a much more spacious courtyard by extending the
screen of arches on either side, in a word, doubling the entire conception. From such evidence
alone, it seems fairly clear that the Islamic population of the imperial capital had very
considerably increased during this relatively short period.
Another architectural marvel constructed by Iltutmish is the Mausoleum of Iltutmish. It is a
square, compact structure with an entrance doorway on each of its three sides, the western side
being closed to accommodate a series of three mihrabs on its inner face. The exterior is
relatively plain except for certain finely inscribed patterns and borders concentrated around the
pointed arches framing the doorways. As a contrast however, the interior, a cubical hall of
thirty feet side is so elaborately sculptured. Extracts from the Koran in Naskh characters are
the principal motifs, although geometrical and conventional diapers are also present.
The architectural importance of the building lies in the principles employed in the construction
of its roof, which, although most of it has fallen was probably some form of shallow dome.
Inherent in the construction of domed buildings is the problem of devising a consistent union
between the rectangular shape of the compartment below on the one hand, and the circular base
of the dame above on the other. This problem is revolved by the squinch system. The squinch
system consists of projecting a small arch across the upper part of the angle of the square hall,
thus converting its square shape into an octagon. In this instance the squinch takes the form of
an arch on its outer and diagonal face.
With the tomb of Iltutmish the story of Indo-Islamic architecture under the Slave dynasty
closes, and for a period of some sixty years, with one exception, no structures of any importance
appear to have been produced.
After the death of Iltutmish in 1234, no buildings of any consequence were undertaken until
the rise of the Khaljis in the last years of the thirteenth century, except the House of Balban,
with the significant appearance of the true arch.
Khalji Dynasty
Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji, who ascended the throne of Delhi brought about a decisive advance in the
field of architecture.
This ruler's most important building project consisted of the construction of an immense
congregational mosque at the Qutb, which was to include within its perimeter the two
mosques already erected by his predecessors.
Within the spacious northern area in the Qutb complex, he proposed to raise a colossal minar,
its proportions double those of the one set up by the Slave Kings a century before.
Unfortunately, the project never reached its completion due to Alauddin’s death.
One relatively small portion has, however, been carried to completion, thus providing an
illustration of the architectural style of the Khalji period. This structure is the southern entrance
hall to the courtyard, a building known as the Alai Darwaza and the date of its erection was
1305. This entrance to the mosque occupies a key position in the evolution of Islamic
architecture in India. In its composition there are distinct evidences of the direction of someone
with a knowledge of architectural procedure. All this may be seen in the various qualities of
the Alai Darwaza particularly in the shape of the arches. The system by which its weight has
been transferred from its circular rim to conform with the shape of the square hall below is the
squinch system. Around its outlines is a band of inscription carved in white marble. In the
middle of each side is a doorway flanked by a perforated stone window. All this is intelligibly
executed in a combination of red sandstone and white marble, with arabesques and decorative
inscriptions enriching the whole. Yet the outstanding gracefulness of its facades lies in the
shape of the arches, particularly of the central opening. The type of arch here presented here is
that known as the pointed horse-shoe, or "keel," a rare kind not ordinarily used, and it does
not find a place in any of the buildings after those of the Khaljis.
There are certain buildings erected in the Qutb during this monarch's reign, one of which is
believed to be his tomb. Another has been identified as a madrasah, but all are too ruined to
add much information as to the progress of the style.
Several other architectural compositions were produced during the rule of Alauddin including
the city of Siri, the second of the seven cities of Delhi, which he began in I303, but the remains
are so fragmentary that they are of little consequence.
Another building at Delhi, which is obviously in the Khalji tradition. and may have been
erected towards the end of the rule, is the Jamaat Khana Masjid at the dargah, or tomb, of
Nizamuddin Auliya, a distinguished saint of the period. The Jamaat Khana or "congregation
house," is rectangular in plan, and the facade consists of three broad arched openings, each
archway having a wide band of inscription above and the "fringe" of spear-heads attached to
its borders in the style of the Alai Darwaza. The most striking feature of interior is the squinch
arches which have been executed in a manner similar to those at the Alai Darwaza. That in a
very short time the style as expressed in the Alai Darwaza was losing its initial forcefulness
and becoming affected by indigenous handling is shown by the treatment of this mosque. It
seems probable that the accomplished workmen who carried out the design and execution of
the Darwaza were no longer available and the mosque was produced by others less familiar
with the essentials of the style. This is shown by the shape of the arch, its horse-shoe character
being less pronounced, as the curve at is flattened. and moreover, the ogee at the crown is a
sign of the indigenous influence.
Tughluq Dynasty
Of the eleven rulers forming the dynasty of the Tughlaqs, which was in power at Delhi for
nearly a hundred years, three only, judging from the remains of this period, have interested
themselves in the art of building. These were (I) the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq (2) his son, Mohammed Shah Tughlaq (1325-51), and (3) the most prolific of all in
his building projects, Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88).
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq’s efforts in the field of architecture were concentrated on the creation of
the third city of Delhi known as Tughlaqabad. So bare and shapeless are its remains it is
difficult to believe Ibn Battuta’s contemporary account that "here were Tughlaq’s treasures and
palaces, and the great palace he built of golden bricks, which when the sun rose, shone so
dazzlingly that none would gaze steadily upon it." Nothing resembling this picture can now be
seen in the huge masses of broken masonry. The fortified city of Tughlaqabad had two parts,
consisting of a citadel corresponding to the castle of the ruler, and rest of the city. At close
intervals throughout the entire circuit of its walls of over four miles, are immense circular
bastions. Each parapet is heavily battlemented, their emphatically sloping sides perforated by
innumerable openings for archers. It is recorded that these walls were entered by as many as
fifty-two gateways, most of which are now in complete ruin.
The citadel itself was surrounded by a moat some of the main features of which may still be
discerned. This citadel was evidently a fortress and palace combined, being divided into two
enclosures, the former with its galleries and guarded entrances, being a kind of keep, while the
latter contained the royal residences, the zenana, and halls of audience. There is also a long
underground corridor through which it appears to have been possible to pass in and out of the
citadel.
A relatively small but important appendage to the fortress, a work of considerable architectural
character and outstanding interest is Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's tomb.
The tomb is in a surprisingly perfect condition. Originally standing within an artificial lake, a
detached structure but connected with the citadel by an elevated causeway. The exterior plan
of this fortress-tomb is in the form of an irregular pentagon with a spreading bastion at each
angle, The fabric of this tomb building is of red sandstone with certain portions, including the
dome, of white marble, but the most striking part of its composition is the determined slope of
the outer walls, as these are inclined at an angle of seventy-five degrees. The decisive slope in
Tughlaq's tomb may have been suggested by the brick architecture of Multan and other towns
in the Punjab.
In the centre of each side is recessed a tall pointed archway, three of which contain doorways,
while the fourth, or western side, is closed to accommodate the mihrab in its interior. Within
its courtyard are several underground vaults, having apparently no connection with the tomb
chamber itself, but clearly introduced as rooms for the safe keeping of hoarded wealth. Parts
of the exterior design are reminiscent of the Alai Darwaza. There is the same character in the
treatment of the pointed arches, each having its spear-head "fringe" although in the case of the
tomb, the horse-shoe shape has been modified into one of a more '''Tudor'' outline. The interior
of this tomb is a single chamber thirty feet square, light being admitted through the three arched.
openings. Above, the domed. ceiling is supported. on four squinch arches in much the same
manner as that of the Alai Darwaza. It is a single dome, that is to say it has no empty space
between its inner and outer surfaces, been erected. This dome is crowned by a kalash of a Hindu
temple.
Mohammed bin Tughlaq
To Ghiyasuddin's son and successor, Mohammed bin Tughlaq, belongs the credit of having
built the fourth city of Delhi, but it cannot be said that his patronage had much influence on the
imperial style as a whole. His contribution to the capitals of this area consisted in enclosing the
space between the first and second cities, by means of fortified walls, the part thus joined up
being named Jahanpannah, or the "World's Refuge." Very little of these great walls remains,
but certain buildings within have been preserved, as for instance an ornamental sluice,
comprising a double-storied bridge of seven spans named "Sath Pul" with supplementary
archways and a tower at each end, the whole intended to regulate the supply of water to an
artificial lake, which was one of the features of the new city.
During the reign of Mohammed Tughlaq, it was his capricious policy to remove the capital
from Delhi to the distant city of Daulatabad, in the Deccan, six hundred miles away. Such a
course of action went far towards ruining the historical area that his predecessors had
endeavoured to make beautiful, and moreover affected seriously the continuity of the style
of architecture.
Firoz Shah Tuqhluq
Firoz Shah Tughlaq During his long reign therefore of thirty-seven years, he was responsible
for a very large number of important building projects, all produced in a style peculiarly his
own. A scarcity of skilled stone-masons and experienced workmen, due to their dispersal on
the transfer of the capital by Mohammed bin Tughlaq, precluded any building scheme being
put into effect that required special technical knowledge. The economic position of the empire
put him in a position where he could only satisfy his structural ambitions by means of buildings
made of inexpensive materials and in a plain but serviceable style. The resemblance of his
architectural style to the brick-built tombs of Multan of a slightly earlier date can be noted
although, the Multan examples the architecture was enriched by a considerable amount of
surface decoration in the form of carved terra-cotta and patterns of brilliantly coloured tiling.
Among the building exploits of Firuz Tughlaqs were at least four fortress cities, the fifth city
of Delhi, known as Firozabad and important tombs and mosques. What remains now of the
city of Firozabad, is the great citadel or palace fortress, a vast walled enclosure containing all
the amenities and necessities of a self-contained and fully equipped royal residence, and
everything that this implies. The site of the Kotla Firuz Shah, as it is called, is now ruined and
derelict, but its principal arrangements are still tolerably clear. On the opposite side to the main
gate, across the width of the Kotla, was a large rectangular enclosure overlooking the river,
within which were the palaces and royal and private residences, most of them aligned along
and above the outer wall to receive the benefit of the cool air carried across the water.
The rest of the space within the Kotla walls was divided off into square and rectangular
courtyards, one of the largest of which was the HaIl of Public Audience, a spacious open
quadrangle surrounded by a pillared verandah for the transaction of official and political affairs.
In the remainder was a great variety of structures such as pavilions for different purposes, grape
and water gardens, baths, tanks, barracks, armoury, and servants’ quarters. Towards the centre
and also against the river wall was the congregational mosque or Jami Masjid. Containing
accommodation for an assembly numbering ten thousand.
Within the extensive range of buildings at what is now known as the Hauz-i-Khas, the
mausoleum of Firuz is the dominant feature. His tomb is in the middle of a madrasa he
commissioned, overlooking a tank of water known as Hauz Khas. The tomb's plain style is
faithful to the austerity of much of Tughlaq building. The simple 15 foot square structure is
built of ashlar walls finished with lime plaster with arched entrances and merlons along the
parapet. it is not built of stone; instead a thick layer of durable stucco is used which was
probably painted. The interior of the tomb is a square chamber with squinch arches in each
angle to support the dome, and an arched mihrab is sunk in its western wall. Above the parapet
rises an octagonal drum supporting a shallow and slightly pointed dome.
Significant for its design is the tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Tilangani, a premier official at the
court of Firuz, and who died in I368-9. It is remarkable because it illustrates a new type of
tomb structure, which was destined to infIuence the style of tomb-building. Hitherto the tomb
structure had been invariably square in plan, but that of Tilangani takes the form of an octagon,
on which a new conception was evolved. That in this particular instance the eight-sided plan
was an experimental effort is fairly obvious, as its proportions are crude and imperfect.
Another innovation was the imposition of a range of eight cupolas on the roof rising above the
parapet, one over each octagonal side.
A building erected towards the end of the regime of the Tughlaqs is a Jami Masjid at Irich, a
town some forty mile north of Jhansi. Its main interest lies in the fact that it represents the stage
of transition between the style of the Tughlaqs and that of the succeeding dynasty. The outline
of its arches prefigures the mode that subsequently prevailed under the Sayyids and the Lodis,
the last of the Sultans of Delhi.
Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties
Due to the inheritance of greatly weakened state treasury, both the dynasties were not able to
construct monumental buildings. So, their desire for architectural constructions were projected
in small tombs and mausoleum built throughout Delhi.
Sayyids and Lodis constructed the tombs in two different forms; one pattern was based on
octagonal plan surrounded by arched walkway with one storey in height and the other one was
based on square plan without walkway with two or three storeys in height. In both the cases,
the building had a dome with pillars on each side of the octagonal and the square
variety. Amongst the octagonal and square tombs of the architecture during Sayyid and Lodi
dynasty, octagonal tombs were reserved for the rulers and the square type tombs were reserved
for the nobles of their courts.
The three royal tombs of Mubarak Sayyid, Muhammed Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi reflect the
prototype of architecture during Sayyid and Lodhi dynasty.
The tomb of Mubarak Sayyid is situated within Kotla Mubarakpur. The structure is one of
the early tombs to be modelled on the typical octagonal style that rose to prominence during
this period.The central octagonal chamber is surrounded by an octagonal verandah, with three
identical arches piercing each face. An octagonal domed ‘chattri’ sits above each side of the
verandah. The central chamber supports a sixteen sided battlemented drum, which in turn
supports the broad, low dome. The dome itself is crowned by a lantern, an unusual feature
unique to this tomb.
The tomb of Sikandar Lodi is enclosed within a fortified complex with the main entrance
having two umbrella shaped domes which was designed to preserve the symmetry and relative
proportions of the body of the building. Both pavilions on the square platform in the front have
remains of blue tiles. The tomb is situated in the middle of a large garden and tall boundary
walls. Tomb chamber is surrounded by a wide veranda with carved pillars with each side
pierced by three arches and the angles occupied by sloping buttresses.
It has been remarked that no large mosques of the public or congregational order were erected
at Delhi during the rule of the Sayyids and Lodis, nonetheless there are several mosques of a
private nature attached to some of the tombs. For example, the Moth ki Masjid built by the
Prime Minister of Sikandar Lodi. These mosque buildings are the preliminary examples of a
series of single-aisled mosques produced within the succeeding half century, and which
eventually achieved its ideal in a relatively small but perfect specimen of a private mosque, the
Qila-i-Kuhna of Sher Shah Sari in the ruler's walled citadel at Delhi known as the "Purana
Qila."