T

ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS

An Introduction to
various survey
techniques
Prepared By
Dr. P C JHA
HOD, Engg. Geophysics Deptt.

November 09, 2009

Presented By
SANDEEP NELLIAT
Scientist-II, Engg. Geophysics Deptt.
 Engineering Geophysics :

The branch of geophysics using artificial source

is called Exploration Geophysics.

Engineering geophysics is a microcosm of this

branch with main focus on site characterisation
for engineering applications

This is a specialised branch of geophysics in

which conventional exploration tools are
applied to achieve very high resolution.

Investigations are limited to just 100m depth or

distance with an accuracy of 90% or more.

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

 Geophysical Investigations - basis

Geophysical investigation is basically a non-

destructive evaluation (NDE) tool based on
inversion of recorded signals

The strength and magnitude of signal is

correlated to the physical properties of the
medium

The success of a particular technique is based on

the measurable contrast in the physical property
(density, resistivity, conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, EM
permittivity, radio activity, etc.)

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

 How interpreted ? :

When correlating with medium properties,

supplementary information is essential –(site
geology and borehole log)

When doing Travel-Time inversion or reduction of

potential field data, pattern recognition for
standard subsurface traits is given credence

Inversion of SIGNALS is fundamental to

geophysical data processing.

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

 Site Characterisation :

Site characterisation implies determining

suitability of site by direct and indirect means
to lay down the geological boundary
conditions and to know the competence of the
rock medium.

It also suggests suitable modification of the

design parameters of construction for the
specific site condition.

Engineering Geophysics aids in site characterisation by

precision mapping/ imaging
Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF
 How EG aids to Site charcterisation ?

Engineering Geophysics aids in site characterisation

practice by mapping subsurface for

• Presence of any geological pitfalls

• Presence of any hidden defect

• Rockmass characterisitics
(mapping various layers with their engg.
properties)

This significantly reduces the cost & time overrun in

projects caused due to unexpected failures. It also provides
exact locations for confirmatory drilling.

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

 Application areas :

Civil Engineering
¾ Foundation Evaluation
¾ Site Characterisation
¾ Mapping of defects

Mining Engineering
¾ Locating old mine workings
¾ Mapping of barrier in coal mines
¾ Stability studies

NIRM, KGF
Stages in Geophysical investigations :

1 Before starting – Reconnaissance

2 During execution – Detailed survey

3 Post failure – Diagnostics

4 General – Trouble shooting

Each stage has a focused theme !

 Survey before construction :

A reconnaissance survey is required to

1 Better idea of subsurface geology

2 Map the presence of geological anomaly

3 Map the bed rock profile

4 Construct a feasibility model

Survey during construction :
Detailed geophysical investigation is
required during construction stage for

1 Rockmass characterisation

2 Evolving design guidelines

3 Trouble shooting for problems

4 Locate weak zones

Post-failure investigations :
Assessment of damage or the extent
of restoration is a prime concern !

1 Extent of damage ?

2 Likely cause of damage ?

3 Draw guidelines fro restoration work

4 Efficacy of restoration ?
Trouble-shooting Survey :
Geophysical surveys are often
requisitioned in case of assessing

1 Stability of structures

2 Mapping of cavities, voids etc.

3 Subsidence related risks

4 Thickness of barriers, rebars etc.

 Opting for a survey techniques :

Choice of geophysical technique is

essentially choosing a signal type

The signal type opted should

resolve the desired feature with
maximum enhancement

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

Choice of signals in Engg Geophy :
Geophysical Investigation

• Seismic or vibratory signal – as

used with refraction survey

• Electrical current signals as

used in resistivity survey

• Radio signals as used in GPR

mapping and imaging

NIRM, KGF
 Selecting a survey
Based on objective (s) :
• Engineering properties ?

• Imaging the defects ?

• Reconnaissance alone ?

Based on location :
• From surface or underground

• From or across borehole(s)

Geophysical Investigation NIRM, KGF

 When to use Seismic Survey ?
Geophysical Investigation

• When engineering properties of

the medium is to be assessed!

• When vibratory damage is not a

matter of concern !!

• Stratigraphy mapping is the

main objective !!!

NIRM, KGF
 When to use Electrical Survey ?
Geophysical Investigation

• When ground water table is to

be mapped !

• When fracture or shear zone is

the main objective !!

• When ground is not conducting

or super-charged !!!

NIRM, KGF
 When to use GPR Survey ?
Geophysical Investigation

• When defect mapping is the main

objective !

• When further damage to medium

is a matter of concern !!

• When ground is not conducting

nor there is any RF interference !!!

NIRM, KGF
 When to use borehole Survey ?
Geophysical Investigation

• When foundation defect is to be

mapped !

• When surface survey is not

feasible at all !!

• When high resolution imaging is

essential for stability studies !!!

NIRM, KGF
Survey Techniques Explained

1. Seismic survey
 SEISMIC SURVEYS

Types of Survey :

• Refraction : First arrival

• Reflection : Picking up phase

• Spectral : Frequency of signals

 Refraction Technique :

Basis of application :

• Rock type becomes harder with depth.

• Seismic velocity increases with depth.

• Sudden change in velocity is a major

defect – shear, fault, intrusion or ??
Constituents of refraction survey :

• Vibratory source
[Hammer & shock plate or explosive or sparker ]

• Transducer or sensor
[geophones – vertical or triaxial]

• Recorder or seismograph
[Multi-channel, digital, stacking type ]
Layout for seismic survey :
Recording seismic signals :

We pick up first arrivals only

 Field set-up

Geophones are spread in a linear

fashion at fixed intervals (5-
12.5m) along the line of survey.
Length of profile line determines
the depth of investigation.
Multi layered case - Intercept time

• Break in trend of travel time plot reflects a different layer.

• Intercept time determines the layer-thickness.

 Seismic velocities in various rocks :

Topsoil
Clay
Glacial rocks
Igneous rocks
GGranite
GBasalt
Sedimentary rocks
SShale
SSandstone
SSiltstone
SClaystone
SConglomerate
SBreccia
SCaliche
Metamorphic rocks
MSchist
MSlate
Minerals & Ores
MCoal
MIron Ore
Seismic velocity under dry and wet conditions:
When seismic refraction survey fails ?

• Various subsurface layers have

overlapping seismic velocity !

• Layer velocity contrast is very low

(<10%) !!

• Range-resolution is not properly

decided in the survey layout (?)

Experienced user
2. Electrical survey

NIRM, KGF
 Basis of Resistivity Survey :

• Source : DC & AC current

• Signal is transmitted through target

• Target identified by resistivity range

• Imaging and Sounding methods

NIRM, KGF
 How much to probe ?

Depth of penetration depends upon :

1. Moisture & Fracture

2. Medium property

3. Strength of signal

4. Layout for survey

NIRM, KGF
Operating Principle

In all types of
electrical methods of
survey, we essentially
measure voltage (PD)
across two points
generated by sending a
current into the
subsurface in a typical
array/ fashion.

NIRM, KGF
Various Electrode configurations :

1. Wenner
2. Schlumberger
3. Pole-Pole
4. Pole-Dipole
5. Dipole-dipole and
6. A combination of any two

NIRM, KGF
 Illustration of electrode arrays
Wenner Dipole-Dipole

Pole-Dipole
Schlumberger

Gradient

NIRM, KGF
Resistivity Imaging Survey :

Dipole-dipole array

NIRM, KGF
Field set-up for resistivity imaging :

NIRM, KGF
 The resistivity meter :

Front view of control panel

NIRM, KGF
Electrical Resistivity in different rocks

NIRM, KGF
 When the resistivity method fails ?

• Various layers have too much

overlapping resistivity values !

• When attempted to infer medium

stratigraphy !!

• Improper choice of array or

improper design of layout (?)

• Medium is very conducting !!!

Experienced user

NIRM, KGF
3. GPR survey

NIRM, KGF
GPR- Ground Penetrating Radar

• Source : High frequency radio waves

Range : 10-3000MHz

• Transmitter & Receiver – antennas

Passive elements

• Recorder : Notebook PC interface

Reflected & Transmitted signals

NIRM, KGF
 Types of GPR
Based on the hardware used for the GPR source,
they may be classified in to various categories

• Impulse Radar (IR)

• FMCW Radar

• Pulse compression Radar (PCR)

• Synthetic aperture Radar (SAR)

• Stepped Frequency Radar (SFR)

Note : NIRM uses SFR designed by NGI

NIRM, KGF
 How it works ?
• Source sends radio waves into
subsurface

• Signal is reflected by target

• Target identified by pattern recognition

Depth of penetration is governed by:

1. Frequency (n)

2. Dielectric Permittivity (ε)

3. Conductivity (σ)

NIRM, KGF
Operating Principle of GPR

Schematic
representation
of ray-path

NIRM, KGF
Experimental Set-up of SFR

Elements :
• Antenna
• Cables
• Amplifiers
• DAQ Card
• Notebook PC

NIRM, KGF
GPR Profiling from Surface :

NIRM, KGF
GPR Sounding – Offset & Frequency

Frequency and
antenna separation
are changed at
each stage

NIRM, KGF
GPR antennas : Open type

50 MHz antenna pair

Type : Plate antenna
Coverage : 2mX2m

NIRM, KGF
GPR antennas : Shielded type

1500, 500 & 1000 MHz pairs

Purpose : to arrest pseudo-reflections

NIRM, KGF
GPR antennas : Borehole type

Frequency can be
Changed by adding
extra cables

NIRM, KGF
 Basic facts of GPR Survey

GPR section is a plot of Two way Travel Time

irrespective of reflector’s Character ?

Unlike seismic or electrical methods,

there is no information about the
medium property !

Therefore, GPR survey is of very

little use on a virgin ground !!

GPR works only on the strength of

Pattern recognition !!!

NIRM, KGF
What is Pattern Recognition ?

• Specific refelction pattern is formed by

sweeping process across the target

• Unknown patterns is the main suspect

for a hidden defect

• GPR is used mainly for defect mapping !

• Guided probing and fast data processing

makes GPR survey - the most enviable
tool in trouble-shooting applications !

NIRM, KGF
Where GPR survey will not work ?

• When subsurface is totally unknown.

• Medium is highly conducting

• Constant RF interference in signal

• Clutter and surface reflections dominant

• Presence of multiple echos ??

• Range-resolution ratio is compromised !

NIRM, KGF
4. Borehole geophysical
Investigations
Borehole geophysics – a departure

Borehole geophysical methods are

exceptions to the Non-invasive realm of
conventional geophysical investigations.

In these methods, we expand the use of

holes already drilled to access the
subsurface on a very localized basis.

It all started with logging of boreholes

for formation evaluation exercise in oil
exploration.
Why borehole geophysics ?
It provides valuable information in
inaccessible areas like across water body,
steep slope and forests, where surface
survey is not feasible.

Additional information is obtained from

holes already drilled.

High resolution imagery is obtained

irrespective of depth thus avoiding a
major limitation of surface survey.

Borehole Geophysical Investigations are

yet to catch-up the application areas in
Engineering Studies in India.
 Requisites for borehole survey

• Survey can be done from single hole for

profiling on a small-scale

• Between two boreholes for lateral property

variation or for complete imaging

• Between a set of borehole (at least 3 or 4)

for 3-D imaging.

• Boreholes need to be protected with casing

for the safety of probe.
 Methods of Investigations

• Almost all geophysical methods are also

adapted for use in borehole investigations

• Seismic methods are commonly used for

determining engineering properties

• GPR technique is used for precision imaging

and mapping of defects

• Electrical Resistivity Tomography is used for

correlation exercise.

At NIRM, we use only

Seismic and GPR techniques
Investigations from
single hole
 : Types of investigation :

• UP-hole and down-hole seismic survey

• Borehole GPR profiling

• Multi-parametric logging

We have expertise to carry-out only

directional borehole profiling using
high frequency GPR !
(max. probing up to 10m)
Down-hole seismic survey

In this technique,
receivers are in the
borehole and source
is on the surface.

This is used to obtain

average seismic
velocity in layered
medium.

Survey preferred in
inaccessible terrain,
depth no bar !
Up-hole seismic survey

In this technique,
receivers are on the
surface and source is
in the borehole.

This is used to obtain

average seismic
velocity in layered
medium.

Method of
investigation is not
so common !
 Borehole GPR Profiling

Unlike seismic, here both

source and receivers are put
together in the borehole.!

Guided-probing is a must to
interpret the result
correctly!!

NIRM has developed a

sheath to house GPR
antenna for guided probing.

Guided GPR probe developed for

Borehole profiling
Survey lay-out for borehole profiling

BGPR is mostly used to

probe the defect in a
particular direction

Tx and Rx antennas have

to kept a constant offset

They have to be moved

together at fixed interval
for a four-fold imaging

Depth of probing is site-specific based on

selection of frequency band within the
prevalent resonant spectrum.
Investigations from
two holes
 : Types of investigation :

• Cross-hole survey

• Cross-hole tomography in time and

attenuation domain

• FDAT – in GPR survey only

• 3-D imaging - in seismic survey only

 : Available expertise :

We have expertise to carry-out both

Seismic (P-wave) and GPR (FDAT and
TD) tomography as well as 3-D
seismic imaging with borehole
spacing up to 100m

Shear wave survey – in hot demand

now-a-days !!!
Data acquisition in tomography

Tomography is a type
of cross-hole survey in
which transmitter and
receivers are in two
different boreholes

Transmitted signal
from one borehole is
recorded at series of
receiver locations,
sequentially (in GPR)
or simultaneously
(seismic)
Ray paths in tomographic
data acquisition
Overall ray-path in a
tomography survey is
a mesh of N1XN2,
where N1 is the no. of
transmitter locations
and N2 is the no. of
receiver locations

This generates a
N1XN2 data matrix of
travel-time against
respective distances
(coordinates)
Layout for Cross-hole Tomography

Frequency and time domain

inversion for attenuation
and medium velocity
Identifies defect

FDAT is an innovation of NIRM !

NIRM, KGF
A typical 2-D tomogram :
End of Methodology
Session

Thank You!