ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit
An electric circuit is a path or line through which an electrical current flows. The path may be
closed (joined at both ends), making a loop. A closed circuit makes electrical current flow. It
may also be an open circuit where the conductive elements no longer form a complete path,
and continuous charge flow cannot occur in it .An open circuit does not allow current to flow.
A simple circuit contains three components necessary to have a functioning electric circuit,
namely, a source of voltage, a conductive path, and a resistor.
Components of an electric circuit
It is important to know the basic parts of a simple circuit and the symbols that relate to them. A
simple electric circuit contains components like batteries, switches, conducting wires,
bulbs, resistors, voltmeters, ammeters etc. all connected in a continuous loop.
Conducting wires
These are usually copper wires with no insulation. They make the path through which the
electricity flows. One piece of the wire connects the current from the power source to the load.
The piece connects the load back to the power source. The symbol for connecting wires in a
circuit is:

Switch
The switch is simply a small gap in the conductor where you can close or open the circuit. When
the switch is closed, the circuit is closed and electricity flows. The symbol for a switch is:

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Battery
The power source is a cell. A battery is a source of energy which provides a push -a voltage -
of energy to get the current flowing in a circuit. (Note that more than one cell put together is
known as a battery).

The Load
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes (active)
electric power. In electric power circuits, examples of loads are light bulbs or resistors. The
symbol for a light bulb is:

Resistors
The resistor is a component that resists current. The main function of resistors in a circuit is to
control the flow of current to other components. The symbol for a resistor is:

A variable resistor is one of which the resistance value can be adjusted. Either mechanically or
electronically. The symbol is:

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Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit. The symbol is:

Ammeter
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. Ammeters are
always connected in series. The symbol is:

A simple circuit

Electric current
An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. More specifically as a physical
quantity, the electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit.
As shown in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be determined if the quantity of
charge (symbol Q) passing through a cross section of a wire in a time 𝑡 can be measured. The

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current is simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and time. The magnitude of the electric
current is measured in coulombs per second, the common unit for this being the Ampere or
amp, which is designated by the letter ‘A’. The symbol for current is the letter 𝐼.

The formula for current is:

Q
I=
t
Where Q is the charge in Coulombs and 𝑡 is the time in seconds.

Potential difference or voltage

Charge moving through a battery gains energy which is then lost moving through the circuit.
Potential difference is defined as the work needed per unit of charge to move a test
charge between two points in a circuit as shown in the diagram below.I

The formula is:

W
V=
Q

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Where V is the potential difference, W the work done by the charge and Q the magnitude of
the charge.
The magnitude of the potential difference is measured in joules per coloumb, the common unit
for this being the volt, which is designated by the letter ‘V’.

Resistance

Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit as shown

below.

Resistance is measured in Ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).

All materials resist current flow to some degree. They fall into one of two broad categories:

• Conductors: Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons can move easily.
Examples: silver, copper, gold and aluminum.
• Insulators: Materials that present high resistance and restrict the flow of electrons.
Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood and plastic

In a circuit, a higher resistance will allow less charge to flow, meaning the circuit with higher
resistance has less current flowing through it. Resistance and current are inversely proportional.

The resistance of the conductor depends on the following factors:

• The temperature of the conductor: the higher the temperature, the greater the
resistance
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor: the larger the area, the smaller the
resistance.
• Length of the conductor: longer materials have greater resistance
• Nature of the material of the conductor: different substances have different resistances,
e.g. tungsten (W) has a very high resistance but copper (Cu) has a very low resistance.

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Ohm’s Law Experiment

The relationship between the current flowing through a circuit, voltage and resistance in a
circuit is detailed in Ohm's Law.

Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current in the conductor at constant temperature.

Investigative question

What is the relationship between the current passing through a resistor and the voltage across
the resistor?

Hypothesis

If current through a resistor increases/ decreases, the potential difference across the resistor
will increases/ decrease in the same ratio provided the temperature remains constant.

Independent variable

The strength of the current is the independent variable. This can be changed by increasing the
number of cells. The ammeter gives the strength of the current.

Dependent variable

The voltage across the resistor is the dependent variable. The voltage values change as the
independent variable is changed.

Controlled variable

This is a factor that if not controlled it will influence the results. It must be kept constant so that
the outcome is fair and reliable. In this case the temperature is kept constant.

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Ohm’s Law Experimental Set-up

Graphs of the results

The independent variable is on the 𝑥-axis and the dependent variable is on the 𝑦-axis.
The graph shows a linear relationship between current and voltage.

Note: The gradient or slope of the voltage vs current graph is the resistance of the resistor.

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Conclusion
The amount of electric current through a conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the
voltage across it at constant temperature

Ohms Law equation

The equation shows the relationship between current, resistance and voltage as shown below.

Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors

Ohmic conductors are those, which obey Ohms Law. They have a constant resistance when
the voltage or current is varied. Silver, copper wire, circuit resistors, nichrome wire and
aluminum metal are examples of Ohmic conductors.

Non-Ohmic conductors do not follow Ohms law when the voltage or current is changed. The
resistance of non-Ohmic conductors changes as their temperature changes. Examples of non-
Ohmic conductors include bulb filaments and semiconductors like diodes and transistors.

The diagram below show the graphs of Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors with respect to
voltage and current.

Non-Ohmic Conductors Ohmic Conductors

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Circuit Connections

There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit components i.e. through
series and parallel connection

Series circuits

A series circuit is one that has more than one resistor, but only one path through which the
current flows. From one end of the cell or battery, charge moves along one path with no
branches, through the resistor, to the other end if the cell. All the components in a series circuit
are connected end to end. The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one
path for current to flow as shown in the diagram below.

Cardinal Rules for a Series Circuit

• The current in all parts of a series circuit has the same magnitude. The total current IT is
equal to the current flowing through in R1; R 2 ; R 3 i.e.

IT = IR1 = IR2 = IR3

• The voltage decreases through the resistors. The sum of all the separate voltage drops
in each resistor is equal to the voltage supplied by the battery or cell i.e. VT . Series
arrangements are known as potential difference dividers.

VT = VR1 + VR2 + VR3

• The total or effective or equivalent resistance R T is equal to the sum of all individual
resistors
R T = R R1 + R R2 + R R3
• Adding more resistors in series will increase the total resistance of the circuit.

• If one resistor burns out or the circuit is broken, current will not flow.

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Parallel Circuit

All the components are connected across each other. A parallel circuit has two or more paths
for current to flow through i.e. charge can move from one end of the cell through many
branches to the other end of the cell.

The diagram below shows a battery connected to resistors in parallel

Cardinal Rules for a Parallel Circuit

• The sum of the currents through each path is equal to the total current that flows from
the source. The total current IT is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the
individual resistors R1; R 2 ; R 3 . Parallel circuits are known as current dividers.

IT = I1 + I2 + I3
• The largest magnitude of current will flow through the path with the smallest resistance

• Voltage is the same across each component of the parallel circuit. Each resistor receives
the total voltage. The voltage supplied by the battery or cell i.e. VT is equal to the
voltage in the individual resistors.

VT = VR1 = VR2 = VR3

• The total or effective or equivalent resistance R T is equal to :

1 1 1 1
= + +
R T R R1 R R2 R R3

• Adding more resistors in parallel will decrease the total resistance of the circuit.

• If one resistor burns out, current still flows through the other resistors in the circuit

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Electromotive Force (EMF)

This is the potential difference of a source of electricity when no current is flowing i.e. when the
cell is open. It is measured in volts by a voltmeter connected in parallel with a battery or cell.
It is specifically defined as the total amount of electric energy supplied by the cell per coulomb
of charge. The electromotive force symbol is ε.

Difference between EMF and Potential Difference

Electromotive Force Potential Difference

EMF is the maximum potential difference

Potential difference is defined as the energy
between the two electrodes of the cell
which is dissipated as the unit charge pass
when no current is drawn from the cell
through the components
i.e. when the circuit is open

EMF remains constant Potential difference is not constant

The potential difference depends on the

EMF is independent of circuit resistance resistance between the two points during the
measurement

It exists only when the circuit is closed and

EMF exists when the circuit is not closed
current is flowing

It is greater than the potential difference

It is always less than the EMF
between any two points in a circuit

It is represented by E It is represented by V

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Internal resistance

In a closed or complete circuit, the potential difference between the terminals of the battery is
known as the terminal potential difference of the battery. When the cell is delivering current to
a circuit (closed circuit), the terminal potential difference is less than the emf; the difference is
called ‘lost volts’ or internal volts (V’).

The reason there is a difference between the emf and potential difference across the terminals
of a battery in a closed circuit, is that there is an internal resistance (r) inside each cell. Internal
resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells and batteries
themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Cells or batteries are not just sources of
potential difference (voltage), but they also possess internal resistance.

The diagram below illustrates the concept.

The formula for electromotive force (EMF) is:

E = Vload + Vinternal resistance

Where:

E: the electromotive force of the cell

Vload : potential difference across the load resistor is that supplied by the battery. The external
resistance in the circuit is referred to as the load.

Vinternal resistance : potential difference across the battery

The equation can be written further as:

E = IR + Ir
E = I(R + r)

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Where:

I: the current in the circuit

R: the total resistance in the external circuit(load)

r: internal resistance of the battery

Power

When a current flows through a resistor, electrical energy is converted into heat energy. The
heat generated in the components of a circuit, all of which possess at least some resistance, is
dissipated into the air around the components.
Power (P) is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred or dissipated. Work is
measured in joules (J) and time in seconds (s) so power will be Js commonly referred to as the
watt (W).

The amount of power dissipated can be worked out using any two of the quantities used
in Ohms law calculations i.e. the basic quantities of current, voltage and resistance.

Power is given by:

P = VI

P = I2 R

V2
P=
R

Electrical energy

If a certain amount of power is dissipated for a given time, then energy is dissipated. The work
done (W) is equal to the energy (E) transferred. Energy (Power × time) is measured in Joules
and by including time (t) in the power formulae, the energy dissipated by a component or
circuit can be calculated :

W = VIt

W = I2 Rt

V2
W= 𝑡
R

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Cost of electricity usage

Different appliances use different amounts of power, depending on their function. All electrical
appliances have a sticker, which indicates the power rating. Electricity supply companies charge
for the electrical energy we used in homes and industries. The charges are based on our energy
consumption therefore the higher the electrical energy used to run electrical appliances, the
higher the charges.

The quantity used for energy consumption is the kilowatt-hour (kWh). 1 kWh is the energy used
if a 1000 W appliance is used for 1 hour
The cost of electricity usage can be calculate if given the:

• power specifications of appliances used and the duration

• the cost of 1 kWh
The formula is:
Cost of electricity = Power × time × Price
or
Cost of electricity = kWh × Price per kWh

In this formula, power is measured in watts, time is measured in seconds.

Effects of adding ,removing or replacing a resistor in a parallel circuit

If switches are on or off in a circuit, the EMF, internal resistance and resistor values remain the
same. Only the readings on ammeters and voltmeters will change.

A parallel branch with resistor(s) removed

• Total resistance increases

• Main current decreases
• Lost volts decrease
• Voltmeter reading across battery increases

A parallel branch with resistor(s) added

• Total resistance decreases

• Main current increases
• Lost volts increase
• Voltmeter reading across battery decreases

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A connecting wire (zero resistance) replaces the parallel-connected resistor

• Total resistance decreases (full current flows through the wire)

• Main current increases
• Lost volts increase
• Voltmeter reading across battery decreases

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