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LIFS1902 Digestion and Nutrition Revision Notes

DIGESTION

Gut is a tube within a tube, comes from the endoderm.

Ingestion -eating.

Digestion – breaking down complex compounds into small molecules.

Absorption – break-down products or nutrients are absorbed into the blood and carried to cells in
the body.

Elimination – undigested material is removed from body as waste.

Digestive tract – 4 layers inside to outside called mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa

Mucosa – secretes digestive enzymes.

Sub-mucosa – contains blood vessels and lymph nodules.

Muscularis – muscle layers – circular and longitudinal.

Serosa – moist, slippery connective tissue.

Main sites of digestion

Part of gastrointestinal Chemical (C) Details

tract /Mechanical (M)
breakdown of food
Mouth Chemical + M– action of tongue and teeth.
Mechanical C – Enzyme - salivary amylase, which digests
starch by catalysing the hydrolysis of starch
(polysaccharide) to maltose (disaccharide).
Stomach Chemical + M – stomach churns via 3 layers of muscle.
Mechanical C – Enzyme – pepsin – digests proteins into
smaller peptides.
C – Hydrochloric acid – pH 2.
Duodenum (small Chemical Bile – digestion of fats to fatty acids and glycerol
intestine) Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic enzymes
(e.g. trypsin, which breaks down proteins into
peptides)
Pancreatic juice contains bicarbonate –
neutralises stomach acid.

Main sites of absorption

Part of gastrointestinal tract Absorbed components

Stomach Alcohol + other liquids
Small intestine Most nutrients from digested food are absorbed here.
Large intestine (colon) Water, salts and nutrients
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Small intestine (jejunum and ileum) contains Peyer’s patches – part of immune system – scan
contents of gut to detect foreign antigens. Stimulates activation of T- and B-lymphocytes (also see
week 9 Immune system).

Nutrients absorbed through villi, which contain blood capillaries and lacteals.

Glucose and amino acids carried directly into blood capillaries. Fats carried into lacteals before
entering blood.

Hormones involved in the digestive system

Gastrin – released by stomach after a meal.

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – released by wall of duodenum. Feeds back and inhibits secretions
produced by gastric glands in stomach.

Secretin – stimulate actions of pancreas, liver and gall bladder -pancreas produces pancreatic juice,
liver increases output of bile and gall bladder releases the bile being stored.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) - stimulate actions of pancreas, liver and gall bladder - -pancreas produces
pancreatic juice, liver increases output of bile and gall bladder releases the bile being stored.

Leptin – made by fat cells, helps to suppress appetite, acts via receptors in hypothalamus.

PYY (Peptide tyrosine tyrosine)– secreted by small intestine after a meal. Suppresses appetite.
Counteracts action of ghrelin. Receptors in hypothalamus and brainstem.

Ghrelin – secreted by wall of stomach. Triggers feelings of hunger, i.e., appetite stimulant. Receptors
in hypothalamus and brainstem.

Insulin – secreted by pancreas following rise on blood sugar after a meal. Drives uptake of sugar.

Glucagon – secreted by pancreas – drives release of glucose.

Accessory organs

Pancreas

– Secretes insulin and glucagon – ENDOcrine function

- Secretes pancreatic juices – EXOcrine function.

Pancreatic juices consist of:

1) Sodium bicarbonate – neutralizes low pH (pH 2) of stomach juices.

2) Enzymes, e.g., pancreatic amylase – breaks down starch into maltose
3) Enzymes, e.g., trypsin – protease – breaks down proteins into peptides
4) Enzymes, e.g., lipase – digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol.
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Liver

Many important jobs:

Secretes bile, which is transported in bile duct and stored in gall bladder.

(Bile – detergent – helps solubilize fats in food).

Detoxifies and removes poisons from the blood.

Removes and stores iron.

Keeps vitamins in balance.

Makes proteins – e.g., lipid-carrying protein in small intestine.

Regulates cholesterol levels

Regulates glucose levels. Too much glucose -> gets converted to glycogen (complex carbohydrate).

Gallbladder

This is where bile (made in liver) is stored and concentrated.

Gallbladder stimulated to contract via action of cholecystokinin (CCK).

Microbiome

Digestion ALSO helped by the trillions of bacteria in our gut.

Most common bacteria: Escherichia coli

Main jobs include:

Fermentation of indigestible food components

Synthesis of some essential vitamins: B12, thiamine and riboflavin, and Vitamin K.

Removes toxins

Out-competes pathogens for space – called ‘competitive exclusion’.

Strengthens the intestinal barrier

Stimulates/regulates immune system.

Digestive disorders

Ulcers

Found in:

Esophagus, Stomach (Gastric/peptic), and small intestine.

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Mainly in stomach.

Due to bacteria called Helicobacter pylori.

Used to be treated by surgery….now treated with antibiotics.

Constipation

Diarrhoea – can be caused by E. coli.

Polyps and colon cancer – can be benign or cancerous.

NUTRITION

Intake of nutrients

6 major classes – carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water.

Underconsumption results in malnutrition.

Overconsumption results in obesity (BMI of 30+)

BMI = mass (kg) / (height (m))2

Food pyramid established by US Dept Agriculture now replaced by ‘MyPlate’.

This indicates that we should be consuming:

~40% vegetables / ~30% grains / ~20% protein / ~10% fruit / Minimal dairy

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates digested to glucose.

Glycemic index (GI) – measures how fast food converted to blood sugar.

High GI – chips, biscuits, cake, ice cream

Low GI – vegetables, oats, oranges

Complex carbohydrates (e.g., found in whole-grain foods) slowly digested to sugar, and they contain
soluble and insoluble fiber.

Proteins

Dietary proteins digested to amino acids (aa)

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We have 20 naturally occurring aa.

9 aa are essential as we cannot make them, so we need to get them from our diet.

Remaining 11 aa can be synthesized in our body.

Amino acids required by our cells but not stored by cells, so we need a regular supply

Lipids

Oils, fats, and cholesterol

Lipids that contain a phosphate group are called phospholipids – found in cell membranes.

Fats are precursors of steroids such as cholesterol and some hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen,
and progesterone)

Fats made up of fatty acids.

Main types of fat – saturated (no double bond), monounsaturated (one double bond), and
polyunsaturated (more than one double bond).

Saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature whereas unsaturated fats tend to be liquid.

Trans-fats – the worst kind! Not found in nature…made by food manufacturers who removed double
bonds from polyunsaturated fat to make it more solid.

Trans fats affect our cholesterol levels.

Vitamins

Organic compounds that the body requires for metabolic purposes, but it cannot make.

Many are co-enzymes or co-factors – required for the action of enzymes. Vitamins A, C and E are
NOT co-enzymes but are thought to be antioxidants.

Vitamins A, D, E, and K are hydrophobic but soluble in fat.

Other 9 (8 B vitamins and vitamin C) are water soluble.

Minerals

Major minerals – calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium; Trace minerals – iron, iodine

Water

Main constituent of the fluids of most living organisms, vital for all known forms of life

We can survive a few weeks without food but only a few days without water.