REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

PLUMBING

LEVEL 4

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2021
©Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the TVET
CDACC, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain
other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to
the Council Secretary/CEO, at the address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.tvetcdacc.go.ke

ii
FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in
education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training
in Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change
in the design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy
requires that training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led,
certification be based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery allows for
multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.

The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan
labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the
need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique
needs of the industry.

This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Plumbing Level 4 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning process. It is my
conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting the development of
competent human resource for Plumbing sector’s growth and sustainable development.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

3
 PREFACE
Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-income
country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of
lifelong learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important driver to economic
development for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human
resource base to meet the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.

TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm
shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between
skills acquired through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global
competitiveness of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No.
29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya,
emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the
unique needs of the industry.

To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Plumbing Level 4, this learning guide has been designed
and organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome of every unit of
learning. The guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools, equipment,
supplies, and materials necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at imparting the
relevant knowledge, requisite skills and the right attitude for work.

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, PhD, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

CHAIRMAN, TVET CDACC

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and
right attitude needed for work in the Plumbing sector.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, PhD

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Acronyms/ Meaning
Abbreviation
CAD Computer-aided design
CADD Computer aided design and drafting
2D Two dimensions
3D Three dimensions
OS Occupation Standard
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
TVETA Technical and Vocational Education and Training Authority
CDACC Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
APA Is the style of documentation of sources used by the
American Psychological Association.
CEO Chief executive officer
CU Curriculum
CON construction
PL Plumbing
VTT vocational and technical training
SSAC Sector Skills Advisory Committee
CBET Competency Based Education and Training
CR Core Competency
KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
TVET CDACC Curriculum Development Assessment and Certification Council
Moe Ministry of Education
KNQA Kenya National Qualifications Authority
BC Basic Competency
CC Common Competency

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TABLE OF CONTENT

FOREWORD...................................................................................................................................2
PREFACE........................................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................4
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................5
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES...............................................................................................8
Background Information................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER 1: TECHNICAL DRAWING.....................................................................................13
1.2.1 Learning outcome one.....................................................................................................13
1.2.1.3 Information Sheet............................................................................................................14
Terms and concepts.......................................................................................................................14
1.2.1.4 Learning Activities..........................................................................................................26
1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment..............................................................................................................29
1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials.....................................................................32
1.2.1.7 References.......................................................................................................................32
1.2.2 Learning outcome two....................................................................................................33
1.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.............................................................................33
1.2.2.2 Performance Standard....................................................................................................33
1.2.2.3 Information Sheet...........................................................................................................33
1.2.3.4 Learning Activities.........................................................................................................76
1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................77
1.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials....................................................................77
1.2.3.7 References......................................................................................................................78
1.2.3 Learning outcome three..................................................................................................79
1.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome..............................................................................79
1.2.3.2 Performance Standard.....................................................................................................79
1.2.3.3 Information Sheet...........................................................................................................79
1.2.3.4 Learning Activities.........................................................................................................93
1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment.............................................................................................................95
1.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials....................................................................96

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1.2.3.7 References......................................................................................................................97
1.2.4 Learning outcome four....................................................................................................98
1.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome.............................................................................98
1.2.4.2 Performance Standard....................................................................................................98
1.2.4.3 Information Sheet...........................................................................................................98
1.2.4.4 Learning Activities.........................................................................................................99

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1 T-Square..........................................................................................................................15
Figure 2 Set Squares......................................................................................................................15
Figure 3 Protractors.......................................................................................................................16
Figure 4 Compasses.......................................................................................................................16
Figure 5 Triangular scales.............................................................................................................16
Figure 6 Drawing Boards...............................................................................................................17
Figure 7 Clips................................................................................................................................17
Figure 8 Masking Tape..................................................................................................................18
Figure 9 Wooden pencils-has graphite lead...................................................................................18
Figure 10 Mechanical/Clutch pencils-uses replace lead................................................................19
Figure 11 Sharpening a Pencil Procedure......................................................................................19
Figure 12 Dividers.........................................................................................................................20
Figure 13 Erasers...........................................................................................................................21
Figure 14 Eraser Shield.................................................................................................................21
Figure 15 French Curves...............................................................................................................22
Figure 16 Circle template..............................................................................................................22
Figure 17 Draughting Equipment..................................................................................................23
Figure 18 Paper sizes.....................................................................................................................23
Figure 19 Drawing Paper Layout..................................................................................................24
Figure 20 Sample title block..........................................................................................................24
Figure 21 Constructing horizontal lines........................................................................................27
Figure 22Constructing vertical lines..............................................................................................27
Figure 23 Constructing inclined lines............................................................................................28
Figure 24 Constructing curved lines..............................................................................................29
Figure 25 Types of lines and their applications (Source: Manual for Eng Drawing)....................36
Figure 26 Freehand sketching technique (Source: H Morling).....................................................39
Figure 27 Exercise 1 on drawing various lines in freehand...........................................................39
Figure 28 Exercise 2 on freehand sketching..................................................................................40
Figure 29 Exercise 3......................................................................................................................41
Figure 30 Exercise 4......................................................................................................................41
Figure 31 Exercise 5......................................................................................................................42
Figure 32 Pictorial exercises..........................................................................................................43
Figure 33 3 stages of freehand sketching......................................................................................44
Figure 34 Divider Exercise............................................................................................................45
Figure 35 Bearing exercise............................................................................................................45
Figure 36 Gear Exercise................................................................................................................46
Figure 37 Construction of parallel lines........................................................................................47
Figure 38 Bisection of a line..........................................................................................................47
Figure 39 Construction of a perpendicular line.............................................................................48

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Figure 40 Electing a perpendicular line.........................................................................................48
Figure 41 Bisecting an Angle........................................................................................................49
Figure 42 bisecting 2 converging angles.......................................................................................49
Figure 43 Constructing an angle of 600.........................................................................................50
Figure 44 Construct an angle of 300..............................................................................................50
Figure 45 Constructing an angle of 900.........................................................................................51
Figure 46 Constructing an angle of 450.........................................................................................51
Figure 47 Divide a line into equal parts.........................................................................................52
Figure 48 Dividing a line proportionally.......................................................................................52
Figure 49 Alphabets and numbers.................................................................................................53
Figure 50 Construction of a square given diagonal.......................................................................55
Figure 51 Construction of a rectangle...........................................................................................56
Figure 52 Construction of a parallelogram....................................................................................56
Figure 53 Construction of a circle.................................................................................................57
Figure 54 Parts of a circle..............................................................................................................57
Figure 55 Construction of an Isosceles triangle............................................................................58
Figure 56 Construction of a right-angled triangle.........................................................................59
Figure 57 Construction of an Isosceles tringle given perimeter....................................................60
Figure 58 Construction of a tringle given angles and height.........................................................60
Figure 59 General Construction of a regular polygon given the side............................................61
Figure 60 Construction of a hexagon.............................................................................................62
Figure 61 Inserting Octagon in a square........................................................................................62
Figure 62 General construction of a polygon given a side............................................................63
Figure 63 Construction of a polygon given diagonal....................................................................64
Figure 64 Sample dimensioning....................................................................................................66
Figure 65 Paper Layout.................................................................................................................67
Figure 66 Abbreviations and Symbols..........................................................................................69
Figure 67 Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops..............................................................................70
Figure 68 Orthographic views.......................................................................................................74
Figure 69 Isometric axis................................................................................................................74
Figure 70 Isometric Box................................................................................................................75
Figure 71 Oblique Box..................................................................................................................76
Figure 72 Example of orthographic views of an L shape figure...................................................81
Figure 73 First angle projection views of the L shape...................................................................82
Figure 74 Front Elevation..............................................................................................................82
Figure 75 End Elevation obtained from the side view..................................................................83
Figure 76 Plan view from the top..................................................................................................83
Figure 77 Third angle orthographic projection of the L shape......................................................84
Figure 78 Third angle projection of a metal block........................................................................85
Figure 79 First angle orthographic projection...............................................................................85
Figure 80 Development of a cylinder............................................................................................86
Figure 81 Square Prism development............................................................................................87

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Figure 82 Pyramid development....................................................................................................88
Figure 83 Square pyramid development 2.....................................................................................89
Figure 84 Cone development.........................................................................................................90
Figure 85 Truncated cylinder development...................................................................................91
Figure 86 Truncated Prism Development......................................................................................91
Figure 87 Truncated Cone development........................................................................................92
Figure 88 Truncated Pyramid development..................................................................................93
Figure 89 Exercise 1......................................................................................................................93
Figure 90 Exercise 2......................................................................................................................94
Figure 91 Exercise 3......................................................................................................................94
Figure 92 Exercise 4......................................................................................................................95
Figure 93 Exercise 1......................................................................................................................95
Figure 94 Exercise 2......................................................................................................................96

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Background Information

This learning guide will enable the trainee to acquire competencies to undertake various
processes in Plumbing. It provides practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content, illustrations and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process. It
also provides links and references for further reading.

Layout of the Trainee Guide

Performance standards: These are obtained from the performance criteria statements in the
related unit of competency of the Occupational Standards (OS)

Information Sheet: This section covers information relating to the specific learning outcome.
This information should include but not limited to meaning of terms, methods, processes/
procedures/ guidelines, Illustrations (photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content
links, simulations links) and case studies. This section also provides additional information
sources relevant to the learning outcome e.g. books, web links

Learning activities: This section covers practical activities related to the Performance Criteria
statements, Knowledge in relation to Performance Criteria as given under content in the
curriculum Special instructions related to learning activities

Self-Assessment: This section must be related to the Performance Criteria, Required Knowledge
and Skills in the Occupational Standards. This section requires the trainee to evaluate their
acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude in relation to the learning outcome. A variety of
assessment items such as written and practical tests which emphasizes on the application of
knowledge, skills and attitude is recommended
The self-assessment items should be valid, relevant and comprehensive to the level of
qualification in the learning outcome

Tools, equipment, materials and supplies: This section should provide for the requirements of
the learning outcome in terms of tools, equipment, supplies and materials. The section should be
adequate, relevant and comprehensive for the learning outcome.

References: Information sources should be quoted and presented as required in the APA format
The units of learning covered in this learning guide are as presented in the table below:

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 Table 1: Common Units of Learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration in Hours

CON/CU/PL/CC/01/4/A Basic Mathematics 50

CON/CU/PL/CC/02/4/A Technical drawing 60
CON/CU/PL/CC/02/4/A Scientific principles 50
Total 140

Table 2: Core Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title Duration in Hours
CON/CU/PL/CR/01/4/A Installation of water pipes and 90
systems in buildings
CON/CU/PL/CR/02/4/A Rainwater goods 60
CON/CU/PL/CR/03/4/A Drainage systems 80
CON/CU/PL/CR/04/4/A Sanitary appliances 70
CON/CU/PL/CR/05/4/A Storage systems 70
CON/CU/PL/CR/06/4/A Maintenance of plumbing systems 80
CON/CU/PL/CR/01/4/A Installation of water pipes and 90
systems in buildings
Industrial Attachment 300
Total 750
GRAND TOTAL 1100

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Each of the Units of Learning to be presented as a chapter on its own as shown below:

CHAPTER 1: TECHNICAL DRAWING

 Unit of learning code: CON/CU/PL/CC/02/4/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Technical Drawing

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit covers the competencies required to prepare and apply technical drawing. It involves
competencies in selecting, using, and maintaining drawing equipment and materials. It also
involves developing plane geometry drawings, solid geometry drawings, pictorial and
orthographic drawings

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Select, use, and maintain drawing equipment and materials

2. Develop plane geometry drawings
3. Develop solid geometry drawings
4. Develop pictorial and orthographic drawings

1.2.1 Learning outcome one

Select, use, and maintain drawing equipment and materials

1.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section
will give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building
symbols and different representations of drawings.

1.2.1.2 Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to
be considered competent:
1.1 Drawing equipment are identified and gathered according to task requirements
1.2 Drawing materials are identified and gathered according to task requirements
1.3 Drawing equipment are used and maintained as per manufacturer’s instructions
1.4 Drawing materials are used as per workplace procedures

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 1.2.1.3 Information Sheet
Terms and concepts
a) Technical Drawing
According to Autodesk a technical drawing, also known as an engineering drawing, is a
detailed, precise diagram or plan that conveys information about how an object functions or
is constructed. Engineers, electricians, and contractors all use these drawings as guides when
constructing or repairing objects and buildings
b) Importance of Technical Drawing
Technical drawings bridge the communication between designers, the people who come up
with ideas, and producers, the people who put those ideas into practice. They are designed as
a universal language to be understood by engineers, contractors, and architects.
c) Types of Technical Drawings:
i. Mechanical Engineering Drawing
Mechanical engineering drawings are used to define the requirements for engineering
products/components. They serve as technical manuals and as trouble-shooting tools for
identifying the weak spots in a mechanical design. Mechanical drawings rely on precise
mathematical equations to accurately depict the mechanism and it component parts.
ii. Electrical Drawing
Electrical drawings are technical documents that depict and notate designs for electrical
systems. They convey relevant information about lighting, wiring, and power sources, as
well as information about voltage and capacity. Technicians rely on electrical drawings
during a building’s construction or when repairing a building’s electrical system.
iii. Architectural Drawing
Architectural drawings are detailed, precise depictions of every aspect of the construction
being proposed. Architects use the drawings to visualize ideas and concepts, turn a design
idea into a coherent plan for a building, and decide the type of supplies and labor that is
needed for the project.

d) Drawing Office
A drawing office is a room or set of rooms where designs and drawings are done and
drawing materials are stored.
A typical layout consists of drawing instruments and equipment, storage for these items,
office for the drawing staff, drawing tables spread out in a spacious area for users.
e) Drafting/Draughting
This the ability to compose drawings that communicate how an object functions or is
constructed
f) Draughtsman
This is the person who interprets and draws to scale the engineer’s design.
g) Drawing Instruments and Equipment
Engineering drawing involves sketching with drawing instruments and the ability to:
i. To produce clean accurate lines of the desired thickness.
ii. To print clear alphabetical letters and numerals in dimensions or written

15
 communications.
iii. To understand and apply the necessary drawing conventions as used in engineering
drawing.
iv. Think in three dimensions
v. Master the techniques of projecting drawing views from one another.
vi. To practice the skills developed to enable production of professional drawings
h) Drawing equipment
Some of the drawing instruments and equipment are:
i. Tee or T-square
A Tee or T-square is a wooden or plastic ruler having a short, sometimes sliding
perpendicular cross piece at the end.
It is used to draw parallel lines. It is also used with other drawing instruments for
drawing lines at different angles.

Figure 1 T-Square

ii. Set squares

These are thin flat pieces of plastic, metallic or wooden shaped in right angled
triangles. They are available in various sizes such as 30°-60°, 45° and the
adjustable set square which can be adjusted to accommodate different angles.

Figure 2 Set Squares

iii. Protractors
It is a thin flat piece of plastics, metallic or wooden semi-circular instrument with
a straight edge. The semi-circular part is graduated to measure angles while the

16
 straight edge is graduated to take straight measurements. Protractors are used to mark
out angles on drawing.

Figure 3 Protractors
iv. Compasses
It is an instrument with two arms joined together at the top; one has a sharp point that
acts the pivot while other arm has a provision for holding a pencil or a marker.
It is used for drawing circles and arcs and for taking

Figure 4 Compasses
v. Triangular Scale
Drafters use two types of triangular scales in combination with the T-square to draw
lines at various angles. These acts as guides for horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines.
They are also used to map out scales.

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 Figure 5 Triangular scales

vi. Drawing board

This is a flat smooth rectangular surface made of either wood, plastic, or metal.
It is used for drawing purposes. Drawing board is either fixed or portable.

Figure 6 Drawing Boards

vii. Clips and marking tapes
A clip is a small metal or plastic object used for holding a drawing paper onto the
drawing board.
A masking tape is a long narrow strip of material with a sticky substance on one
side that is used to attach the drawing paper onto the drawing board

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 Figure 7 Clips

Figure 8 Masking Tape

viii. Pencils and pencil sharpeners

A pencil is a narrow cylindrical device for writing, drawing, or marking. It consists
of a thin rod of graphite, coloured works or similar substance encased (covered)
in wood or held in mechanical holder. This is one of the most important tools in
drawing. It comes in various grades. The grade of pencil to be used depends on the
quality of paper to be used. You must take into consideration also the type of line work
required.
Pencils can be categorized in three classes, namely:
a) The soft range pencils such as 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B. The 7B being the
softest. These pencils are mostly used in artwork.
b) The medium range pencils such as B, HB, BH, 2H, 3H; these are used for
general drawing and sketching.

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 Figure 9 Wooden pencils-has graphite lead

Figure 10 Mechanical/Clutch pencils-uses replace lead

The choice of which pencil to use is determined by the type of line desired.

c) The hard range pencils such as 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, 9H. The 9H being hardest.

These pencils are used for accurate layout work.

Sharpening of pencils

This can be done using a razor blade, a mechanical sharpener, or a knife. The procedure

involves:

a) Cutting the wood at about 20mm of the front part of the pencil.
b) Shaping the internal lead into a conical shape using a sandpaper pad or a fine file
while revolving the pencil, or shaping the lead to a flat or chisel edge by rubbing
on two opposite’s side of the lead. A long, tapering point produces clean sharp
lines while a dull point produces poor line works.

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 Figure 11 Sharpening a Pencil Procedure
The sharpening of the pencil should be done away from the drawing paper and board.
The pencils used should be of reasonable length and of the expected hardness to get the desired
line result.
ix. Geometrical sets
This consists of compasses, dividers, erasers, protractors, sharpener and other
accessories.
Divider
A tool with two metal legs used to lay-out an arc circle or step off division on a line. Is
like the compass in construction. As the name implies, divider is used for dividing
distances into several equal parts by the trial-and-error method.

Figure 12 Dividers

Steps in Using a Divider

a) Align each arm of the dividers so that one point is laying on the start point of
the measurement you want to transfer and the other divider point is laying on

21
 the endpoint of that same measurement.
b) Lift the dividers off the measurement you intend to transfer, being careful not
to change their alignment.
c) Place the dividers over the location you'd like to transfer the measurement to,
and make a pencil mark to indicate where each of the dividers' pointers sits.
This duplicates the measurement.
Erasers
These are used to rub off the pencil works that need correction or removing untidy
patches from drawing paper. Erasers are used to remove pencil works though care
must be taken to avoid damaging the drawing.

Figure 13 Erasers
Eraser shields

These can be made of metallic or plastic materials and are used for protecting line
works that should not be erased. The shields have opening of various shapes that are
placed on the area required to be rubbed and then the eraser is insert through these
openings, shielding the blocked areas.

Figure 14 Eraser Shield

x. Drawing template curves

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 Drawing templates and lettering guides are precision drafting templates covering a wide
variety of applications. They are used in architecture, interior design, landscaping,
engineering, and map making are included;
a) Lettering guides conforming to ISO 3098 standards.
b) Line guides for establishing a set of hand lettering parameters.
c) French curves and flexible curves which enable varieties of curved shapes to be
drawn with minimal effort.

Figure 15 French Curves

Figure 16 Circle template

xi. Draughting equipment

According to Wikipedia “A draughting machine is a tool used in technical drawing,
consisting of a pair of scales mounted to form a right angle on an articulated protractor
head that allows an angular rotation. Draughting tools are instruments that can be used
for measurement and layout of drawings or to improve consistency and the speed for
creating standard drawing elements”.
Drafting machines combine the functions of the T-square, triangles, scales, and
protractor. Allowing you to draw more quickly and with less work.

23
 Figure 17 Draughting Equipment
xii. Computer-aided design (CAD)
According to Wikipedia “Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or
workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a
design. ... The term CADD (for computer aided design and drafting) is also used.”
xiii. Engineering drawing software’s
These are various software’s used by engineers, architects, draughtsman, and
construction managers among others to replace manual drafting. They help users to
create designs in either two dimensions (2D) or three dimensions (3D) enabling the user
to visualize the object in different perspectives. CAD enables the development,
modification, and optimization of the design process
i) Drawing materials
i. Drawing paper
Paper layout on the drawing board. Paper layout is the process of defining the workspace
and orientation of the drawing paper. The following steps are involved in paper layout:
1. Paper sizing
Drawing papers used in technical drawing are rectangular in shape.
The papers are serialized according to the sizes.
The table below shows the different paper sizes.

Figure 18 Paper sizes

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 2. Setting of the drawing papers

The drawing paper is placed on the drawing paper according to the desired
orientation. A T-square is then held firmly on the drawing board with the horizontal
edge aligned to lower edge of the paper.
The paper is finally fixed in position with either clips or masking tape.
3. Drawing of boundary lines.

Boundary line is a line that defines the working space of the drawing paper. It is
always equidistant from all the edges of the paper and at least 10 mm from edge.
The figure below shows the drawing paper boundary.

Figure 19 Drawing Paper Layout

4. Drawing the title block
A title block is a designated area where the parameters for defining the drawing
are stated. These parameters include details such as; name of the person drawing, scale and
the institution. It is usually drawn at the bottom of the right-hand corner within the working
area of the drawing paper.
The figure below is a sample of title block.

Figure 20 Sample title block

ii. Pencils-covered above

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 iii. Erasers- covered above
iv. Masking Tapes- covered above
v. Paper Clips- covered above
j) Use, care and maintenance of drawing equipment’s
Draughting tools, materials, and equipment are delicate and need good care for their applications
to remain at its best. Keeping your drafting tools clean, well maintained, and properly stored will
result in better performance and longer service life. Below are some tips to properly use and take
care of them.

a) The performance of simple cleaning, maintenance, and storage procedures help a lot in
keeping the efficiency of every drafting instrument. The early detection and reparation of any
signs of deterioration will enable the drafter to save time and resources in the future.
b) Perform safety procedures in maintaining drawing tools, drawing instruments, equipment,
and other related accessories.
c) Follow procedures in cleaning, tightening and simple repair of drawing tools, drawing
instruments, equipment, and accessories.
d) Identify common malfunction (unplanned or unusual events) when using tools, drawing
instruments, equipment, and accessories. Always ensure you inspect tools before use, this is
to check if they are in working condition.
e) After using a tool, clean it thoroughly with a damp cloth. Wipe it dry with another
piece of cloth before keeping it.
f) The following are common good practices in handling and caring for your drafting tools and
equipment.
i. Pencils
 Use soft cloth or tissue to clean the pencil to get rid of particles that may ruin your work.
 Sharpen your wooden pencil with a quality sharpener.
 Keep your pencils in a secure case or tie them together with rubber band to avoid
breakage when transporting them.
 Never sharpen the pencil over the drawing or close to any of your equipment.
 Keep the pencil lead sharp and pointed when drawing.
 Avoid using solvents or other strong chemicals when cleaning your mechanical pencil.
Such chemicals may corrode the material your pen is made of.
 Use only the lead designed for your mechanical pencil to avoid mechanical jam and
clogging.
 Load your mechanical pencil with the recommended amount of lead.
 Observe correct refilling procedure.
ii. T-square, triangles, and French curves
 Do not use the T-square for any rough purposes.
 Never cut paper along its working edge, since the plastics can easily be damaged. Even
light nick can ruin the T-square.

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  When not in use, the T-square, triangles, or French curves is preferably hung by inserting
the hole to a nail on a surface i.e a wall.
 Apply oil on all the movable parts of the measuring tools such as zigzag rules, calipers,
dividers, and compasses to avoid rusting.
 Avoid unnecessary sliding of T-square or triangles protect the drawing. Pick up the
triangle by its tip and tilt the T-square blade upward slightly before moving.
iii. Ruler or scale
 Scales should not be pricked with needle points of either the divider or compass
when measurements are taken.
 Do not use scale as a ruler.
iv. Dividers and compasses
 Do not oil the joints of the legs of the dividers.
 Do not use the divider as substitute for clips in fastening the drawing
paper on the drawing board or tabletop.
 The needle points must be sharp and of equal length.
v. Drawing paper
 It should be stored in rolled form.
 It should not be crumpled or wet or kept in a moist or cold place.
vi. Masking tape, eraser and erasing shield
 Should be kept together with other supplies to avoid losing it.
vii. Drawing board or drawing tape
 It should always be in good (drawing) working condition.
 It must always be clean on or before using.
 Do not leave any kind of marks on your board to retain its smoothness.
g) Avoid dropping your tools and equipment by keeping them far from the edges of the
board.
h) Report defective measuring tools and any hazard to instructor immediately
i) Never use measuring tools in cutting paper.
j) Ensure measuring tools are protected and stored well
k) Have a separate container for marking tools.
l) Keep your drawing sheets in a plastic tube to protect them from a dust and dirt.
m) Never borrow drafting tools and materials if you do not know how to use and store them.

Check out the lesson online on introduction to technical drawing for further explanation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YE0oZZO7vbk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Q6QwvtjVm8
http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/9/
k_to_12_mechanical_drafting_learning_module.pdf

1.2.1.4 Learning Activities

Use of Drawing Instruments and Equipment:
The drawing procedure involves a placing a piece of drawing paper on a drawing board.
A T – square is then placed on one of the sides allowing it to slide cross the side of
the table and over the surface of the paper. The user then constructs various types of

27
 figures on the paper using pencils, inkers, set squares, protractor, and other drawing
instruments.
a) Construction of straight lines.
These lines could be horizontal, vertical, or inclined.
i. Horizontal lines
These are lines running from left to right or vice versa. To construct them, a T-square
is held firmly on the edge of the drawing board and a sharp pencil is slid along the
horizontal edge of the T square. The figure below illustrates how to construct horizontal
lines.

Figure 21 Constructing horizontal lines

ii. Vertical lines
These are lines perpendicular to the horizontal lines. To construct them, a T square is
held firmly on the edge and a set square placed on the T-square horizontal edge as
illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 22Constructing vertical lines

28
iii. Inclined lines
These are lines making to other lines of reference. To construct them, a T-square is
held firmly on the edge and a set square or a combination of set squares is placed
on the T-squares is placed on the T-squares horizontal edge as illustrated in the
figure below.
A sharp pencil is then slid along the inclined edge of the set square to construct
the inclined lines.

Figure 23 Constructing inclined lines

iv. Construction of curved lines
They are constructed using a pair of compasses and a pencil. The pencil is secured at one
end of the pair of compasses. The pin-pointed end of the pair of compasses-is pinned at
the centre of the arc or circle.
The arm is spread to the desired radius. The compasses is taken round to draw the arc or
circle.

29
 Figure 24 Constructing curved lines

1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment
Exercise 1
Select the drafting material and tool/drawing applicable to a specific job.
1. A drafting tool used for drawing horizontal lines
a) Compass
b) Triangle
c) T-square
d) Triangular Scales
2. Drafting material used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table
a) Compass
b) Divider
c) Masking Tape
d) Triangle
3. The main function of this tool is to reproduce the measurements of an object to any
size.
a) Compass
b) Protractor
c) Triangle
d) Triangular Scales
4. This drafting tool is used to protect the rest of the drawing when removing
unnecessary lines.
a) Erasing Shield
b) Eraser

30
 c) Masking Tape
d) Pencil Sharpener
5. This drafting tool is used when drawing vertical lines.
a) Compass
b) Triangle
c) Triangular Scales
d) Ruler

Match Column A with Column B. Write only the letter of the correct answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
Column A
1. Type of pencils when extreme accuracy is required

2. Used to clean the dirt off the drawing

3. An instrument used for transferring measurements

4. Type of pencils used for general purpose in drawing

5. Best tool when measuring arcs, angles, and circles

Column B
A. Eraser

B. Medium pencils

C. Protractor

D. Divider

E. Hard pencils

F. Triangle

There are twelve (12) different drafting materials and tools and drawing instruments that can
be found in the puzzle. Identify at least ten (10) of them.

31
Chose T if the statement is True and F if the statement is False.
Tick your answers below.
1. Avoid unnecessary sliding of T-square or triangles across the drawing
a) True
b) false
2. T-square is preferably hung when not in use.
a) True
b) false
3. Report defective measuring tools and any hazard to instructor immediately
a) True
b) false
4. After using a tool, clean it thoroughly with a damp cloth.
a) True
b) false
5. Be sure to check and then clean tools before and after using them.
a) True
b) false
List down at least five uses and care of drafting or measuring tools.
6. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

32
 7. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
8. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
9. ..........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
10. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’
1.2.1.7 References
1. Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.

2. Maguire, C. H. (2004). Manual of Engineering drawing. Oxford: Elsevier Newnes.

3. Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lk-FBgadTyA

33
 1.2.2 Learning outcome two

Develop plane geometry drawings

1.2.2.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working drawings
and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section will give an
understanding of the different types of working drawings, building symbols and different
representations of drawings.

1.2.2.2 Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent:
2.1 Freehand sketching of different types of geometric forms and diagrams is conducted
2.2 Different types of lines used in drawing and their meanings are identified according
to standard
2.3 Drawing conventions
2.4 Different types of geometric forms are constructed according to standard conventions
2.5 Different types of angles are constructed, measured, and bisected according to
principles of trigonometry

1.2.2.3 Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts
i. Freehand Sketching
Sketching or freehand is a first step to the preparation of a scale-drawing, i.e., a drawing
drawn with the aid of instruments. A designer records his ideas initially in the form of
sketches which are later converted into drawings. Similarly, views of actual objects are in
the first instance, sketched freehand.

Scale-drawings are then prepared from these sketches. Ideas and objects
can be described in words, but the description is made more expressive with the
aid of sketches. Thus sketching is of great importance in engineering practice.

Sketching is always done freehand. It is in fact a freehand drawing made in

correct proportions, but not to scale. A sketch should be so prepared as to give
to others a clear idea, complete information, and true impression of the object to
be constructed. It should never be drawn too small. The size of a sketch should
be such that all the features of the object, together with their dimensions, explanatory
notes etc. are clearly incorporated in it. Proficiency in sketching can be achieved
with constant practice only.

34
ii. Axonometric
Method of projection in which an object is drawn with its horizontal and
vertical axes to scale but with its curved lines and diagonals distorted
iii. Detailed drawing
Drawing of a detail part usually in orthographic projection
iv. Detail dimension
Measurements of the detail part or parts of the object
v. Dimensioning
Process of placing measurements in a drawing in the metric or English
System
vi. Isometric axes
Light lines used as bases in constructing an isometric view of an object
vii. Isometric drawing
Pictorial drawing showing the three views of the object tilted 30
degrees in front of the observer.
viii. Multi-view drawing
Drawing that shows more than one view of an object
ix. Notation
All lettering and other dimension found in a drawing or working sketch
x. Oblique drawing
Kind of pictorial drawing of an object one surface of which is shown
parallel to the frontal plane and the other is inclined to it.
xi. Orthographic projection
Presentation of an object in two or more views by projecting the
outline of the object to the plane of projection perpendicular to each other
xii. Overall dimension
The total width, height, and depth of the object
xiii. Perspective drawing
A drawing which shows an object as it appears to our eyes
xiv. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces of
an object
xv. Working plan
A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an
object.
xvi. Types of drawings
There are various drawings used in the construction sector, some of these are list below:
Production drawing:
A production drawing is legal document of a manufacturer. It is used by the technicians on
the shopfloor for manufacturing the parts. It should provide information about part number,
dimensions, tolerance, surface finish, material and stock size, manufacturing process, special

35
 finishing process if required, and no. off required for each assembly. It is further sub-
classified as:
 Part drawing or detailed drawing
 Assembly drawing.

Exploded Assembly Drawing

It represents the details of machine in a pictorial form as it is assembled. It helps the plumber to
dismantling machine for repairing purpose.

Schematic assembly drawing

This type of assembly drawing is used for explaining working principle of any machine

Drawing for instructional manual

This is assembly drawing without dimensions. Each part of machine is numbered so that it can
be easily dismantled or assembled if required. This is also used for explaining working principle
of each part.

Drawing for installation

This is assembly drawing with overall dimensions. It is used for the preparation of foundation for
installing machine.

b) Types of lines in drawings

There are many lines used in technical drawing, the table below illustrates some of them;
i. Visible line – a thick line that represents the visible edges or outline of the object; also
known as the object line
ii. Hidden line – a medium thick line composed of short dashes about 2-3 millimeters long with
space between dashes about 1-2 millimeters wide; it represents the surface or edges that
cannot be seen
iii. Center line – a thin line consisting of two long dashes and short dash drawn alternately with
a gap of at least 2 millimeters in between; it represents the axis or center of symmetrical
shapes like a ball, washer, rectangular block, cube.
iv. Section line – a thin lines to show the surface that has been cut; they are spaced evenly at 45
degrees with the horizontal to make shaded effect
v. Extension line – a thin line that extends from the object to show dimension limits
vi. Dimension line – a thin line with an arrowhead in one end used to indicate the
measurements of the object
vii. Long-break line – a medium thick line consisting of broken and straight lines drawn
alternately. This is also known as the limiting line. This limits the length of an elongated
object without changing the size of its view.
viii. Short-break line – thick line drawn in freehand to show details that a part has been cut off or
broken out.

36
ix. Leader line – a short inclined thin line with an arrowhead at the end and short horizontal line
on the other end.
x. Phantom line – a thin line that shows position(s) of part of an object that moves drawn by two
short dashes and one long dash.
xi. Cutting-plane line –thick lines used to indicate an imaginary cut through an object along the
line. Made up of two long dashes broken in one end with an arrowhead and two short dashes
drawn in between the long dashes.

Figure 25 Types of lines and their applications (Source: Manual for Eng Drawing)

c) Freehand sketching

37
A freehand sketch is a drawing in which all proportions and lengths are judged by eyes and all
lines are drawn without the use of drawing instruments. Comparing with mechanical drawing,
the use of freehand sketching in engineering
communication provides the following advantages:
i. A better means of visualising problems
ii. Organising ideas more quickly
iii. Avoiding wasting of time on formal drawing methods
The following requirements are necessary for sketching materials in plumbing,
Sketching tools:
A sketch communicates information and does not have to be an exact drawing. Many designs
were visualised on just a piece of paper or whatever is available. The tools that are used in
freehand sketching are:
i. Sketching paper cross-section paper or grid paper, help secure good proportions and serve
as guides in sketching lines
ii. Pencil medium lead (B) or soft lead (HB) type
iii. Eraser soft type
Above the three things are essential for sketching. Sometimes, cross-sectioned graph paper ruled
with light lines is also used instead of a plain paper. These lines and squares help in drawing
straight lines and maintaining proportions.
As such papers may not always be readily available, it is advisable to learn sketching without
their aid.
Freehand drawing is known as sketching. This technique is necessary in any area of drafting and
an important skill for everyone. Skills in freehand drawing can be achieved through constant
training and correct practice.
Use of pencils
Although freehand lines will never be perfectly straight and absolutely uniform along their
lengths, effort should be made to sketch distinct, black and uniform lines. Hints of using pencils
that help sketching to be made to approach exacting uniformity are as follows:

38
Line Sketching
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it needs only patience and continuous
practice. Practice on a drawing paper the construction of following line without use of
instruments. When drawing straight lines, as on the left, rest the weight of your hand on
the backs of your fingers. When drawing curved lines, as on the right, rest the weight on
that part of your hand between the knuckle of your little finger and your wrist. This
provides a pivot about which to swing your pencil. Always keep your hand on the inside
of the curve, even if it means moving the paper around.

39
 Figure 26 Freehand sketching technique (Source: H Morling)

Basic Line Sketching

Figure 27 Exercise 1 on drawing various lines in freehand

40
Figure 28 Exercise 2 on freehand sketching

41
Figure 29 Exercise 3

Figure 30 Exercise 4

42
Below is a suggested activity online exercise. Choose at least twelve (12) from the given
examples online sketching. Observe accuracy. Place your drawings in a separate sheet of
paper.

Figure 31 Exercise 5

43
Pictorial Sketching

Freehand pictorial sketching looks very much like isometric drawing. Circles appear
as ellipses and lines are drawn at approximately 30 °. Circles have been sketched
onto an isometric cube in figure below. You can see how these same ellipses appear on
sketches of a round bar material.

Figure 32 Pictorial exercises

When sketching, you may find it an advantage to draw a faint ‘box’ first and draw in the
ellipses afterwards. With practice you should find that you can draw quite a good ellipse
if you mark out its centre lines and the major and minor axes. Although drawing is a
continuous process, the work can be divided into three basic stages.

Stage 1: Construction

This should be done with a hard pencil (3H), used lightly, and the strokes with the pencil
should be rapid. Slow movements produce wavy, uncertain lines. Since these constructed
lines are very faint, errors can easily be erased.

Stage 2: Lining in

Carefully line in with a soft pencil (HB), following the construction lines drawn in stage
1. The completion of stage 2 should give a drawing that shows all the details and you
may decide, particularly in an examination, not to proceed to stage 3

44
 Figure 33 3 stages of freehand sketching
Stage 3: Shading

Shading brings a drawing to life. It is not necessary on most sketches, and in some
cases it may tend to hide details that need to be seen. If the drawings are to be displayed,
however, some shading should certainly be done.

45
Shading is done with a soft pencil (HB). It is very easy to overshade, so be careful. For
the smooth merging of shading, the dry tip of a finger can be gently rubbed
over the area.

Figure 34 Divider Exercise

Figure 35 Bearing exercise

46
Figure 36 Gear Exercise

47
 Sketching in Orthographic Projection

More detail can be seen on an orthographic drawing than on an isometric, mainly because
more than one view is drawn. For this reason it is often advantageous for a draughts
person to make an orthographic sketch. This will be undertaken below

Circles are difficult to draw freehand but you can use your hand as a compass. Hold your
pencil upright and, using your little finger as a compass ‘point’, revolve the paper
keeping your hand quite still.

d) Construction, measurement, and bisection of angles

The following constructions are important in preparation of drawing various
objects:
i. Construction of a parallel line parallel to another using compasses and T-square

Figure 37 Construction of parallel lines

 Construct the given line,

 using compasses set to wanted distance apart,
 make two arcs at different point on the lines
 Join the want line by T-square at the top of the two arcs
ii. Bisection of a given line

Figure 38 Bisection of a line

48
  Draw the given line using a T-square
 At each end of the line open the compasses approximately more than half and strike
two arcs that meet as shown
 Join the meeting arc points as shown
 Where the line is cut by the bisector is the middle point.
iii. To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line.

Figure 39 Construction of a perpendicular line

 Construct the given line using a T-square

 Using compasses with some distance from the line strike 2 arc on the line as shown
 Using the compasses at the 2 arc, strike arc to meet as shown
 Using T-square and a set square perpendicularly construct a line through the arc
meeting point.
iv. To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line.

Figure 40 Electing a perpendicular line

49
  Construct the line using a T-square
 With the compass at the given point extend it to cut the line at 2 points as shown
 At the 2 points open compasses to strike 2 arcs that meet above and below the line
 Join the meeting points of the arcs as shown.

v. To bisect an angle.

Figure 41 Bisecting an Angle

 Construct the angle as shown

 With a compass mark an arc from the apex of the angle as shown
 Using the points of the arc at both sides of the angle strike arc to meet as shown
 Draw the bisector from apex to arc meeting point
vi. To bisect the angle formed by two converging lines.

Figure 42 bisecting 2 converging angles

50
  Construct parallel lines to the two converging line as shown
 Bisect the angle as shown above
vii. To construct 60 °
 Construct a horizontal line as shown below using T-square
 Using compass strike an arc from a marked point on the line
 From the arc meeting point on the line strike an arc to cut the initial arc as shown.
 Draw a line from the marked point online through the arcs meeting point to get
600 angle as shown

Figure 43 Constructing an angle of 600

viii. To construct an angle of 300

Figure 44 Construct an angle of 300

 This is done by constructing an angle of 600 and bisecting as shown

ix. To construct 90 °

51
  Construct a horizontal line as shown below
 With a compass mark a point on the line and draw a semi-circle on the line
 Mark from one end of semi-circle with same radius an arc which shows 600, then
another arc of 600 as shown
 Bisect the second 600 to get 300 as shown below

Figure 45 Constructing an angle of 900

x. To construct 45 °

Figure 46 Constructing an angle of 450

 Construct an angle of 900 and bisect as shown

xi. To divide a line into several equal parts (e.g. six).

52
 Figure 47 Divide a line into equal parts

 Construct the line using a T-square

 Construct another line at an angle from the start of the line downwards
 Divide the inclined line to same number of lines as the wanted number using a
compass
 Join the end point of inclined line to initial line
 Construct parallel lines from the marked inclined line to the original. This marks
the wanted divisions
xii. To divide a line proportionally (e.g. 1:2:4).

Figure 48 Dividing a line proportionally

 Construct the given line using T-square

 Draw an inclined line and mark out the same number of equal arcs as the total wanted
part i.e. 1+2+3=6 parts
 Join the end of the marked inclined line to the horizontal line and at the ratio point of
point 1 and 2 construct parallel line to mark the ratio on the horizontal line.
53
 Numbers and Alphabets
In professional drawing, numbers and alphabets are used to present certain information.
They are written or drawn following some rules to ensure maximum legibility. Numbers
and alphabets can be presented either as vertical or slanting. Alphabets can either be
in upper case or in lower case.
The following are illustrations of presentation of numbers and letters of the alphabets.

Figure 49 Alphabets and numbers

The following are some of the rules to be observed in writing numbers and alphabets:
a) Avoid unnecessary details in writing numbers and alphabets.
b) Ensure that numbers and alphabets are properly spaced.
c) Ensure that the numbers and alphabets ft into the printing guidelines.
d) Use the right eraser or rubber when erasing.
e) Use the same alphabet style and casing on the same drawing.
f) Never use vertical and sloping numbers on the same drawing.

e) Construction of geometric forms e.g. squares, circles

Two dimensional representations
These are representations which describe the length and area of an object. They are
created from orthographic projections. Examples of some of the two dimensional
representation are:
a) Square. b) Triangle. c) Parallelogram. d) Circle.
The construction of some of the two –dimensional figures are illustrated below

The Quadrilateral
Definitions
The quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.

54
Types of quadrilaterals
i. A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and
hence the other three) a right angle.
ii. A rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and one of its angles
(and hence the other three) a right angle.
iii. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.
iv. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
v. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
vi. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

Square
A square is a figure with four straight equal sides and four angles of 90°. The following is a
procedure for constructing a square:
Procedure:
i. Draw a line AB to a given length and extend it past the point A and B,

ii. Construct perpendicular lines from points A and B.

iii. Using a pair of compasses mark lengths equal to length AB on the perpendicular lines
from A and B and mark the new points C and D.
iv. Join points C to D.

55
To construct a square given the diagonal
i. Draw the diagonal AC.
ii. Bisect AC.
iii. With centre O and radius OA (OC), draw a circle to cut the bisecting line in B and
D.
ABCD is the required square.

Figure 50 Construction of a square given diagonal

56
To construct a rectangle given the length of the diagonal and one of the sides
i. Draw the diagonal BD.
ii. Bisect BD.
iii. With centre O and radius OB (OD), draw a circle.
iv. With centre B and radius equal to the length of the known side, draw an arc to cut
the circle in C.
v. Repeat step 4 with centre D to cut at A.
ABCD is the required rectangle

Figure 51 Construction of a rectangle

To construct a parallelogram given two sides and an angle

i. Draw AD equal to the length of one of the sides.
ii. From A construct the known angle.
iii. Mark off AB equal in length to the other known side.
iv. With compass point at B, draw an arc equal in radius to AD.
v. With compass point at D, draw an arc equal in radius to AB.
ABCD is the required parallelogram.

Figure 52 Construction of a parallelogram

57
Circle
A circle is a path of points equidistant from a fixed point. A circle is the locus of a point
which moves so that it is always a fixed distance from another stationary point. A circle
is constructed as illustrated below:
Procedure
i. Mark a point ‘C’, the centre of the circle by bisecting the given diameter.
ii. Open the compass to radius =AC=CB.
iii. Fix the pinned of the pair of compasses at the point ‘C’
iv. Rotate the penciled end of the pair of compasses through an angle of 360°, about
point C

Figure 53 Construction of a circle

Figure 54 Parts of a circle

58
 Construction of a triangle
Definitions
The triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides.
Types of triangles
i. A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
ii. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles, equal.
iii. An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the angles,
equal.
iv. A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the
right angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.

Construction of an equilateral triangle

The following is a procedure for constructing an equilateral triangle.
i. Draw a line AB of a given length.

ii. With a pair of compasses mark an arc of length equal to AB, from point A and B
to meet at point C.
iii. Join points A to C and B to C.

Figure 55 Construction of an Isosceles triangle

Construction of an isosceles triangle

The following is a procedure for constructing an isosceles triangle.
i. Draw a line AB.

59
 ii. From point A, draw a line inclined at a specified angle.
iii. From point B, draw a line BC inclined at an angle equal to that of AC.

Construction of a right-angled triangle.

The following is the procedure for construction a right-angled triangle:
i. Draw a line AB

ii. From A, draw a perpendicular line AC of a specified length.

iii. Join B to C

Figure 56 Construction of a right-angled triangle

60
To construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude;
i. Draw line AB equal to half the perimeter.
ii. From B erect a perpendicular and make BC equal to the altitude.
iii. Join AC and bisect it to cut AB in D.
iv. Produce DB so that BE = BD. CDE is the required triangle.

Figure 57 Construction of an Isosceles tringle given perimeter

To construct a triangle, given the base angles and the altitude

i. Draw a line AB.
ii. Construct CD parallel to AB so that the distance between them is equal to the altitude.
iii. From any point E, on CD, draw C Ê F and D Ê G so that they cut AB in F and G,
respectively.

Figure 58 Construction of a tringle given angles and height

61
 Polygons
Definitions
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. Polygons that
are frequently referred to have names. Some of these are listed below.
A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.
A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
An octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.
A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles
equal and all its interior angles equal.
It is possible to construct a circle within a regular polygon so that all the sides of the
polygon are tangential to that circle. The diameter of that circle is called the
‘diameter of the polygon’. If the polygon has an even number of sides, the diameter is
the distance between two diametrically opposed faces. This dimension is often called the
‘across-flats’ dimension.
The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one corner to the corner furthest away
from it. If the polygon has an even number of sides, then this distance is the dimension
between two diametrically opposed corners.
Constructions
i. To construct a regular hexagon given the length of the sides
a) Draw a circle, radius equal to the length of the side.
b) From any point on the circumference, step the radius around the circle six times.
If your construction is accurate, you will finish at the same place that you started.
c) Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon.

Figure 59 General Construction of a regular polygon given the side

62
 ii. To construct a regular hexagon given the diameter
This construction, using compasses and straight edge only, is quite feasible but
is relatively unimportant. What is important is to recognise that a hexagon can be
constructed, given the diameter or across-flats dimension, by drawing tangents to the
circle with a 60° set square. This is very important when drawing hexagonal headed
nuts and bolts.

Figure 60 Construction of a hexagon

iii. To construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e. within a given square
a. Construct a square PQRS, length of side equal to the diameter.
b. Draw the diagonals SQ and PR to intersect in T.
c. With centres P, Q, R and S draw four arcs, radius PT (QT RT ST) to cut the
square in A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

Figure 61 Inserting Octagon in a square

63
ABCDEFGH is the required octagon
The following methods can be used to construct any polygon
To construct any given polygon, given the length of a side.
Procedure
i. Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the sides.
ii. Bisect GA.
iii. From A construct an angle of 45 ° to intersect the bisector at point 4.
iv. From G construct an angle of 60 ° to intersect the bisector at point 6.
v. Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5.
vi. Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square. Point 5 is the centre of a circle
containing a pentagon. Point 6 is the centre of a circle containing a hexagon. By
marking off points at similar distances the centres of circles containing any regular
polygon can be obtained.

Figure 62 General construction of a polygon given a side

vii. Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7 = 5 to 6 (= 4 to 5).

viii. With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A (= 7 to G).
ix. Step off the sides of the figure from A to B, B to C, etc.
ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.
To construct a regular polygon given a diagonal, i.e. within a given circle
i. Draw the given circle and insert a diameter AM.
ii. Divide the diameter into the same number of divisions as the polygon has sides.
iii. With centre M draw an arc, radius MA. With centre A draw another arc of the
same radius to intersect the first arc in N.
iv. Draw N2 and produce to intersect the circle in B (for any polygon).
v. AB is the first side of the polygon. Step out the other sides BC, CD, etc.

64
 Figure 63 Construction of a polygon given diagonal

ABCDE is the required polygon.

f) Standards drawing conventions
Conventions are a widely used practices or procedure in engineering drawing, they are a
set of rules for drawing. Because drawings contain a lot of information, they can easily
become cluttered and not easily understood by all working with them. One way to keep
them tidy and consistent is to use standards and conventions.

Some of the conventions are:

i. Scaling
Sometimes we need to scale down some larger parts in order to see the whole
object on a single sheet and for detailed parts we may need to scale them up in
size in order to see the finer details.
ii. Dimensioning
Dimensioning is the convention used for adding measurement notes, such as the
length and breadth of the object, to a drawing. Dimensions include text, lines,
extension lines and arrowheads.
When an engineering drawing is made, dimensioning is of vital importance. All
the dimensions necessary to make the articles drawn must be on the drawing and
they must be presented so that they can be easily read, easily found, and not open
to misinterpretation. A neat drawing can be spoilt by bad dimensioning.
The conventions for drawing dimension lines are described below.

65
a) Projection lines should be thin lines and should extend from about 1 mm from the
outline to 3 mm to 6 mm past the dimension line.
b) The dimension line should be a thin line and terminate with arrowheads at least
3mm long and these arrowheads must touch the projection lines.
c) The dimension may be inserted within a break in the dimension line or be placed
on top of the dimension line.
d) The dimensions should be placed so that they are read from the bottom of the
paper or from the right-hand side of the paper.
e) Dimension lines should be drawn outside the outline, whenever possible, and
should be kept well clear of the outline.
f) Overall dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions.
g) Centre lines must never be used as dimension lines. They may be used as
projection lines
h) Diameters may be dimensioned in one of two ways. Either dimension directly
across the circle (not on a centre line) or project the diameter to outside the
outline. ‘Diameter’ is denoted by the symbol φ placed in front of the dimension.
i) When dimensioning a radius, you must, if possible, show the centre of the radius.
The actual dimension for the radius may be shown either side of the outline but
should, of course, be kept outside if possible. The word radius must be
abbreviated to R and placed in front of the dimension.
j) When a diameter or a radius is too small to be dimensioned by any of the above
methods, a leader may be used. The leader line should be a thin line and should
terminate on the detail that it is pointing to with an arrowhead or, within an
outline, with a dot. Long leader lines should be avoided even if it means inserting
another dimension. The leader line should always meet another line at an acute
angle.
k) Dimensions should not be repeated on a drawing. It is necessary to put a
dimension on only once, however many views are drawn. There is one exception
to this rule. If, by inserting one dimension, it saves adding up lots of small
dimensions then this is allowed.
l) These types of dimensions are called ‘auxiliary dimensions’ and are shown to be
so either by underlining the dimensions or putting it in brackets.
m) Unless unavoidable, do not dimension hidden detail. It is usually possible to
dimension the same detail on another view.
n) When dimensioning angles, draw the dimension lines with a compass; the point of
the compass should be on the point of the angle. The arrowheads may be drawn
either side of the dimension lines, and the dimension may be inserted between the
dimension lines or outside them. Whatever the angle, the dimension must be
placed so that it can be read from either the bottom of the paper or from the right-
hand side.
o) If a lot of parallel dimensions are given, it avoids confusion if the dimensions are
staggered so that they are all easier to read.
p) If a lot of dimensions are to be shown from one projection line (often referred to
as a datum line), either of the methods shown in Fig. 18.20 may be used. Note that
in both methods, the actual dimension is close to the arrowhead and not at the
centre of the dimension line.
q) If most dimensions on a drawing are in one unit, it is not necessary to put on the
abbreviation for the units used, i.e. cm or mm. In this case, the following note

66
 must be printed on your drawing.
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETRES
r) If a very large radius is drawn, whose centre is off the drawing, the dimension
line is drawn with a single zigzag in it.
s) Dimensioning small spaces raises its own problems and solutions. Some examples
are shown in figure below. There are one or two more rules that do not require
illustrating.
t) If the drawing is to scale, the dimensions put on the drawing are the actual
dimensions of the component and not the size of the line on your drawing.

Figure 64 Sample dimensioning

iii. Title blocks

You need a title panel to identify the name of the person to whom the drawing
belongs as well as the name of the drawing, the scale at which it is drawn, and the
date that it was completed
Every drawing should include information which identifies the drawing. A title
block is often used to do this. It will contain information that includes the:

a) name of the person the drawing belongs to

b) date the drawing was completed
c) number of the drawing
d) scale at which it was drawn.
e) Title of drawing

The title block is usually placed at the bottom right of the drawing. However, it
may occupy the full width of the top or bottom of the paper to allow the drawing
to fit within the size of the drawing paper.

67
iv. Margins
Margins define the space where the drawings are to be done.
Your drawing must also be enclosed within a frame called a margin.
Before starting the drawing, a manual drawing template should be drawn up. This
will have the margins and the title block marked out and will allow you to see
how much drawing space you have before you start.

Figure 65 Paper Layout

v. Letters and Numbers

All drawings require some form of lettering and numbers. The principles to
remember are:
a) They should be legible and clear – especially numbers, as they often must be
read on their own.
b) They should be of a suitable size and not less than 3mm tall. Title blocks and
relative information are usually larger.
c) They should be correctly spaced and positioned. Notes and captions should
be placed so that they can be read in the same direction as in the title block.
In other worlds it should not be necessary to turn a drawing on its side to read
the information.
d) Notes should be grouped together and not spread over the drawing.
e) Underlining is not recommended.

vi. Abbreviations
A list of the standard abbreviations for some general engineering terms is shown
below. These abbreviations are used to save time, and space on drawings.

68
Although the abbreviations are shown in block capital letters, small letters may
be used. For unit abbreviations always use small letters.
To read a drawing properly, and to understand what is happening, an agreed set of
graphical symbols and abbreviations are used. All the different trades have a set
of symbols pertaining to their respective works. The works of the plumber is
often referred to as the “Mechanical Services”.

69
Figure 66 Abbreviations and Symbols

70
Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops

Figure 67 Abbreviations for Pipe Rises/Drops

71
72
73
74
 Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection shows the views of an object in three different positions, namely:
a) Plan (view Z)
b) Front elevation (View X)
c) End view (View Y)
The plan is an outline of the object when viewed from above.
The front elevation is what is seen when looking from the front.
The end view shows the view from one of the ends.
Orthographic projection is generally not used in the construction industry. It is more
commonly found in the engineering sector where precise measurement is essential.
Try drawing the object below in orthographic projection i.e. draw a plan (z) an elevation
(x) and an end view (y).

Figure 68 Orthographic views

Isometric Projection
In isometric projection all the horizontal lines are drawn at 30° to the horizontal plane
while vertical lines are drawn vertical.

Figure 69 Isometric axis

75
 Figure 70 Isometric Box

Isometric projection embraces the three views from orthographic projection in the one
drawing. In the drawing of the matchbox below you can see the plan, elevation, and end
view.
Procedure for making an Isometric box
i. Draw a light horizontal baseline and a vertical line to represent the nearest corner.
‘A’ of the box.

Oblique drawing
This is a representation such that the edge of one face is parallel to the horizontal
reference line and the other edges are elevated at an angle of 45°

76
 Figure 71 Oblique Box

1.2.3.4 Learning Activities

a) Prepare a paper layout using a margin of 10 mm all round and a title block of 140mm by
40mm at the bottom right corner. Ensure you input your name, class, date, institution,
topic and scale of drawing.

b) Construct the following angles using instruments:

i. 22.50
ii. 1200
iii. 750
iv. 150
c) Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 60mm long.
d) Construct an isosceles triangle that has a perimeter of 135mm and an altitude of 55 mm.
e) Construct a triangle with base angles 60 ° and 45 ° and an altitude of 76mm.
f) Construct a triangle with a base of 55mm, an altitude of 62 mm and a vertical angle of
37 0.
g) Construct a square whose diagonal is 68mm.
h) Construct a square whose diagonal is 85mm.
i) Construct a parallelogram given two sides 42 mm and 90 mm long, and the angle
between them 67 °.
j) Construct a rectangle that has a diagonal 55mm long and one side 35 mm long.

77
1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment
a) Sketch the line being referred to in the Table below. Place your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.

b) Construct a tringle given the following:

i. Perimeter 150mm
ii. Height 40mm
c) Construct a rectangle given the following:
i. Diagonal = 70 mm
ii. One side= 25mm
d) Construct a regular pentagon, diameter 82 mm.
e) Construct a regular heptagon within a circle, radius 60mm. The corners of the
heptagon must lie on the circumference of the circle

1.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’

78
1.2.3.7 References
Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.

Maguire, C. H. (2004). Manual of Engineering drawing. Oxford: Elsevier Newnes.

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.

79
1.2.3 Learning outcome three

Develop solid geometry drawings

1.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working drawings
and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section will give an
understanding of the different types of working drawings, building symbols and different
representations of drawings.

1.2.3.2 Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent:
3.1 Pattern drawings are interpreted according to standard conventions
3.2 Solid Geometry drawings are constructed according to given plane geometry

1.2.3.3 Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts
i. Auxiliary view
This is when a view is projected on a plane that is parallel to the surface of the
principal view. To see the true size of the surface the view must be shown at right
angles to that surface. This is an Auxiliary view. Auxiliary views are often used to
show the inclined surfaces true size
ii. Development
A layout of the complete surface of an object i.e it is the method of unfolding or
unrolling a geometrical shape into a plane shape.
iii. Dimensioning
Process of placing measurements in a drawing in the metric or English
System
iv. Isometric axes
Light lines used as bases in constructing an isometric view of an object
v. Isometric drawing
Pictorial drawing showing the three views of the object tilted 30
degrees in front of the observer.
vi. Multi-view drawing
Drawing that shows more than one view of an object
vii. Notation
All lettering and other dimension found in a drawing or working sketch
viii. Oblique drawing
Kind of pictorial drawing of an object one surface of which is shown
parallel to the frontal plane and the other is inclined to it.

80
 ix. Orthographic projection
Presentation of an object in two or more views by projecting the
outline of the object to the plane of projection perpendicular to each other
x. Overall dimension
The total width, height, and depth of the object
xi. Perspective drawing
A drawing which shows an object as it appears to our eyes
xii. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces of
an object
xiii. Truncated Object
It is a geometrical object that has been cut
xiv. Working plan

A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an

object.

b) Interpretation of sketches and drawings of patterns e.g. cylinders, prisms, and

pyramids
Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing an 3D object from different
directions. Usually a front, side and plan view are drawn so that a person looking
at the drawing can see all the important sides. Orthographic drawings are useful
especially when a design has been developed to a stage whereby it is almost ready
to manufacture.
There are two ways of drawing in orthographic - First Angle and Third Angle.
They differ only in the position of the plan, front and side views. Below is an
example of First Angle projection.
Opposite is a simple L-shape, drawn in three dimensions.
The front, side and plan views have drawn around the 3D shape. However this is
not the correct way of drawing them as they are not in the right positions.

81
 First angle orthographic

Figure 72 Example of orthographic views of an L shape figure

The correct method of presenting the three views, in first angle orthographic projection is shown below.
The drawing is composed of a front, end, and plan view of the L-shaped object. The first drawing is the
front view (drawn looking straight at the front of the L-shape), the second is a drawing of the L-shape
seen from the side (known as side view) and last of all a drawing from above known as a plan view. The
red lines are faint guidelines and they are drawn to help keep each view in line, level, and the same size.

The correct first angle projection of the L shape is shown below

82
 First angle projection convention

Figure 73 First angle projection views of the L shape

The views are obtained as by imagining you are standing directly in front of the L-shape, the drawing
below shows exactly what you would see.

Figure 74 Front Elevation

83
The end elevation is obtained as shown below from a side view

Figure 75 End Elevation obtained from the side view

The plan is obtained by viewing from the top as shown below

Figure 76 Plan view from the top

84
Third angle projection

An L-shaped object.
The Plan View of the L-shape is drawn as a 'birds eye' view, a view from above.
The Front View is drawn as if stood in front of the L-shape.
The Side View is drawn as if stood at the side.
The following figures show another metal block with the views in third angle and then first angle
projection.

Third Angle projection convention symbol

Figure 77 Third angle orthographic projection of the L shape

The only difference is the positioning of the end elevation and plan views, the process of viewing is
similar.

85
 Figure 78 Third angle projection of a metal block
The figure above on the right shows a isometric view of a metal block where we are
required to draw orthographic views of the front elevation (FE), 2 end elevations (EE)
and plan from the top as indicated by the arrows.
The figure on the left shows the solution to the question and the views are projected
by using the third angle projection

Figure 79 First angle orthographic projection

Figure above shows the same figure using first angle projection

c) Develop geometrical solid figures e.g. prisms, cones, surface development

86
Principle of Development
Every line on the development should show the true length of the corresponding line on
the surface which is developed.
Methods of Development
i. Parallel-line development.
Used for developing prisms and cylinders.
ii. Radial-line development.
For developing pyramids and cones.
iii. Triangulation development.
For developing transition pieces.
iv. Approximate development.
For developing spheres.
Cylinder
Draw the development of the complete surface of a cylinder. Diameter is 40 mm and
the height is 70 mm.

Figure 80 Development of a cylinder

Prism
Develop the complete surface of a square prism of side of base 40 mm and height 80 mm.

87
 Figure 81 Square Prism development

Pyramid
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid, side of base 30 mm and
height 50 mm, resting with its base on H.P. All edge of the base are equally inclined to
V.P.

88
 Figure 82 Pyramid development

Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid, side of base 30 mm and
height 50 mm, resting with its base on H.P. Two of its base edge are equally parallel to
V.P.

89
 Figure 83 Square pyramid development 2

Cone
Draw the development of the lateral surface of a cone, base diameter 50 mm and height
70 mm, resting with its base on H.P.

90
 Figure 84 Cone development

Development of truncated cylinders, prisms, pyramids, and cones

Development of a truncated right circular cylinder

91
 Figure 85 Truncated cylinder development

Development of a truncated prism

Figure 86 Truncated Prism Development

92
Development of truncated cone

Figure 87 Truncated Cone development

Development of truncated pyramid

93
 Figure 88 Truncated Pyramid development

1.2.3.4 Learning Activities

i. In which direction must the object be viewed to produce the views shown opposite, taking
‘A’ as the FRONT VIEW. Put the appropriate letter under the view.

Figure 89 Exercise 1

94
ii. Study the two drawings and complete the table by matching the numbered surfaces of the
orthogonal drawing with the lettered surfaces of the isometric drawing.

Figure 90 Exercise 2

iii. Transfer the letters from the isometric drawing onto the same plane surfaces of the
orthogonal drawing. Name each view.

Figure 91 Exercise 3

95
 iv. Select the view which is requested in the table below. Place the number of this view
in the appropriate position in the table.

Figure 92 Exercise 4

1.2.3.5 Self-Assessment
Figure 93 Shows an isometric figure of a metal block:
Draw the following views in first angle projection:
a) Front view from shown arrow
b) End elevation from left hand side
c) Plan from the top

Figure 93 Exercise 1

96
 Figure 94 Shows an isometric figure of a metal block:
Draw the following views in first angle projection:
d) Front view from shown arrow
e) End elevation from left hand side
f) Plan from the top

Figure 94 Exercise 2

1.2.3.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’

97
1.2.3.7 References

Bhatt, N. D. (2011). Engineering Drawing. Gujarat: Charotar Publishing house.

Maguire, C. H. (2004). Manual of Engineering drawing. Oxford: Elsevier Newnes.

Morling, K. (2010). Geometric and Engineering drawing. London: Elsevier.

98
 1.2.4 Learning outcome four

Develop pictorial and orthographic drawings

1.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

The focus of this specific learning outcome is to introduce the different working
drawings and their purpose during the planning of plumbing works. This section
will give an understanding of the different types of working drawings, building
symbols and different representations of drawings.

1.2.4.2 Performance Standard

The following performance criteria will be required to be met by trainees to be
considered competent:
4.1 Symbols and abbreviations are identified and interpreted according to standard
drawing conventions
4.2 First and third angle orthographic drawings are interpreted and developed in
accordance with the standard conventions
4.3 Orthographic elevations are dimensioned in accordance with standard
conventions
4.4 Isometric drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance with standard
conventions
4.5 Oblique drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance with standard
conventions

1.2.4.3 Information Sheet

a) Terms and concepts
i. Dimensioning
Process of placing measurements in a drawing in the metric or English
System
ii. Isometric axes
Light lines used as bases in constructing an isometric view of an object
iii. Isometric drawing
Pictorial drawing showing the three views of the object tilted 30
degrees in front of the observer.
iv. Multi-view drawing
Drawing that shows more than one view of an object
v. Notation
All lettering and other dimension found in a drawing or working sketch
vi. Oblique drawing
Kind of pictorial drawing of an object one surface of which is shown

99
 parallel to the frontal plane and the other is inclined to it.
vii. Orthographic projection
Presentation of an object in two or more views by projecting the
outline of the object to the plane of projection perpendicular to each other
viii. Overall dimension
The total width, height, and depth of the object
ix. Perspective drawing
A drawing which shows an object as it appears to our eyes
x. Pictorial view
The presentation of an object where it is viewed showing the three faces of
an object
xi. Working plan
A freehand drawing showing all the information needed to construct an
object.

b) Free hand sketching

c) Pictorial and orthographic drawings

d) Meaning of symbols and abbreviations

e) Drawing and interpretation of orthographic elevations

f) Dimensioning of orthographic elevations

g) Conversion of orthographic to pictorial

1.2.4.4 Learning Activities

a) Symbols and abbreviations are identified and interpreted according to

standard drawing conventions
Refer to learner outcome 2

b) First and third angle orthographic drawings are interpreted and developed
in accordance with the standard conventions
Refer to learner outcome 2

c) Orthographic elevations are dimensioned in accordance with standard

conventions
Refer to learner outcome 2

100
 d) Isometric drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance with
standard conventions

Refer to learner outcome 2

e) Oblique drawings are interpreted and developed in accordance with
standard conventions
Refer to learner outcome 2

1.2.4.5 Self-Assessment
Refer to learner outcome 2

1.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

i. Drawing boards
ii. T squares
iii. Set squares
iv. Drawing sets
v. Drawing paper
vi. Protractors
vii. Eraser Shield
viii. Pencils
ix. Erasers
x. Masking tapes
xi. Paper clips
xii. Drawing curves
xiii. Technical drawing software’
1.2.4.7 References

101