Management Accounting

Sixth Semester
 BASIC OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

INTRODUCTION:
A business enterprise must keep a systematic record of what happens from daytot-day events so that it can
know its position clearly. Most of the business enterprises are run by the corporate sector. These business
houses are required by law to prepare periodical statements in proper form showing the state of financial
affairs. The systematic record of the daily events of a business leading to presentation of a complete
financial picture is known as accounting. Thus, Accounting is the language of business. A business
enterprise speaks through accounting. It reveals the position, especially the financial position through the
language called accounting.

What is Management Accounting?

Management accounting is the process of identification, measurement, accumulation,
analysis, preparation, interpretation and communication of financial information used by
management to plan, evaluate and control within an organization and to assure appropriate use of
and accountability for its resources. Management accounting also comprises the preparation of
financial reports for management groups such as shareholders, creditors, regulatory agencies and tax
authorities.

Management accounting thus is the process of

1. Identification – the recognition and evaluation of business transactions and other economic
events for appropriate accounting action.
2. Measurement – the qualification including estimates of business transactions or other economic
events that have occurred or may occur.
3. Accumulation – the disciplined and consistent approach to recording and classifying appropriate
business transactions and other economic events.
4. Analysis – the determination of resources for, and the relationships of the reported activity with
other economic events and circumstances.
5. Preparation and Interpretation – the meaningful coordination of accounting and or planning
data to identify a need of information, presented in a logical format, and if appropriate, including
conclusions drawn from those data.
6. Communication – the reporting of pertinent information to management and others for internal
 and external uses.

Management accounting is used by management to :

1. Plan – to gain an understanding of expected business transactions and other economic events
and their impact on the organization.
2. Evaluate – to judge the implications of various past and or future events.
3. Control – to insure the integrity of financial information concerning an organization or its
resources.
4. Assure accountability – to implement the system of reporting that is closely aligned to
organizational responsibilities and that contributes to the effective measurement of
management performance.

The essence of the management process is decision making. Decision making is an unavoidable
and continuous management activity. It may be directed towards some specific objectives, or it may
result as a reaction of environmental factors as they occur. An enterprise would operate successfully if it
does not simple react to events, rather it directs its efforts towards the accomplishment of desired
purposes. Objectives tend to make decisions purposeful to the firm. The decision making process should
be both efficient and effective. It would be effective when management’s objectives are achieved. The
decision making system is said to be efficient when objectives are realized with the minimum use of
resources.
The process of decision making involves two basic management functions of planning and
controlling. As discussed in the previous section, management accounting accumulates, measures and
reports relevant information in such a way that planning and control functions of management are
facilitated.

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The nature and main characteristics of management accounting are as follows:

1. Both as a Science and an art: In management accounting data are collected systematically and
they are analysed with the help of various formulae and techniques and on this basis it is a
science. On the other hand, subjective judgment of management and various needs of the
organization are also taken into account while taking decisions and on this basis it is an art.
On the whole, management accounting is both- a science as well as an art.
2. Accounting Service: Management accounting is a function of accounting service towards
 management. Under this service necessary information are provided to various levels of
management.
3. Integrated System: Management accounting is an integrated system in which technique related
to various subjects are used in the process of data collection, analysis and decision-making.
4. More concerned with Future: Management accounting is more concerned with ‘future’. No
doubt, analysis and interpretation are made on the basis of historical data, but the important
objective of management accounting is to determine policies for future.
5. Selective Nature: Management accounting is selective in nature. It selects only those plans or
alternative which seems to be more attractive and profitable.
6. More Emphasis on the Nature of Element of Cost: Management accounting lays more
emphasis on the recognition and study of the nature of various elements of costs. In this context
the total cost is divided into fixed, variable and semi-variable components.
7. Cause and Effect Analysis: Management accounting lays emphasis on the analysis of ‘cause’
and effect ‘effect’ of different variables.
8. Rules not Precise and Universal: In management accounting no set of rules or standards are
followed universally. Though the tools of management accounting are the same, their use differs
from concern to concern.
9. Supplies Information and not decision: An important nature of management accounting is that
its provides requisite information and not decisions. However, decisions are taken by
management with the help of these informations.
10. Achieving of Objectives: In management accounting, the accounting information is used in such
a way so that organizational objectives and targets may be achieved and efficiency of business
may be improved.

Objectives of Management Accounting

The fundamental objective of management accounting is to enable management to maximize profits
or minimize losses. Following are the important objectives or purposes of management accounting:
1. Policy formulation- Policy formulation and planning are the primary functions of
management. The object of management accounting is to supply necessary data to the
management for formulating plans. The figure supplied and opinion given by the
management accountant helps management in policy formulation.
2. Helpful in decision making- The management is required to take various important
decisions. Management accounting techniques help in collecting and analyzing data relating
to cost, volume and profit which provide a base for taking sound decision.
 3. Helpful in controlling- Management accounting is a useful device of managerial control.
Various accounting techniques such as standard costing and budgetary control are helpful in
controlling performance. The actual results are compared with pre-determined targets to
know the deviations.
4. Motivation- Another important objective of management accounting is to help the
management in selecting best alternatives of doing the things. Delegation of authority as well
as responsibility increases the job satisfaction of employees and encourages them to look
forward.

5. Interpretation of financial information- Financial information is of technical nature and

must be presented in such a way that it can be easily understood. It is the duty of
management accountant who uses statistical devices like charts, diagrams etc. so that the
information can be easily understandable.
6. Reporting- One of the primary objectives of management fully informed about the latest
position of the concern. Management accounting provides data as well as different alternative
plans before than management for comparative study. The performance of various
departments is also communicated regularly to the also communicated regularly to the top
management.

7. Helpful in co-ordination- Management accounting provides tools which are helpful for this
purposes. Co-ordination is maintained through functional budgeting. It is the duty of
management accounting to act as a coordinator and reconcile the activities of different
department.

SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING:

The scope of management accounting covers all the tools and techniques which help the
management in effective discharge of their functions. The scope, therefore is very wide and broad
based, covering mainly the following aspects of management accounting.
(i) Financial Accounting : Financial accounting provides Pthe data base on the basis of which
management accounting processes information to management to serve their needs. Proper
designed financial accounting system forms the very base on which management accounting
prepares relevant and analytical report to facilitate management decision making.
Management accounting assembles and presents the financial accounting data in meaningful
 terms for resolution of managerial issues. Hence, without the back up by Financial
Accounting feeding system, management accounting functions are not possible.
(ii) Cost Accounting : Cost accounting provides the most sophisticated techniques of Marginal
Costing, Budgetary Control, Standard Costing, Inter firm comparison which enables
Management Accounting to provide necessary information for effective decision making and
control. Costing accounting helps in performance appraisal and formulation of pricing
policies with costing information. It is in fact the integral arm of management without the
support system of costing accounting, the inefficiencies in various operations can not be
highlighted to management.
(iii) Tools and Techniques of Management control : Management accounting makes an
detailed analysis and interpretation of financial statements through the tools of comparative
statements, trend ratios, ratio analysis and fund flow statement. Accounting Ratios help in the
evaluation of operating performance and in judging the liquidity and solvency of the
enterprise. Fund flow statement focuses on the management of funds in the operations of the
business variance analysis aims at controlling the various elements of costs, reporting the
adverse variation for management action.
(iv) Statistical and Quantitative Techniques : A number of statistical tools and technique is like
linear programming, regression analysis facilitates in providing information in a meaningful
manner for effective control and decision making. Hence management accounting also
includes these techniques in its scope.

(v) Inflation Accounting : This is also referred as revaluation accounting which is concerned in
maintaining capital in real terms and accordingly profit is calculated. This involves the
exercise of revaluing the assets at current prices and shows the increase/decrease in the value
of capital. On the assumption that the monetary unit value is unstable; the impact on capital is
ascertained as a result of changes in value of money. This is therefore another technique
which falls within the orbit of management accounting.
(vi) Tax Accounting : Tax planning is another important area which has a serious impact on the
profitability of the concern. Without proper planning of tax, the profits of the enterprise are
hijacked which affects adversely the business operations. Hence, it an important activity of
management accounting.
(vii) Management Reporting : Management report forms the integral aspect of management
accounting system. They identify the areas where management attention is desired for
corrective action. Decision making is facilitated based on the information provided by the
 report. The reports should portray all the relevant aspects concerning the operative efficiency
of the business. Report have to be well designed and frequent to help the management. This
is an essential part of management accounting.

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING :

The basic functions of management accounting is to furnish relevant information along with
analytical data to the management to enable timely decisions for appropriate actions. It helps in the
effective discharge of management functions of planning, organizing, directing and controlling. The
following are the main functions of management accounting.
(a) Furnishing of relevant and vital data : Relevant and vital data is collected from
concerned sources and presented through meaningful reports to management which
facilitates decision making. Accounting data provides a strong base for furnishing
financial figures to management to enable appropriate and timely action.
(b) Compilation of data in suitable form : Accounting data as it is may not serve a
meaningful and useful purpose to management for decision making. This data is required
to be suitably modified and amended in manner that suits the management purpose.
Hence the data is classified and rearranged in a way that helps the management to gain
insight into the situation.

(c) Analysis and Interpretation : Management accounting provides the tools and
techniques for analysis and interpretation of data. Information is furnished in a
comparable and analytical manner for easy grasp of the situation. This facilitates planning
and decision making.
(d) Means of communication and reporting : Management accounting system constitutes
an important segment of the management communication system providing information
and guidance for prospective planning and control. Reports well prepared sand presented
makes the management more effective in controlling business operations. It helps in co-
coordinating the operations of various department.
(e) Facilitates control function : Management accounting helps in control function through
the techniques of budgeting control and standard costing. These techniques enable
comparison of actual performance with the targets and standards set analysis of the
deviations from such standards taking corrective action as a result of analysis and follow
up to appraise the effectiveness of corrective action.
(f) Planning : Planning involves determination of different courses of actions based on the
 purpose facts and considered estimates. It helps in planning the strategy to be adopted in
achieving the targets. It renders necessary help in planning for future the business goals
and objectives.
(g) Guides the management in judgment: It assists the management in forming its
judgment about the financial condition or the profitability of the business operation.
Suitable action can be taken in laying down future plans and policies for improvement
and advancement.
(h) Decision – making : Decision making is a management process of making right choices
from amongst the various courses of action. Decision can be taken only when the data is
assembled and presented in meaningful terms and the areas requiring management
attention are highlighted. Management accounting makes this decision making more
effective.
1. Reporting is usually at the end of the year; when the events have already taken place for
which nothing can be done.
2. Financial accounting offers a macro view of the entire activities of the organization; it shows
the results of the business as a whole without showing the results of the individual
departments or products. Hence there is a fusion of all positive and negative results
culminating into one result.
3. Financial accounting is subject to statutory audit which is compulsory as per the provisions
of the Companies Act, 1956. Management Accounting is not subject to any such statutory
audit.
4. Financial accounting considers only the monetary aspect. Management accounting considers
both the monetary as well as non monetary aspects.

ROLE OR IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

OR
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AS A TOOL OF MANAGEMENT

In the present complex business world, management accounting has become an integral part and useful
tool of management system. The report prepared and data edited on the basis of management accounting
become the foundation of successful operation of managerial activities. The role of management
accounting as a tool of management can be studied under following headings:
1. Increase in Efficiency: Management accounting increases efficiency of various business
activities. The targets of different departments are fixed in advance on the basis of forecasting
 and planning and later on actual performance is compared with them. This process helps in
measuring and increasing the efficiency of the enterprise.
2. Proper Planning: Planning is a primary function of management and management accounting
has an important role in making it proper. Management is able to plan various activities with the
help of accounting information. On the basis of information provided by management
accountant, the work-load of each and every individual is fixed in advance and the activities of
the concern are planned in a systematic manner.
3. Measurement of Performance: Management accounting also plays an important role in
measurement and management of work performance through the techniques of standard costing
and budgetary control.
4. Effective Management Control: Efficiency of management depends upon its effective control
and from this point of view also management accounting has its specific role. Nowadays the
function of control has become a continuous process.
5. Improved Services to Customers: The installation of various types of control through
management accounting leads to reduction in cost and price and maintenance of standard level of
quality of goods produced and services rendered.
6. Maximizing Profits: The thrust of various techniques of management accounting is to control
cost of production and to increase operational efficiency. It all results in maximizing the profits.
7. Prompt and Correct Decision: Management accounting provides continuous information and
analysis is to various levels of management in respect of various aspects of business operations. It
helps in prompt and correct decision by management.
8. Reduction in Business Risks: The collection and analysis of historical information in
management accounting provides knowledge to the management in respect of nature of
fluctuations and their causes and effects. Management can prepare such plans which may
minimize the impact of trade cycle or seasonal fluctuations and consequently reduction in various
types of business risks.

LIMITATIONS OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING:

Management accounting is not free from limitations limits its effectiveness :
1. Data Base : Management accounting depends for data on the financial and cost records. If the
financial and cost accounting contains incorrect and inaccurate information; management
accounting also gets affected to that extent. Discrepancies of financial and cost accounting
penetrates into the management accounting system giving unreliable results. Therefore,
effectiveness of management accounting system depends upon the efficiency of system
 followed for recording and compiling financial and cost records.
2. Intuitive Decision making : Many times management is prone to take decisions without
reference to information provided by management accounting system. They are tempted to take
decision in an easy and short cut manner rather than on scientific basis. They may base their
decision on mere guess work and ignore the information provided by management accounting
system.

3. Absence of Objectivity : Management accounting provides both qualitative and quantitative

information which offers scope for subjective element. The report are therefore influenced
by opinion judgment based on personal bias and prejudice. These make the reports more
subjective rather than objective.
4. Developing discipline : Management accounting is still a new and developing. It has yet to
sharpen its tools and techniques and seek perfection in its application. As a evolving discipline
it is subject to certain obstacles and impediments which are to be cleared before it emerges as a
fully developed science.
5. Expensive proposition : It is an expensive proposition to install the system with necessary
facilities and highly skilled persons. Therefore, small concerns cannot afford to adopt it. Only
large concerns can taken advantage of it; where the benefits outweigh the cost in many ways.
6. Wide scope : Management accounting embraces many disciplines and its scope is very wide.
Hence it requires a through knowledge and understanding of many subjects to make the data
more meaningful and informative. This makes the task of management accounting difficult.
7. Resistance : This subject demands a change in the method and style of working which may
meet opposition and non co-operation from certain vested interests. If may be construed by
some persons as tool for their exploitation. They dislike being guided in decision making
through scientific approach. Proper education of the system is necessary to help them break
away from the traditional style of working.
8. Can not replace Management: Management accounting with all its tools and techniques can
only facilitate decision making process for the management. It cannot be treated as an
alternative or substitute for management. Ultimately it depends on the management for
execution. Therefore, it is only a tool in the hands of management and cannot replace
management. Management accounting processes quantitative data and collaborates with
qualitative data. Only qualitative and unquantified data cannot be easily processed by
management accounting.
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
A number of tools and techniques are used to supply the information required by the management. Any
one technique can not satisfy all managerial needs. The tools and techniques used in management
accounting are as follows:
1. Financial Policy and Accounting – every concern has to take a decision about the sources of
raising funds. The funds can be raised either through the issue of share capital or through the
raising of loans. Capital or preference share capital. The second decision concerns the raising of
the loans. Whether the loans should be long-term or short-term is again a matter of policy. The
proportion between share capital and loans should also be decided.
2. Analysis of Financial Statements- The analysis of financial statement is meant to classify and
present the data in such a way that it becomes useful for the management. The meaning and
significance of the data is explained in it in non-technical language. The techniques of financial
analysis include comparative financial statements, ratios, funds flow statement, trend analysis etc.
3. Historical Cost Accounting- The system of recording actual cost data on or after the date when
it has been incurred is known as historical cost accounting. The actual cost is compared to the
standard cost and it gives an idea about the performance of the concern.
4. Budgetary Control- It is a system which uses budgets as a tool for planning and control. The
budgets of all functional departments are prepared in advance. The actual performance is
recorded and compared with the pre-determined targets. The timing of budgets and finding out
deviations is an important tool for planning and controlling.
5. Standard Costing- Standard costing is an important technique for cost control purposes. In
standard costing system, costs are determines in advance. The actual costs are recorded and
compared with standards costs. The variances, if any, are analysed and their reasons are
ascertained.
6. Marginal Costing- This is a method of costing which is concerned with changes in costs
resulting from changes in the volume of production. Under this system, cost of product is divided
into marginal (variable) and fixed cost. The latter part of cost (fixed) is taken as fixed and is
recorded over a level of production and every additional production unit involves only variable
cost.

7. Decision Accounting- An important work of management is to take decisions. Decision taking

involves a choice from various alternatives. There may be decisions about capital expenditure,
whether to make or buy, what price to be charged, expansion or diversification, etc.
8. Revaluation Accounting- This is also known as Replacement Accounting. The preservation of
 capital in the business is the main objective of management. The profits are calculated in such a
way that capital is preserved in real terms. During periods of rising prices, the value of capital is
greatly affected.
9. Control Accounting- Control accounting is not a separate accounting system. Different systems
have their control devices and these are used in control accounting. In control accounting we can
use internal check, internal audit, statutory audit and other similar methods for control purposes.
10. Management Information Systems- With the development of electronic devices for recording
and classifying data, reporting to management has considerably improved. The data relevant
planning, co-ordination and control is supplied to the management. Feedback of information and
responsive can be used as control techniques.

Relationship of management accounting, financial accounting and cost accounting

Management accounting, financial accounting and cost accounting are the methods of
accounting providing information about the business firms. The financial accounting is related to
the recording of daily transaction whereas in management accounting sources of information are
used to specific mean.
Financial accounts have deep impact on management accounting, because it is a branch of
financial accounting. Both of these accounting are mutually helper and alternate to each other
and are necessary for efficient operation of the firm.
Cost accounting is tool that provides necessary data to the management for planning,
decision making and determination of policies. Basically cost accounting and management are
supplementary to each other. If in any business there is no room for cost accounting then
management accounting will have no identity in that business.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND COST ACCOUNTING
Base Cost accounting Management accounting
Object An object of cost accounting to find out a An object of m.a. is to make available
cost of a product or a service. various information to the management for
planning
and other activities.
Nature In cost accounting both past and present In the normally data are used for future
data are used. policies and planning.
Scope Cost accounting having a narrow scope Its scope is very wide, it includes financial
because mainly it determines the cost. account, cost account report to management
etc
Age Cost accounting is an old method. Management accounting is a modern
concept.
Principles In this some principles and methods are In this for reporting to management no
adopted and from time to time same specific rule or principle is adopted.
principles are used.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Basis of Financial Accounting Management Accounting
Difference
1. Objects Its object is to record various transactions It s object is to provide necessary
and to know, on that basis, profit or loss accounting information to management
during a particular period and financial which may help it in taking decisions
position at the end of that and formulating policies.
period.
 2. Subject- It is concerned with assessing the It is concerned with assessing the
matter results of business as a whole. activities of different units,
departments and cost centers i.e., it
examines efficiency not only of the
whole
enterprise but of different departments
also.
3. Historical/ It is mainly concerned with the It focuses its attention on future and
Futuristic historical data. uses historical data only for taking
decisions for the future.
4. Compulsion Generally, financial accounting is Management accounting is used
compulsory. voluntarily and generally its procedure
is also not determined by law
5. Reporting It is used to find out profitability and The main idea for preparing reports in
financial position of the concern this accounting is to provide
information as per requirements of the
management.
6. Description It records only those transactions or It covers all such monetary and non-
events which can be expresses in monetary events which influence
monetary terms. managerial decisions.
7. Quickness of The communication of information in There is relatively more emphasis on
Communicatio n this accounting is very slow and time quick and prompt communication of
consuming. information.
8. Accounting They are prepared generally on the No set accounting principles are
Principles basis of certain accepted accounting followed in this accounting
principles and conventions.
9. Period Generally, its duration is one year and It collects and supplies information
this year is called as accounting year or from time to time during the whole
financial year. year.
10. Publication As per Companies Act, every They are prepared for the use of
company is required to send a copy of management only and thus they are not
its final accounts to the Registrar of published.
Companies.
Moreover, its publication is
compulsory in case of Public
Company.
11. Audit These accounts can be got audited There is no such provision in this
accounting.
12. Scope Its scope is limited Its scope is much wider.
 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ANALYSIS

The term’ Financial Analysis’ Which is also known as ‘analysis and interpretation of financial
statements refer to process of determining financial strength and weaknesses of the firm by
stabilizing relationship between the items of balance sheet, profit & loss a/c and other operative data.
The purpose of financial analysis is to diagnose the information context in financial statement so as
to judge the profitability and financial position of the firm.’

TYPES OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

Financial analysis can be classified into different categories depending upon
1. Information used
2. Method of operation followed in analysis or the modes operandi of analysis

TYPES OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

On the basis of On the basis of On the basis of

used information firms involved modus operandi

External Internal Intera-firm Inter-firm Horizontal Vertical

analysis analysis analysis analysis analysis analysis

TOOLS OR METHODS OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

A number of methods are used to study the relationship between different
statements Following are het methods generally used for financial analysis
1. Comparative financial statements
2. Common size statements
3. Trends analysis
4. Fund flow analysis
5. Cash flow analysis
6. Ratio analysis
7. Cost-volume-profit analysis
COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
The comparative financial statements are the statements of the financial position at different periods
of time. The elements of financial position are shown in a comparative form to give an idea of the
financial position of two or more periods. Generally two financial statements (balance sheet and
income statements) are prepared in comparative form for the purpose of financial analysis.
For example, when figure of sales of previous periods are given along with the figures of current
period, the analyst will be able to see the trends of sales over different period of time.

THE COMPARATIVE STATEMENTS ARE-

1. Balance sheet
2. Income statement

COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET

Comparative balance sheet as on two different dates can be used for comparing assets and
liabilities and finding out on increase or decrease in those items.
While interpreting comparative balance sheet, the interpreter is expected to consider the following
points.Current financial position- For studying the current financial position, one should see the
working capital for both the year. A study of increase or decrease in current assets and current
liabilities enable to see the current financial position.
a. Long term financial position- The long term financial position of the concern can be
analyzed by studying the changes in fixed assets, long term liabilities & capital. An increase
in fixed assets should be compared to the increase in long term loans and capitals.
b. Profitability of the concern- The study of increase or decrease in retained earnings will
enable the interpreters to see cheater the profitability has improved or not.
COMPARATIVE INCOME STATEMENT-
The income statement shows net profit or net loss on accounts of operations of a business. The
comparative income statement gives an idea of the progress of a business over a period of time. The
interpretation of income statements will involve
a. The increase or decrease in sales should be compared with the increase or decrease of cost of
goods sold.
b. The second step is to study the operational profits.
c. The effect of non-operating expenses such as interest, loans on profit should be studied.
COMMON SIZE STATEMENTS
Common size statements are those in which the figures are converted into percentage on some
common basis. The use of these helps in making inter period & inter firm comparison and also in
high lighting upon the trends in performance, efficiency & financial position. However any material
change in the techniques procedure & principles would render these statements users & insignificant
tool of financial analysis.
a. Common size balance sheet- A statement in which balance sheet items are expressed as the
percentage of its total.
b. Common size income statements- in common size income statement various item of income
statements are shown as percentage of sales.

TRENDS ANALYSIS
The financial statement may be analyzed by computing trends of several years
The methods of calculating trend percentage involve the calculation of percentage relationship that
each items bears to the same item in the base year. It is very important from the point of view of
forecasting or budgeting. It discloses the change in the financial and operating data between specific
periods. However, no. of precautions should be taken, while using trends ratios as a tool.

Limitations of financial analysis: financial statement analysis is an important method of

determination of financial capabilities and weakness of any firm, but their analysis is based on the
information given in the financial statements. Some of the limitations are as follows
1. It is study of interim reports only.
2. Comparison of financial statements of one firm with another is not possible.
3. Validity of financial analysis is reduced when there are price changes.
4. Conclusion drawn from one year financial statements is worthless.
5. Profit and loss account is prepared on the basis of old conventions due to which
correct information of net profit is not provided.
 RATIO ANALYSIS

Meaning of Ratio : generally ratio means establishment of logical relationship between two or more
variable. Thus ratio is a numeric relation between two or more items of financial statement.
Ratio analysis : Ratio analysis is a techniques of analysis and interpretation of financial statements.
It is a process of establishing various ratios and their interpretation, to help top management in
decision making. Ratio is not an end in itself but it is a means of understand strength and weakness
of the firm properly.
Interpretation of the ratio: as the calculations of ratios from the data given in the financial
statements is an important function. In the same manner interpretation of these ratios is also the most
important function. Calculation of ratio is a clerical work while for interpretation of ratios skill and
foresightedness are required. Normally the interpretation of ratios can be made by the following
ways.
1. Single absolute ratio – Generally it is said that if a person interprets a single ratio.
2. Group of ratios – Some of ratios are not important by their own but provides meaning ful
conclusion when they are interpreted along with other ratios like study of profit on sale with
capital employed or current ratio with liquid ratio.
3. Historical comparison - When ratios of various years are compared then this study indicates
the direction of the change and shows whether there is a improvement, downfall or constancy
in the performance and financial position of the firm.
4. Project Ratios – Various ratios may be calculated as a standard from the projected financial
statements.
5. Inter-firm comparison – inter firm comparison of ratios of any firm with the ratios of other
firms or with the average ratios of all the firms.
Classification of Ratios : Various accounting ratios are broadly classified as under –
1. Short term financial position ratios or liquidity ratios.
2. Activity or turnover ratio.
3. Profitability ratios.
4. Long term financial positions or solvency ratios.

Short Term Financial Liquidity Ratios

Current Ratio = A liquidity ratio that measures a company’s ability to pay short term
obligations. Current Ratio = Current Assets
 Current Liabilities

Interpretation – If the current ratio is low it represents that the liquidity position of the firm is not good
and the firm is not able to pay its current liabilities immediately. On the other hand, if the current ratio is
very high it indicates idle assets which are not properly utilized.

There should be proper balance between these two situations.

A current ratio of 2:1 is considered on ideal situation.
Significance – Current Ratio is an index of the firm’s financial stability. It provides a margin of
safety of the creditors and indicates strength of working capital.
Limitation-
1. It is crude measurement of liquidity because it measures only the quantity and not the quality
of current assets.
2. Ratio is computed from the figures of balance sheet which might be manipulated to show a
better position of the firm than what is actual.

Quick/Acid Test/Liquid Ratio.

Quick ratio is used as a measure of the company’s ability to meet its current obligation.
Liquid Assets
Quick/Liquid/Acid Test Ratio =

Current Liabilities
Liquid Assets = Current Assets – (Stock and prepaid expenses)
Interpretation – A high quick ration is an indication that the firm has the ability to meet its current
liabilities in time and on the other hand, a low quick ratio represents that the firms liquidity position
is not good.
Quick ratio of 1:1 is considered satisfactory It indicates high solvent
positions. Significance
1. It is the real test of liquidity position.
2. It gives better picture of firms ability to meet its short term obligations.
3. It is used as a supplementary ratio to the current ratio.
4. It is more of a qualitative nature of test.
(iii) Absolute Liquidity Ratio/Super Quick Ratio – Absolute liquid assets include cash in hand,
cash at bank readily saleable securities and short term investment because it is assumed that all
creditors will not demand their amount at once and mean while cash can be recovered from stock
and debtors. Absolute liquid Ratio = Absolute liquide Assets

Current Liabilities

(iv) Cash Ratio- This ratio is calculated to know how much cash and bank balance a business is having
against its current liabilities. It shows the availability of cash and bank balance.
Cash +Bank
Current Ratio =
Current Liabilities

Solvency Ratio / Capital Structure Ratios:

1. Debt-Equity Ratio – It is also called as external internal equities ratio. It measures claims of
outsiders and owners (shareholders) against the firm.
This is calculated between external equities or external funds and internal equities or share holders
funds.

Debt Equity = External equities or debt OR

Internal equitieis or equity
= Long term borrowings/equity share capital + preference share capital + reserve & surplus –
fictitious Assets
Interpretation – This ratio indicates margin of safety to creditors on its liquidation.
2. Debt to Total Capital Ratio – This ratio shows the relationship between long term debts and total
permanent capital of the business.
= Long term′ Debts OR
Permanent capital (Share holder fund +Long term Debts
3. Debt to total Assets – This ratio establish the relationship between total debts to total assets- =
Total Debotrs OR

Total Assets
4. Property Ratio or equity Ratio- This ratio establishes the relationship between shareholder’s funds
and total tangible assets of the firms -

= Share holder
 ′funds Total
Tangible Assets
Interpretation:- Higher ratio shows that firm is less dependent on outsiders for working capital.
Thus, higher ratio shows strength of the firm.
5. Capital Gearing Ratio :- This ratio is calculated between equity share capital and reserve and
surplus of the company with its debentures preference share capital and long term loans.

= Equity capital +Reserve

Funds Fixed Rate
interest bearing funds

Interpretation:- It the calculated ratio is greater than 1, it shows the firm in highly geared because
the burden of fixed interest bearing funds/debts is more than owners equity. It is indication of
higher risk.
On the other hand, if ratio is less than one, the firm is said to be low geared and the risk is also low.
6. Capital Employed to Net Work Ratio:- Capital employed is the value of the asset that contribute
to a company’s ability

= Capital Employed
Net worth
7. Reserve to Capital Ratio- Funds or material set aside saved or saved for future use

= Reserves
Capital
8. Fixed Assets Ratio – This ratio show the relationship between long term funds (Shareholder’s funds
+ long term loan) and fixed assets.

= Long term funds (i.e.shareholder funds +Long term Debts

Net Fixed Assets
9. Debtors to Total Funds/Solvency Ratio- This ratio is used for measuring and analyzing long-term
solvency of the business.
This ratio explains that if the firm goes into liquidation then amount realized from sale of assets
will be sufficient for repayment of all debtor and liabilities or not.
 Solvency Ratio = Total outisde liabilities
Total Assets
Interpretation –
1. Higher ratio indicates more risk to creditor.
2. If capital gearing ratio is lower than 1 than it is a high gearing and if higher than 1 there it’s
low gearing.

B. Coverage Ratios/Income Based

10. Interest coverage/Fixed charges cover/Debtors Service Ratio- This ratio indicates how many
times the profit covers the interest. It shows the margin of cover to lenders of the company.
In other words, interest coverage ratio is helpful to test the firm’s debt servicing capacity.

= Net profit before interest

& Fixed interest
charges
11. Dividend Coverage Ratio:- This ratio indicates how many times the profit after tax covers the
dividend of preference share holders

= Profit after tax

(PAT )
Preference
Dividend

Activity Ratios or Turn over Ratios or Current Assets movement or Efficiency Ratios
In any business funds are invested in various assets to earn sale and profit. If the management of
assets is better, then amount of sale and profit will be higher. Efficiency ratios measures the
efficiency and effectiveness with which company manages its resources & assets. These are also
called turn over ratios, because these ratios indicate the speed with which assets are converted into
sale like stock into sale.
1. (a) Inventory /Stock turnover ratio- A firm must have reasonable stock of inventories in
comparison to sales. The level of inventory should neither be too high nor too low.
Inventory/ Stock turn over Ratio = cost of goods sold
Average inventory
Net sales inventory
or =
average
 Average inventory at selling price
or = Net sales
(b) Inventory Conversion period- It is also important to see average time taken for clearing
the stocks.
365/ 360
=
inventory turn over ratio
Interpretation
This ratio measures the velocity of conversion of stock into sales.
A high inventory turnover indicates efficient management of inventory because if stock are sold
speedly lesser amount of money will be involved in inventory.
A low inventory turnover indicates dull business, accumulation of obsolete stock poor
investment in inventories.
2. Debtors/ Receivables turn over or debtors velocity- Generally all the business firms sales
goods on credit as well as for cash credit is considered as tool for higher sale. It is expected
that business debtors can be converted in cash within the short period, and due this they are
included in the current assets.
Net credit sales
=
average accounts
receivables
It should be noted that
i. Average account receivable = Average Debtors + Average B/R
ii.
Average Debtors = opening debtors +closing debtors
2
iii.
Average B/R = opening B/R+closingB /R
2
Interpretation
Debtors velocity indicates the number of times the debtors are turned over during the year. If the
turnover is higher, it shows higher liquidity and efficiency of management. On the other hand low
debtors turnover implies poor liquidity and less efficient management.
3. Average collection period or debts collection period- By this ratio a form comes to know that
in how many days its receivables will be converted into cash.

= average debtors x 365/12

and B/R net

credit sale
4. Creditors turnover ratio or creditors velocity or payable turnover- creditors turnover ratio is
similar to creditors turnover ratio is similar to debtors turnover ratio. It indicates the speed
with which the payment are made to the creditors.

= net credit purchase

average A/C
payables
It should be noted that
i. Average accounts payable= Average Creditors + Average bills payable
ii.
Average Creditors = opening creditors +closing creditors
2
iii. Average bills payable = opening B/P+closingB /P

2
5. Average payment period- It indicates the average days which a firm takes to make payment to
its creditors.
Average x 365/ 12
= Or = Months / Days in a year
A/cpayable Creditor turnover
Credit Purcahse
Significance
Both the creditors turn over ratio and the average payment period indicates the promptness in
making payments to creditors.
Generally, lower the ratio, better the liquidity position of the firm and higher ratio implies less
liquidity position of the firm.
 6. Working capital turn over ratio- Working capital of every firm is directly related with its
sales because it increase and decrease with change in current assets & current liabilities
sales
=
2 average working capital
Average working capital = opening W/C+closingW /C
2
If the sale is not given, the figure of COGS can be used
Working capital turnover ratio = Sales / cost of sales
net working capital
7. Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio- This ratio measure the efficiency as well as profit earning
capacity of the firm
sales
=
net fixed assets
Net fixed assets = value of assets – depreciation

Some Important Terminologies

1. Miscellaneous expenses.
Under this head we include fictitious assets which are as under-
a) Preliminary expenses
b) Underwriting Commission
c) Discount on issue of shares and debentures
d) Development expenditure
e) Debit balance of P/L A/c (loss)
2. Current Assets
a) Cash in hand b) Cash at bank
c) Bills receivables d) Debtors
e) Short term investments/Marketable securities/ Government securities
f) Accrued income g) Prepaid expenses h) Stock or inventory
3. Liquid Assets
Assets Which can be easily converted into cash is known as liquid assets.
Liquid Assets = Current Assets – Stock – Prepaid

4. Absolute Liquid Assets

Cash + Bank + Marketable Securities

5. Current Liabilities
a) Creditors b) Bills Payables c) Outstanding Expenses
d) Unearned income advance income e) Short term loans f) Bad debts reserves
g) Provision for tax h) Bank overdraft (i) Tax Payable
j) Dividend Payable/Unclaimed dividend
6. Liquid liabilities

Liquid liabilities = Current Liabilities – Bank overdraft

Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities

7. Working Capital
8. Long term loans / liabilities / Long term Debts
a) Debentures b) Mortgage loan c) Bank loan d) Unsecured loans e) Secured loans
9. Total debts/ total liabilities/ external liabilities

Total debts = Current liabilities +long term liabilities

10. Capital employed

Capital Employed =

Share capital + Reserves and Surplus + Secured loans + Unsecured loans – misc.

11. Cost of goods sold

COGS = Sales – Gross profit

Or
12. Operating net profit
Operating Net Profit = Gross Profit – Operating expenses

Or
13. Average Stock
Average = Opening stock + Closing stock
Stock

14. Receivables
Receivables = Debtors + Bills receivables

15. Payables
Payables = Creditors + Bills payables
16. Proprietors fund/ shareholders fund/ owners equity/ equity/ Net worth/ Net assets

Share capital + Reserve & Surplus – Miscellaneous expenditure

18
 FUNDS FLOW ANALYSIS

Meaning and purpose

The purpose of this statement is to summaries for a given period the resources made available
to finance the activities of the enterprise and the uses to which such resources have been put. It was
defined by AS-3 (Prior to revision) as “a statement that summarizes for the period covered by it, the
changes in financial position including the sources from which such funds were applied.”
This statement is also known as:
i) Statement of sources and application of funds
ii) Where got where gone statement

Meaning of funds – The meaning of funds in flow statement is working capital, is the difference
between current assets and current assets and current liabilities. The business transactions increasing
working capital are known as sources of funds and the transactions decreasing the working capital
are known as applicable or uses of funds.

Importance, significance and uses of funds flow statement –

I) For Management –
1) Act as a future guide
2) Help I the proper allocation of resources
3) Effective use of working capital
4) Formation of dividend policy
5) Demand of funds flow statement by bank
6) Helpful in financial analysis
7) Helpful in comparative study

II) Importance for shareholders

III) Importance for creditors
IV) Importance for researchers

19
Limitations of funds flow statement
Obviously funds flow statement is having number of advantages but along with these it has some
limitations also, which are as follows –
1) Funds flow statement cannot become a substitute of balance sheet, because it provides only
additional information about the firm.
2) This statement can’t show continuous changes in business.
3) Changes in cash is more important than change in working capital and this statement does
not provide any information about cash.
4) Funds flow statement does not include fixed assets and liabilities in it. Whereas balance sheet
provides more important information about fixed assets and liabilities.

Schedule of working capital changes

At the end of Working capital changes
Particulars
Previous year Current year Increase Decrease
(A) Current Assets:
Cash in hand ……………….. ………………..
Cash at Bank ……………….. ………………..
Bills receivable ……………….. ………………..
Debtors ……………….. ………………..
Total of (A) ……………….. ………………..
(B) Current Liabilities:
Creditors ……………….. ………………..

20
 Bill Payable ……………….. ………………..
Outstanding expenses ……………….. ………………..
Total of (B) ……………….. ………………..
(C) Working Capital:
[Total of A – Total of B] ……………….. ………………..
Increase or decrease in ……………….. ………………..
working capital.

Funds Flow Statement

Sources Amount Application Amount
Sources of funds - Application of uses of funds -
1) Issues of shares/debenture ……………….. 1) Redemption of preference ………………..
shares/debentures
2) Long term loans raised ……………….. 2) Repayment of long term loan ………………..
3) Sale of fixed assets ……………….. 3) Purchase of fixed assets ………………..
4) Income on investment i.e. ……………….. 4) Payment of proposed ………………..
interest divided, rent received etc. dividend for previous year
5) Profit or fund from operations ……………….. 5) Loss from operations ………………..
6) Decrease in working capital ……………….. 6) Increase in working capital ………………..
Total ……………….. Total ………………..

Fixed Assets Account (at cost price)

To balance b/d ……………….. To Bank a/c
(cost price) (Sale of fixed assets)
To Share Capital/Debentures A/c ……………….. To Provision for depreciation A/c
(Issue for purchase of fixed assets) (Accumulated dep. On assets sold)
To P&L A/c ……………….. By P&L A/c
(Profit on sale of fixed assets) (Loss on sale of assets)
To Bank A/c ……………….. By Balance c/d
(Purchase of fixed assets) (Cost price)
Total ……………….. Total ………………

Provision for Depreciation A/c

Particular Amount Particular Amount
To Fixed Assets A/c ……………….. By Balance b/d ……………
(Accumulated dep. Of assets sold or
written off)
To Balance c/d ……………….. By P&L A/c ……………
(Current year deprecations)
Total ……………….. Total ………………

21
 Calculations of profit (Fund) or loss from operation
Particular Amount
Net Profit after tax ………………..
Add: Non-cash item
Depreciation ………………..
Goodwill written off ………………..
Preliminary expenses written off ………………..
Advertisement expenses written off ………………..
Underwriting commission written off ………………..
Development expenses written off ………………..

Add: Non-operating losses & expenses

Discount on issue of shares & debentures ………………..
Loss on sale of fixed assets ………………..
Loss on sale of long term investments ………………..
Premium on redemption of preference shares & debentures ………………..

Less: Non-operation income

Profit on sale of fixed assets ………………..
Profit on long-term investment ………………..
Discount on redemption of preference shares and debentures ………………..
Interest and divided received ………………..
Profit or Loss from operation ………………..

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 CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
(As Per Accounting Standard-3)

INTRODUCTION:
Cash flow analysis is another important technique of financial analysis. It involves preparation of Cash
Flow Statement for identifying sources and applications of cash; Cash flow statement may be prepared
on the basis of actual or estimated data. In the latter case, it is termed as 'Projected Cash Flow
Statement', which is synonymous with the term 'Cash Budget'. In the following pages we shall explain
in detail in preparation of cash flow statement, utility and limitations of cash flow analysis etc.

MEANING OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

A Cash Flow Statement is a statement depicting change in cash position from one period to another.

Difference between funds flow statement and cash flow statement –

S.No. Basis of Funds Flow Statement Cash Flow Statement
Difference
1 Concept and It is based on the broad concept It is based on the narrow concept of
scope of fund, i.e. on working capital. fund i.e. cash.
2 Basis of This statement is useful in This statement is useful in planning of
usefulness planning of medium term and short-term funds i.e. cash and its
long term sources of finance. equivalents.
3 Basis of In this statement accounting is In this statement accounting is done
accounting done on accrual basis, thus no on cash basis, thus adjustment about
adjustment is required. outstanding and prepaid expenses is
required.
4 Separate Schedule of changes in working No schedule is prepared along with
schedule capital is prepared along with this statement.
this statement.
5 Method of This statements shows sources This statement is prepared by classify
preparing and applications of funds. Net cash inflows and outflows in
difference between sources and operating, investing and financing
application of funds represents activities. The net difference
increase or decrease in working represents increase or decrease in
capital. cash and cash equivalents.
6 Amendment This statement does not show Cash is a part of working capital. Thus
strong fund (working capital) improvement in cash position shown by
and strength of cash can’t be the cash flow statement in considered s
assessed. an improvement in working capital.

23
Use and significance of cash flow statement –
1) Helpful in the evaluation of present cash position of the firm
2) Helpful to the management
3) Knowledge about liability redemption capacity
4) Knowledge about important facts
5) Helpful in formulation of policies
6) Helpful in the evaluation of financial policies and present cash position
7) Useful to outsiders
8) Find variation and performance
9) As per AS-3
10) Full information

Limitations of cash flow statement

1) Difficult to define cash
2) Liquidity cannot be assessed
3) No clear picture
4) Scope becomes narrow
5) Not equivalent to income statement

FORMAT OF CASH FLOW STATEMENT

(AS-3 Direct Method)
A. Cash flows operating activities Rs. Rs.
Cash receipts from customers
Cash paid to suppliers and employees
Taxes paid
Other receipts
Net cash from operating activities (1)
B. Cash flows from investing activities
Purchase of fixed assets/investments
Sale of fixed assets/investments
Interest received
Dividend received
Net cash from investing activities (2)
C. Cash flows from financing activities
Issue of shares/debentures
Long-term borrowings taken
Redemption of Pref. shares/debentures
Repayment of long term loans
Interest paid
Dividend paid
Repayment of bank overdraft
Drawings by proprietors / partners
Net cash from financing activities (3)
Net Increase in cash and cash equivalents (A+B+C)

24
 Cash and cash equivalents at the beginning
Cash and cash equivalents at the end
Cash flows shown in bracket are treated as minus figures while
making total.
CASH FLOW STATEMENT
(Indirect Method)
A. Cash flows operating activities Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of profit & loss account
Less: Opening balance of profit & loss account
Profit after appropriation
Add: Items of appropriation:
1) Interim dividend
2) Final dividend/proposed dividend (current year)
3) Transfer to general reserve
4) Transfer to other reserve
5) Provision for taxation
6) Issue of bonus share
Add: Non-cash items :
1) Depreciation
2) Goodwill written off
3) Preliminary expenses written off
4) Discount on issue of shares/debenture written of
5) Other fictitious assets written off
6) Provision for contingencies
Add: Non-operating expenses/losses
1) Loss on sale of fixed assets
2) Premium on redemption of Pref. share and debenture
3) Interest paid
4) Foreign exchange loss
5) Loss on sale of investment
Less: Non-operating income :
1) Profit on sale of fixed assets
2) Discount on redemption of preference shares/debentures
3) Interest received
4) Dividend received
5) Profit on sale of investment
Add: Decrease in current assets (except cash and bank)
Increase in current liabilities (except bank overdraft)
Less: Increase in current assets (except cash and bank)
Decrease in current liabilities (except bank overdraft)
Less: Payment of income-tax
Cash from operating activities →
B. Cash flows from investing activities
Sale of fixed assets / investment
Less: Purchases of fixed assets/investment
Add: Interest received
Dividend received
Non-operating surplus
Cash flows from investment activities →
C. Cash flows from financing activities:
Issue of shares/debentures
Add: Long term borrowing
Less: Redemption of preference shares/debentures
Repayment of long term loan
Interest paid
Divided paid

25
 Repayment of bank overdraft
Drawings by proprietors / partners
Cash flows from financing activities →
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents (A+B+C)
Add: Opening balance of cash & cash equivalents →
Closing balance of cash & cash equivalents →
Note: Cash & cash equivalents = Cash + Bank + Short term investments

26