AS2202

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES, SYSTEMS, AND TOOLS

Organizations of all types and sizes deal with information regularly. Only a few people have a systematic and
formal approach to knowledge management. Individuals and ad hoc procedures are used by the majority of
organizations. As a result, key organizational assets and resources are lost when employees leave the company
since they take their expertise with them.

A variety of causes might spur an organization to formalize and systematize its approach to knowledge
management. These include the desire or need to:

1) Get a better understanding of how the company operates.

2) Save time and effort looking for information and documents.
3) Minimize repeat of mistakes and needless duplication of labor.
4) Shorten response times to commonly requested inquiries.
5) Enhance the quality and speed of making key choices.

Knowledge Capture and Codification

As seen in the image on the right, the first high-level

phase of the knowledge management cycle starts
with knowledge capture and codification. More
precisely, tacit knowledge is collected or elicited,
whereas explicit knowledge is structured or codified.
Often, these two processes occur together.

In knowledge capture, there is a difference between

capturing and identifying existing knowledge and
creating new knowledge. Explicit or previously
identifiable and codified knowledge is usually merely
the top of the iceberg. Records or forms-oriented data takes up less than 5% of a company's information. In
knowledge management, we must also consider the knowledge that exists inside the company and may be
captured. But there's still that intriguing area of knowledge we don't know about. Capturing and codifying this
unnamed knowledge will take extra steps. Finally, there's the knowledge we don't have.

It is not just about technology when it comes to capturing knowledge in an organization. Many businesses
discover that IT only plays a minor role in making information accessible. The strategy required is determined
by the kind of company, its culture, and how individuals solve challenges. Some businesses provide traditional
goods and services, while others are always seeking fresh ideas.

Organizing customer information into a single database to set up a mentorship program are all examples of
knowledge capture. We need to capture both explicit and tacit knowledge.

Knowledge regarding standardized work, for example, is simply expressed in writing. People, on the other hand,
will need some direct touch where there is invention and creativity (Moorman & Miner, 1997) because

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knowledge capture involves the finding, organization, and integration of knowledge into the very fabric of the
business, it cannot be solely mechanical. Knowledge must be captured and codified to become part of the
organization's current knowledge base. Every organization has a history that informs its development and
progress since every company has a memory.

Organizational memory is the combination of employee experience, data, and knowledge (Walsh & Ungson,
1991). Bush (1945) saw "instruments... that, if properly developed, would give man access to and power over
the accumulated knowledge of the centuries."

The knowledge that is not recorded in this manner loses value and is ultimately forgotten. Knowledge is an
intellectual currency that creates the maximum value when exchanged. It may have untapped potential and
value, but its worth is unknown until it is consumed.

Nowadays, a company's knowledge foundation is its sole lasting competitive advantage. As such, it must be
maintained, nurtured, and shared. Until recently, firms could prosper primarily on the personal knowledge of a
few key people. However, making individual knowledge corporate knowledge is becoming a competitive
advantage. Organizational knowledge strengthens and broadens individual knowledge. Using an organization's
knowledge base to its full capacity, together with individual talents, competencies, thoughts, innovations, and
ideas, will help it compete in the future. Flexibility, or the capacity to quickly adapt to changes, is becoming more
important for competitiveness. The knowledge of employees in the organization is the main source of flexibility.

Capturing knowledge is challenging, especially tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge management is the process
of collecting and making an individual's experience and skills inside an organization accessible.

Explicit knowledge capture is the methodical strategy of gathering, organizing, and refining information to enable
learning and problem-solving. Tacit knowledge frequently stays such unless pressed. Learning, productivity,
and creativity are inhibited when tacit knowledge becomes explicit.

Once knowledge is explicit, it should be arranged in a multifunctional document. All of the top KM technologies
allow you to create knowledge once and then use it across many channels such as phone and email, forums,
and Internet telephony. Many strategies for capturing and codifying knowledge come from domains other than
knowledge management (e.g., artificial intelligence, sociology, instructional design).

Capturing Tacit Knowledge

Individuals acquire information and create new
knowledge, which has traditionally been highlighted
in knowledge capture. The literature reveals a lack
of agreement on the individual's involvement in
knowledge acquisition. Some writers (e.g., Nelson
& Winter, 1982) imply that the company is a learning
entity distinct from the people who make it up.
Others (e.g., Dodgson, 1993) argue that only
people may gain knowledge and learn. Individuals
in the company must play a vital role in
organizational knowledge acquisition.

Individual learning is largely acknowledged to be a

social process that requires some type of group
interaction. Individuals learn from the collective,
while the collective learns from the individuals.
Organizational learning, according to Crossan's 4I
model entails a conflict between integrating new
learning (exploration) and applying what has been
learned (exploitation).

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Learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels are connected by the four I's (intuition, interpretation,
integration, and institutionalization). Zietsma et al. (2002) added attending to the step of intuiting and
experimenting to the level of interpreting.

Individuals or groups inside an organization may create or capture knowledge, as well as members of a
community of practice (CoP). Almost everyone creates, captures, and codifies knowledge in their career. Cope
(2000) calls this PKM (personalized KM). Individuals inside the corporation exchange perspectives and interpret
information, events, and experiences (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990), and knowledge is coded into corporate
memory (Inkpen, 1995; Spender, 1996; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). The corporation cannot leverage individual
members' knowledge unless it is embedded in corporate memory. An expert's knowledge base is built by
“amplifying and articulating individual knowledge.” (Malhotra, 2000)

Many tacit knowledge captures approaches come from artificial intelligence, notably from developing expert
systems. Expert systems use expert knowledge and are meant to operate like experts. For example, organized
interviews, protocol or say-aloud analyses, questionnaires, surveys, observation, and simulation are all
examples of knowledge acquisition. Some writers call it “digital cloning.” Knowledge management in business
is concerned with knowledge capture, making tacit knowledge explicit (e.g., recording best practices), and
developing expert directories to facilitate knowledge exchange via human-human cooperation (Smith, 2000).
Others may acquire knowledge (e.g., via books), but knowledge elicitation refers to gathering knowledge from
human sources, commonly using question-and-answer or interview methods.

Capturing Tacit Knowledge at Individual and Group Levels

Individual or group knowledge acquisition involves transferring and transforming important expertise from a
knowledge source (human expert, documents) to a knowledge repository (e.g., corporate memory, intranet).
This entails distilling enormous amounts of material from several areas into a manageable collection of facts
and rules.

The concept of learning from an expert on a topic and then crafting a specialized presentation of that knowledge
is not new. Educators have been practicing knowledge acquisition for years. Traditionally, system analysts have
played a comparable role in the design and development of software (McGraw & Harrison-Briggs, 1989).

Explicit knowledge is well defined but may need to be abstracted or summarized. Tacit knowledge, on the other
hand, may need far more extensive initial analysis and organization before it can be well articulated and
represented. We may express tacit knowledge in many ways, from basic graphs to complex mathematical
formulas.

In the design and development of knowledge-based systems, or expert systems, knowledge engineers
interviewed subject matter experts, created a conceptual model of their important knowledge, and then
converted this model into a computer-executable model, resulting in an "expert on a diskette" (e.g., Hayes-Roth
et al., 1983). These systems were designed to extract and make explicit the procedural knowledge that made
up specialized knowledge—usually in a relatively restricted topic. This method worked well for information akin
to an interactive online handbook or help function in industries including engineering, manufacturing, decision
assistance, and medical.

The development of artificial intelligence produced a fantastic variety of unique knowledge acquisition
approaches. The knowledge engineer's toolbox included contacts with experts to make tacit knowledge explicit.
Many of these strategies are immediately applicable to the tacit knowledge capture process in knowledge
management software. Among the key duties of knowledge engineers were:

• Analyzing information and flow of knowledge

• Working with experts to gain information
• Designing and implementing an expert system

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A knowledge management system or knowledge repository might be substituted for the final item. The subject
matter specialists have to be able to:

• Explain important knowledge and know-how

• Be introspective and patient
• Have effective communication skills

Most organizations wanted to have subject or domain specialists as their “only sources of information” (McGraw
& Harrison-Briggs, 1989, p. 7). Many businesses are now concerned about knowledge continuity as a result of
a surge of retiring baby boomers who symbolize knowledge heading out the door. The issues are extremely
similar, and the approaches utilized have a lot of overlap. Several group knowledge acquisition strategies have
been created and utilized effectively. These methods are ideal for acquiring knowledge in a community of
practice.

Another artificial intelligence researcher (Parsaye, 1988) described three basic techniques for individual and
collective knowledge acquisition:

1. Interviewing experts
A variety of strategies may be employed to improve expert interviewing. After-action evaluations,
discussion forums, peer assistance, knowledge communities or networks, journalistic interviewing and
writing, appreciative inquiry methodologies, and storytelling are examples of these (Pugh, 2011; Green,
2013). Structured interviews and stories are two of the most common methods.

Structured Interviewing
An individual's tacit knowledge is usually made explicit via structured interviews with subject matter
experts (SMEs). Structured interviewing is done in many firms via exit interviews, which are undertaken
when competent employees are nearing retirement age. Experienced employees may use content
management systems to share their knowledge and best practices. Structured interviews need excellent
communication, conceptualization, and topic knowledge skills. These sessions provide specialized data
that is frequently declarative in nature. The use of organized interviews may also help to clarify or
improve unstructured knowledge. The interviewer should define the session's aims and questions. Set
session objectives and example lines of enquiry, but not particular questions.

In interviews, open and closed questions are utilized. Open inquiries are wide and provide the expert
with few limits. To promote free answers, open questions don't have an option (Oppenheim, 1966).
These questions help interviewers to assess the expert's vocabulary, concepts, and frames of
reference. The expert may also provide unasked-for information.

Stories
Stories are also great for collecting and coding tacit knowledge. An organizational story is a thorough
narrative of management activities, employee interactions, and other intra-organizational occurrences.
A story is a description of an event or set of events, whether genuine or not (Denning, 2001). Unofficially
conveyed previous management decisions, staff interactions, or other noteworthy events might be
regarded as an organizational story (Swap et al., 2001). Conveying information in a story creates a rich
context that stays in the conscious memory longer and leaves more memory traces. Stories may help
organizations learn and convey shared values and rules, as well as capture, code, and transfer vital
tacit knowledge.

However, some circumstances must be met for storytelling to be effective in an organization.

Theoretically, all stories are narratives, but not all narratives are excellent knowledge-sharing stories.
They cite movies as an example of stories meant to amuse rather than to be truthful or even credible.
In contrast, organizational storytelling typically uses stories to enhance knowledge sharing, enlighten
and/or modify behavior, as well as convey the workplace culture and foster a feeling of belonging. These
corporate goals need real, convincing, and captivating knowledge-sharing stories. Lessons learned
through stories should be simply grasped, remembered, and implemented (Denning 2001). To put it in
another way, organizational stories should either prevent similar failures from occurring or encourage

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organizational learning and the adoption of effective practices derived from collective organizational
memory.

Denning (2001) discusses the power of a springboard narrative, which is the knowledge that has been
recorded in the form of a short tale with the potential to have a significant effect. For example, he says,
stories must have some crucial features to convey significant knowledge:

• The explicit tale should be concise and simply comprehensive enough for the audience to
comprehend it.
• The tale must be understandable to the target audience for them to get "hooked."
• The tale should be intriguing in and of itself.
• The tale should take the listener to a new level of comprehension.
• There should be a joyful conclusion to the narrative. The message of transformation should
be embodied in the tale.
• The message of change should be implicit.
• The audience should be urged to empathize with the protagonist.
• The tale should focus on a particular person or organization.
• The protagonist should be representative of the organization's core line of business.
• When everything else is equal, truth is preferable than invented.
• Test, test, and test some more.

2. Learning by being told

The interviewee expresses and refines his or her knowledge in learning by being told, and the
knowledge manager clarifies and validates the knowledge artifact that renders this knowledge explicit.
This kind of knowledge acquisition often includes domain and task analysis, process tracing, protocol
analysis and simulations, and so on. Task analysis is an approach that examines each of the key tasks
performed by an expert and characterizes them in terms of prerequisite knowledge/skills required,
criticality, error consequences, frequency, difficulty, interrelationships with other tasks and individuals,
and how the task is perceived by the person (routine, dreaded, or looked forward to).

Process tracing and protocol analysis are psychological techniques that have been adopted. It entails
asking the subject matter expert to think aloud while solving a problem or performing a task. The sorts
of knowledge gained in such meetings include the material utilized, questions answered, actions done,
alternatives explored, and conclusions made (e.g., Svenson, 1979; McGraw & Seale, 1987; Gammack
& Young, 1985). Simulations are particularly useful for the latter phases of knowledge acquisition—
validating, refining, and completing the knowledge capture process. Software programs and props such
as models, schematics, and maps are examples of tools.

3. Learning by observation
There are at least two categories of identifiable expertise: skill or motor-based expertise (for example,
operating equipment or riding a bike) and cognitive knowledge (e.g., making a medical diagnosis).
Expertise is a display of how knowledge is applied. The learning-by-observing method entails giving the
expert a sample issue, scenario, or case study, which the expert subsequently solves. We can't see
someone's knowledge, but we can see and recognize competence. The idea is to capture what the
expert understands via audio or video. People generally consider video to be primarily a tool for
presentation. However, experience has repeatedly shown that video recordings of casual and
unrehearsed expert demonstrations establish a lasting record of task knowledge—one that may be
mined indefinitely. However, the expert or interviewee should always be accommodated at all times—
many people become far less comfortable if they realize they are being videotaped. The happy medium
is to bring recording equipment but let the subject choose and give over control—so they can mute
anytime they want to talk off the record. For live demonstrations, low-cost digital camcorders are
preferred. Screen capture video software that captures the activity straight from the desktop is

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suggested for software demos. Simple equipment and approaches, when combined, may record an
incredible breadth of information and demonstrations.

All three ways may be used to collect tacit knowledge, but it is important to highlight that no one strategy should
be employed to the exclusion of the others. To capture tacit knowledge, a mix of these techniques will be
necessary for many circumstances.

Other Methods of Capturing Tacit Knowledge

Some other techniques may be used to capture tacit knowledge from individuals and groups including:

• Ad hoc sessions
• Roadmaps;
• Learning histories
• Action learning
• E-learning
• Learning from others through business guest speakers and benchmarking against best practices
• Peer assists
• Knowledge and innovation jams
• Knowledge continuity processes
• Critical knowledge transfer
• Master class

Most of these approaches can be used on an individual or group basis to elicit valuable tacit knowledge.

Capturing Knowledge at Organizational Level

Organizational knowledge acquisition differs significantly from processes that occur at the individual and group
levels. Whereas the latter is mainly concerned with discovering and coding useful knowledge, which is usually
tacit in nature, organizational knowledge capture occurs on a larger scale. Malhotra (2000) provides an excellent
method by defining four (4) primary organizational knowledge acquisition processes:

1. Grafting
Grafting refers to the transfer of knowledge across firms—a learning process in which the company
acquires access to the task or process-specific knowledge that was previously unavailable inside the
organization. This is often accomplished via mergers, acquisitions, or partnerships, in which knowledge
is transferred directly between organizations (Huber, 1991). Technology transfer or other types of
explicit knowledge are two examples.

2. Vicarious learning
Vicarious learning occurs when one company observes another business's demonstrations of methods
or procedures. Benchmarking studies, for example, where organizations might adopt the best practices
of other industry leaders. This knowledge is more tacit than that received by grafting (Inkpen & Beamish,
1997) since it entails knowing how to do something or having know-how.

3. Experiential learning
Experiential knowledge acquisition refers to knowledge acquired inside a specific firm—knowledge
gained via doing and practice. The learning curve is used by repetition-based experience to establish
routines and procedures. This type of knowledge is initially tacit, but it is easily codifiable and
transferable (Pennings et al., 1994; Starbuck, 1992). Argyris and Schon (1978) discuss single and
double-loop learning mechanisms. Instead of inventing new methods and technologies, single-loop
learning entails refining and improving current ones (adapting for efficiency)

4. Inferential processes
Learning happens inside the company and by doing through inferential knowledge acquisition
processes (e.g., Mintzberg, 1990); nevertheless, knowledge acquisition occurs largely via interpretation
of events, states, changes, and results relevant to the activities completed and choices made. Learning

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is an experimental, logical process that strives to make sense of events and create causal relationships
between actions and results. Because it requires modifying fundamental beliefs and frameworks, this
sort of learning is also referred to as double-loop learning (adapting for effectiveness).

All four forms of organizational knowledge capture will eventually end up in some kind of knowledge repository.
Containers for organizational memory are often some kind of database on an intranet or extranet. Because most
of this knowledge has already been captured, we may go immediately to the codification of this material.

Codification of Explicit Knowledge

Personal communication and engagement may help spread knowledge. This was evident in the Nonaka and
Takeuchi KM model's first quadrant, socialization. This happens all the time in nature. While this method is
effective, it is seldom economical. Knowledge codification is the next level of knowledge leveraging. Putting
knowledge into a physical, explicit form like a paper allows it to be shared broadly and cheaply. Interaction is
confined to those who can hear or speak. Documents may be extensively distributed and stored on a company
intranet, making them easily accessible to current and future employees. They are the organization's sole "true"
corporate memory.

Of course, knowledge codification has costs and challenges. The first concern is quality, which includes:

1. Accuracy
2. Readability/understandability
3. Accessibility
4. Currency
5. Authority/credibility

Codification facilitates the sharing and application of common knowledge. A person's knowledge makes them
more effective. Sharing knowledge within a community of practice or work team makes that practice more
successful. If knowledge is materialized (made explicit), it may be shared with a larger audience and over longer
periods of time. Knowledge must be formalized to comprehend, preserve, and increase organizational memory.

Techniques for codifying explicit knowledge include cognitive mapping, decision trees, knowledge taxonomies,
and task analysis.

Cognitive Maps
After eliciting expertise, experience, and knowledge via interviews, the resultant material might be represented
as a cognitive map. A cognitive or knowledge map is a representation of a person's "mental model" of knowledge
that serves as a good type of codified knowledge. A cognitive model represents anything in the actual world
symbolically or qualitatively. It's how our brains make sense of our chaotic world. As well as capturing
knowledge, a cognitive map captures the context and complicated interrelationships between the important
ideas. A person's subjective viewpoint is vital to include in an interview. A map's nodes reflect significant ideas
and their linkages to their relationships. Hand-drawn, taped to a wall or whiteboard, or created using
visualization software (ranging from simple brainstorming mapping tools to 3-D depictions). Here's an example
of a cognitive map for the topic "Describe the key distinctions between tacit and explicit knowledge items."

Cognitive mapping (Leake et al., 2003)

enables specialists to build knowledge
models directly. Concept maps are two-
dimensional graphs with nodes
representing essential ideas and
linkages expressing propositions.
Semantic networks are utilized in
linguistics, education, and knowledge-
based systems. Its purpose is to better
organize explicit knowledge and retain it
in corporate memory.

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Decision Trees
Decision trees are another extensively used way to encode explicit knowledge. This is a compact and efficient
representation. The decision tree is generally shown as a flowchart, with other routes representing the
consequence of various choices taken at that stage. A decision tree may represent numerous rules, and by
taking a route along with it, you essentially avoid rules that are irrelevant to the issue at hand. You don't have
to examine every rule to check whether it "fires," and you also choose the quickest path to the proper result.
Because of their pictorial character, they are extremely simple to grasp and are well suited for the coding of
process knowledge. A preventative maintenance procedure for industry equipment is one example. The
knowledge gathered from maintenance workers might be coded in a decision tree to assist future maintenance
workers in carrying out a component replacement and other work on a schedule-based choice rather of reacting
to parts wearing out. Another example, as a risk management decision tree, the picture below helps guide the
choice to consolidate or create a new product.

Knowledge Taxonomies
Concepts may be seen as the foundation of knowledge and skill. We all have our internal meanings of ideas
that we use to make sense of our surroundings. Once significant ideas have been recognized and collected,
they may be structured in a hierarchy known as structural knowledge taxonomy. Knowledge taxonomies enable
knowledge to be graphically represented in such a manner that it represents the logical structure of ideas within
a specific area of expertise or for the whole company. A knowledge dictionary is a useful tool for keeping track
of significant ideas and terminology. This may be compiled as you gain and coding knowledge. It should define
and explain the subject matter domain's
professional vocabulary.

Taxonomies are fundamental categorization

systems that allow us to represent ideas and
their interdependence in a hierarchical form.
The higher the notion is put in the hierarchy, the
more broad or generic the concept is. The lower
a notion is positioned, the more particular an
instance of a higher-level category it is. An
example is shown in the image below.

The concept of inheritance is a fundamental point that underpins taxonomies. Each node is a subgroup of the
node above it, which implies that all of the higher-level node's attributes are immediately transmitted from
"parent" to "child." A taxonomy is a categorization framework that puts related objects together, typically labels
the many sorts of associations ideas have with one another, and offers some idea of more basic categories
versus examples or particular instances of a category. Classification methods, such as the titles we give our
email folders or desktop files, may be very individualized.

Strategic Implications of Knowledge Capture and Codification

When it comes to knowledge continuity, knowledge capture and codification are crucial steps (e.g., Field, 2003;
Beazley et al., 2003). A key difference between knowledge management and knowledge continuity
management is that the former focuses on gathering and disseminating knowledge beneficial to comparable

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roles throughout the firm. The issue is not limited to a leaving individual's knowledge transfer to their
replacement. Knowledge continuity should address both particular knowledge transfer and strategic problems
at the group and organizational levels. An organization's important knowledge assets are recorded and
formalized in a knowledge map or taxonomy. Organizations must also consider the effect of worker exits on
their communities, whether due to retirement or other causes. Their departure may cause a severe rift in the
communal network. Here are some strategic implications of knowledge capture and codification:

• Formalize important worker knowledge profiles

• Encourage mentorship
• Encourage practice groups
• Incentivize the exchange of knowledge
• Respect for privacy
• Build a link to organizational memory for long-term content retention

Practical Implications of Knowledge Capture and Codification

The advantages of collecting tacit knowledge and codifying explicit knowledge are frequently hazy at the level
of the individual knowledge worker. The persistence of the “knowledge equals power” mindset makes it difficult
to “sell” workers on the value of having their knowledge kept by the firm as a future hedge. Knowledge is a
strange item that can only be borrowed or leased. When employees leave a company, some knowledge
remains, but it must be the proper knowledge, and workers must be able to access and apply it. Among the
suggestions are:

1. Recognize knowledge creators. Despite the apparent advantages, many users struggle to convert tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge. Recognize employees that not only develop new material but also
help enhance it by providing context from consumer encounters. Tapping tacit knowledge requires
establishing profiles of experts based on their contributions, which KM software should provide.

2. Remember to forget. Unlearning or reframing is critical (e.g., Fiol & Lyles, 1985). The organizational
knowledge base is not a blank slate to be filled. While no technical limits exist, there are conceptual
constraints to consider. Unlearning is a sort of double-loop learning that requires discarding existing
frameworks. As Van de Ven and Polley (1992) point out, unlearning from errors and failures may be
beneficial to knowledge acquisition and implementation if perceived as such. “I haven't failed,” Edison
said. 10,000 approaches won't work.” Edison (1847–1931)

3. Don't spill knowledge during transfer. Knowledge must be converted from tacit to explicit without a
considerable loss (e.g., Brown & Duguid, 2000). While communicability has many benefits, it may also
have drawbacks. It's critical to keep in touch with knowers, those who can apply difficult knowledge
effectively. The objective is to acquire and codify sufficient knowledge.

4. Keep in mind the paradox of the value of knowledge. The importance of tacit knowledge increases. It
may be in the firm's interest to keep tacit knowledge at a minimum level of tacitness so it is not readily
obtained or duplicated by others.

References:
Becerra-Fernandez, I., & Sabherwal, R. (2014). Knowledge management: Systems and processes. Routledge.
Bergeron, B. (2003). Essentials of knowledge management. John Wiley & Sons.
Clegg, S. R., Kornberger, M., Pitsis, T. S., & Mount, M. (2019). Managing and organizations: An introduction to theory and practice. SAGE.
Dalkir, K. (2017). Knowledge management in theory and practice (3rd ed.). MIT Press.
Jennex, M. E. (2008). Knowledge management: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. IGI Global.
McGraw , K. , and K. Harrison-Briggs . (1989). Knowledge acquisition: Principles and guidelines. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
Syed, J., Murray, P. A., Hislop, D., & Mouzughi, Y. (2018). The palgrave handbook of knowledge management. Springer.

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