COMPUTATION OF AREA AND VOLUME

Aim:
One of the main objectives of the surveying is to compute the areas and volumes.
Generally, the lands will be of irregular shaped polygons. There are formulae readily
available for regular polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square and other polygons. But
for determining the areas of irregular polygons, different methods are used.
They are:
(1) Graphical method
(2) Co-ordinate method
(3) Planimeter
Out of these three methods, the co-ordinate method is popularly used, in land
surveying for computing catchment area, drainage area, cross section of rivers, channels
etc. Under this method the given area is split into two with a base line run at the centre.
There are two important rules available.
1. Trapezoidal Rule
In this method, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. Thus the area enclosed between these line and the irregular boundary lines are
considered as trapezoids.
d
A= [O1 + O n + 2(O 2 + O 3 + O 4 + ... + O n −1 )]
2
A = distance between ordinate/ 2*[{first ordinate + last ordinate} + 2{sum of other ordinates)

2. Simpson’s Rule:

A=
d
3
[ ]
O 1 + O n + 4 (O 2 + O 4 + ...) + 2 (O 3 + O 5 + ...)

Common dis tan ce (d ) (First ordinate + Last ordinate) + 4 (Sum of even ordinates) 
A= + 2 (Sum of odd ordinates) 
3  

Limitations:
 The rule is applicable only when the number of divisions is even or the number of
ordinates are odd sometimes one or both end ordinates may be zero. However hey must
be taken into account while applying rules.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an
interval of 10 m. 0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0 m. Compute the area between the
chain line, the irregular boundary line and the end offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
Here d = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 2 (2.50 + 3.50 + 5.00 + 4.60 + 3.20)} = 5 * 37.60 = 188 m2
2
(b) Simpson’s Rule
D = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 4(2.50 + 5.00 + 3.20) + 2(3.50 + 4.60)}= 10 * 59.00 = 196.66 m2
3 3
2. The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary line:
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80
Offset (m) 2.50 3.80 4.60 5.20 6.10 4.70 5.80 3.90 2.20

Find the area between the survey line, the curved boundary line and the first and
last offsets by (a) Trapezoidal Rule and (b) Simpson’s Rule.
Here, the intervals between the offsets are not regular throughout the length.
Soothe section is divided into three compartments.
Let,
∆1 = Area of the 1st section
∆2 = Are of the 2nd section
∆3 = Area of the 3rd section
Here,
d1 = 5 m
 d2 = 10 m
d3 = 20 m
(a) Trapezoidal Rule:
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 2(3.80 + 4.60 + 5.20)} = 89.50 m2
2
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 2(4.70)} = 106.50 m2
2
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 2(3.90)} = 158.00 m2
2
Total Area = 89.50 + 106.50 + 158.00 = 354.00 m2
(b) By Simpson’s Rule
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 4(3.80 + 5.20) + 2(4.60)} = 89.66 m2
3
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 4.70 } = 102.33 m2
3
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 4(3.90)} = 157.33 m2
3
Total area = 89.66 + 102.33 + 157.33 = 349.32 m2
EXERCISE
The following offsets were taken at 15 m intervals from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line. 3.50, 4.30, 6.75, 5.25, 7.50, 8.80, 7.90, 6.40, 4.40, 3.25 m. Calculate the
area enclosed between the survey line, the irregular boundary line and the first and last
offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
 COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES
The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in
the field is required in the design and planning on many engineering works. The volume
of earth work is required for suitable alignment of road works, canal and sewer lines, soil
and water conservation works, farm pond and percolation pond consent.
The computation of volume of various materials such as coal, gravel and is
required to check the stock files, volume computations are also required for estimation of
capacities of bins tanks etc.
For estimation of volume of earth work cross sections are taken at right angles to
a fixed line, which runs continuously through the earth work. The spacing of the cross
sections will depend upon the accuracy required. The volume of earth work is computed
once the various cross-sections are known, adopting Prismoidal rule and trapezoidal rule.
D
Trapezoidal rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 2(A 2 + A 3 + ... + A n −1 )]
2
D
Prismodial rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 4 (A 2 + A 4 + ...) + 2(A 3 + A 5 + ...)]
3
Where,
D - common distance between sections
A1, A2, …An = cross sectional areas
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. Compute the cost of earth work involved in cutting open a trench of following size.
Length 200 m, side slope 2: 1, depth of trench 4 m, bottom, width of trench 1.5 m. Cost
of earth work Rs. 50 per m3.
Cross sectional area of trench, A = (b + sh)*h
A = (1.5 + 2*4)*4
A = 9.5 * 4 = 38 m2
∴ Volume of earth work, V = A*L = 38 * 200 = 7600 m3
∴ Cost of earth work = 7600 * 50 = Rs. 3,80,000.00
2. Compute the volume of earth work involved in constructing a farm pond of the
following size: size, at bottom 6 x 4 m. Side slope 2: 1, depth of pond 4 m work out the
cost of earth work also if it costs Rs. 50 per m3.
 Size of pond at bottom =6x4m
Area at bottom = 24 m2 (a1)
Size of pond at ground level:
Length of pond = 6 + 8 + 8 = 22 m
Breadth of pond = 4 + 8 + 8 = 20 m
Cross sectional area of pond at ground level = 20 * 22 = 440 m2 (a3)
(22 + 6) (20 + 4)
Area of pond at mid height = * = 14 *12 = 168 m 2 (a2)
2 2
D
Using prismoidal rule, V= [a 2 + a 3 + 2(a 2 )]
2
D
V= [24 + 440 + 2(168)]
2
2
V= [464 + 336] = 800 m3
2
∴ Cost of earth work = 50 * 800 = Rs. 40, 000

EXERCISE
1. The three cross section of embankment at an interval of 30 m. Compute the volume of
earth required to form the embankment?
 2

AREAS AND VOLUMES

In civil engineering works such as designing of long bridges, dams, reservoirs, etc.,
the area of catchments of rivers is required. The areas of fields are also required for
planning and management of projects. The area is required for the title documents
of land.
In many civil engineering projects, earthwork involves excavation and removal and
dumping of earth, therefore it is required to make good estimates of volumes of
earthwork. Volume computations are also needed to determine the capacity of bins,
tanks, and reservoirs, and to check the stockpiles of coal, gravel, and other
material.
Computing areas and volumes is an important part of the office work involved in
surveying.

1. AREAS

The method of computation of area depends upon the shape of the boundary of the
tract and accuracy required. The area of the tract of the land is computed from its
plan which may be enclosed by straight, irregular or combination of straight and
irregular boundaries.

1.1 Computation of Areas of Regular Figures

When the boundaries are straight the area is determined by subdividing the plan
into simple geometrical figures such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc.
Standard expressions as given below are available for the areas of straight figures.

(a) Triangle:

Area of triangle =

in which C is the included angle between the sides a and b.

The area of a triangle whose lengths of sides are known can be computed by the
Formula:
Area = √
where a, b, and c are the lengths of sides of the triangle and s = (a + b + c).
 3

(b) Rectangle:
If b and ‗d‘ are the dimension of a rectangle,

(c) Trapezium:

where d is the distance between two parallel sides and h1 and h2 lengths of
parallel sides.

Units used for finding areas are square metres, hectare and square kilometre.
Relation among them are:

Hectare = 100 m × 100 m = 1 × 104 m2

Square kilometer = 1000 m × 1000 m = 1 × 106 m2

= 100 hectare

1.2 Areas of Irregular Shapes

For this purpose from a survey line offsets are taken at regular intervals and area is
calculated from any one of the following methods:
(a) Area by Trapezoidal rule
(b) Area by Simpson‘s rule.

(a) Area by Trapezoidal Rule:

In trapezoidal rule, the area is divided into a number of trapezoids, boundaries
being assumed to be straight between pairs of offsets.
 4

The area of each trapezoid is determined and added together to derive the whole
area. If there are n offsets at equal interval of d then the total area is

Example 1
Compute the area of the tract shown in Figure

Solution
By Equation above

(b) Area by Simpson‘s Rule

In Simpson's rule it is assumed that the irregular boundary is made up of

parabolic arcs. The areas of the successive pairs of intercepts are added
together to get the total area.

To derive the equation of Simpson‘s Rule

 5

In this method, the boundary line between two segment is assumed parabolic.
The first two segments of figure above in which boundary between the ordinates is
assumed parabolic.
∴ Area of the first two segments
 7

Area of Irregularly Spaced Offsets

For irregularly curved boundaries like that in Figure 12.3, the spacing of offsets
along the reference line varies. Spacing should be selected so that the curved
boundary is accurately defined when adjacent offset points on it are connected by
straight lines. A formula for calculating area for this case is:

Where a, b, c are the varying offset spaces, and h0, h1, h2 are the observed offsets.
Example:

Solution

Area by coordinates
 8

Computation of area within a closed polygon is most frequently done by the

coordinate method. In this procedure, coordinates of each angle point in the figure
must be known. They are normally obtained by traversing, although any method
that yields the coordinates of these points is appropriate.
The coordinate method is easily visualized; it reduces to one simple equation that
applies to all geometric configurations of closed polygons and is readily
programmed for computer solution.
The procedure for computing areas by coordinates can be developed with reference
to Figure as shown:

As shown in that figure, it is convenient (but not necessary) to adopt a reference

coordinate system with the X and Y axes passing through the most southerly and
the most westerly traverse stations, respectively.
 9

Lines BBʹ, CCʹ, DDʹ and EEʹ in the figure are constructed perpendicular to the Y
axis. These lines create a series of trapezoids and triangles (shown by different
color shadings). The area enclosed with traverse ABCDEA can be expressed in
terms of the areas of these individual trapezoids and triangles as:

Each of the trapezoids and triangles of Equation (12.5) can be expressed by

coordinates in a similar manner. Substituting these coordinate expressions into
Equation (12.5), multiplying by 2 to clear fractions, and rearranging

Equation (12.6) can be reduced to an easily remembered form by listing the X and
Y coordinates of each point in succession in two columns, as shown in Equation
(12.7), with coordinates of the starting point repeated at the end. The products
noted by diagonal arrows are ascertained with dashed arrows considered plus and
solid ones minus. The algebraic summation of all products is computed and its
absolute value divided by 2 to get the area.
 10

The procedure indicated in Equation (12.7) is applicable to calculating any size

traverse. The following formula, easily derived from Equation (12.6), is a variation
that can also be used,

It was noted earlier that for convenience, an axis system can be adopted in which
for the most westerly traverse point, and for the most southerly station. Magnitudes
of coordinates and products are thereby reduced, and the amount of work lessened,
since four products will be zero. However, selection of a special origin like that
just described is of little consequence if the problem has been programmed for
computer solution. Then the coordinates obtained from traverse adjustment can be
used directly in the solution. However, a word of caution applies, if coordinate
values are extremely large as they would normally be; for example, if state plane
values are used. In those cases, to ensure sufficient precision and prevent serious
round-off errors, double precision should be used. Or, as an alternative, the
decimal place in each coordinate can arbitrarily be moved n places to the left, the
area calculated and then multiplied by 10 2n.
 11

Example
Find the area as shown in the figure
 13

Area by DOUBLE-MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD

The area within a closed figure can also be computed by the double-meridian
distance (DMD) method. This procedure requires balanced departures and latitudes
of the tract‘s boundary lines, which are normally obtained in traverse
computations. The DMD method is not as commonly used as the coordinate
method because it is not as convenient, but given the data from an adjusted
traverse, it will yield the same answer. The DMD method is useful for checking
answers obtained by the coordinate method when performing hand computations.
By definition, the meridian distance of a traverse course is the perpendicular
distance from the midpoint of the course to the reference meridian. To ease the
problem of signs, a reference meridian usually is placed through the most westerly
traverse station.
 14

Thus, the meridian distance for any course of a traverse equals the meridian
distance of the preceding course plus one half the departure of the preceding course
plus half the departure of the course itself. It is simpler to employ full departures of
courses. Therefore, DMDs equal to twice the meridian distances that are used, and
a single division by 2 is made at the end of the computation.
Based on the considerations described, the following general rule can be applied in
calculating DMDs: The DMD for any traverse course is equal to the DMD of the
preceding course, plus the departure of the preceding course, plus the departure of
the course itself. Signs of the departures must be considered. When the reference
meridian is taken through the most westerly station of a closed traverse and
calculations of the DMDs are started with a course through that station, the DMD
of the first course is its departure. Applying these rules, for the traverse in Figure
12.6.

A check on all computations is obtained if the DMD of the last course, after
computing around the traverse, is also equal to its departure but has the opposite
sign. If there is a difference, the departures were not correctly adjusted before
starting, or a mistake was made in the computations. With reference to Figure 12.6,
the area enclosed by traverse ABCDEA may be expressed in terms of trapezoid
areas (shown by different color shadings) as:
 15

The area of each figure equals the meridian distance of a course times its balanced
latitude. For example, the area of trapezoid CʹCDDʹCʹ = QʹQ * CʹDʹ, where QʹQ
and CʹDʹ are the meridian distance and latitude, respectively, of line CD. The DMD
of a course multiplied by its latitude equals double the area. Thus, the algebraic
summation of all double areas gives twice the area inside the entire traverse. Signs
of the products of DMDs and latitudes must be considered. If the reference line is
passed through the most westerly station, all DMDs are positive. The products of
DMDs and north latitudes are therefore plus and those of DMDs and south
latitudes are minus.

Example: Find the area for the figure as shown below using DMD method

Solution
16
 18

2. METHODS OF VOLUME MEASUREMENT

Direct measurement of volumes is rarely made in surveying, since it is difficult to
actually apply a unit of measure to the material involved. Instead, indirect
measurements are obtained by measuring lines and areas that have a relationship to
the volume desired.
Three principal systems are used: (1) the cross-section method, (2) the unit-area (or
borrow-pit) method, and (3) the contour-area method.

2.1 THE CROSS-SECTION METHOD

The cross-section method is employed almost exclusively for computing volumes
on linear construction projects such as highways, railroads, and canals. In this
procedure, after the centerline has been staked, ground profiles called cross
sections are taken (at right angles to the centerline), usually at intervals of full or
half stations if the English system of units is being used, or at perhaps 10, 20, 30,
or 40 m if the metric system is being employed. Cross-sectioning consists of
observing ground elevations and their corresponding distances left and right
perpendicular to the centerline. Readings must be taken at the centerline, at high
and low points, and at locations where slope changes occur to determine the
ground profile accurately. This can be done in the field using a level, level rod, and
tape.
Much of the fieldwork formerly involved in running preliminary centerline, getting
cross-section data, and making slope-stake and other measurements on long route
surveys is now being done more efficiently by photogrammetry.
After cross sections have been taken and plotted, design templates (outlines of base
widths and side slopes of the planned excavation or embankment) are
superimposed on each plot to define the excavation or embankment to be
constructed at each cross-section location. Areas of these sections, called end
areas, are obtained by computation or by planimeter. Nowadays, using computers,
end areas are calculated directly from field cross-section data and design
information. From the end areas, volumes are determined by the average-end-area,
or prismoidal formula.
 19

Figure 26.1 portrays a section of planned highway construction and illustrates

some of the points just discussed. Centerline stakes are shown in place, with their
stationing given in the English system of units. They mark locations where cross
sections are taken, in this instance at full stations. End areas, based on the planned
grade line, size of roadway, and selected embankment and excavation slopes, are
superimposed at each station and are shown shaded. Areas of these shaded sections
are determined, whereupon volumes are computed using formulas given in the next
Section. Note in the figure that embankment, or fill, is planned from stations 10+00
through 11+21 a transition from fill to excavation, or cut, occurs from
station11+21 to 11+64 and cut is required from stations11+64 to 13+00.

Type of cross sections

The types of cross sections commonly used on route surveys are shown in Figure
26.2. In flat terrain the level section (a) is suitable. The three-level section (b) is
generally used where ordinary ground conditions prevail. Rough topography may
 20

require a five-level section (c), or more practically an irregular section (d). A

transition section (e) and a side-hill section (f) occur when passing from cut to fill
and on side-hill locations. In Figure 26.1, transition sections occur at stations and
while a side-hill section exists at 11+21 and 11+64, while a side – hill section
exists at 11+40.
The width of base b, the finished roadway, is fixed by project requirements.
As shown in Figure 26.1, it is usually wider in cuts than on fills to provide for
drainage ditches. The side slope s [the horizontal dimension required for a unit
vertical rise and illustrated in Figure 26.2(a)] depends on the type of soil
encountered. Side slopes in fills usually are flatter than those in cuts where the soil
remains in its natural state.
 21

Cut slopes of 1:1 (1 horizontal to 1 vertical) and fill slopes of 1-1/2:1 might be
satisfactory for ordinary loam soils, but 1-1/2:1 in excavation and 2:1 in
embankment are common. Even flatter proportions may be required—one cut in
other factors. Formulas for areas of sections are readily derived and listed with
some of the sketches in Figure 26.2.

AVERAGE-END-AREA FORMULA
Figure 26.3 illustrates the concept of computing volumes by the average-end area
method. In the figure A1 and A2, and are end areas at two stations separated by a
horizontal distance L. The volume between the two stations is equal to the average
of the end areas multiplied by the horizontal distance L between them.

In Equation (26.1), A1and A2 are in m2 L is in m, and VC is in m3. Equations

(26.1) is approximate and give answers that generally are slightly larger than the
true prismoidal volumes. They are used in practice because of their simplicity, and
contractors are satisfied because pay quantities are generally slightly greater than
true values. Increased accuracy is obtained by decreasing the distance L between
sections. When the ground is irregular, cross sections must be taken closer
together.
 22

Example
Compute the volume of excavation between station 24+00 with an end area of 711
m2 and 25+00 station with an end area of 515 m2.
Solution

VC= (

VC= )100=61300 m3

End Areas by Coordinates

The coordinate method for computing end areas can be used for any type of
section, and has many engineering applications. The procedure was described to
determine the area contained within a closed polygon traverse.
For example

Answer = 710 m2
 24

PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
The prismoidal formula applies to volumes of all geometric solids that can be
considered prismoids. A prismoid, illustrated in Figure 26.6, is a solid having ends
that are parallel but not similar and trapezoidal sides that are also not congruent.
Most earthwork solids obtained from cross-section data fit this classification.

However, from a practical standpoint, the differences in volumes computed by the

average-end-area method and the prismoidal formula are usually so small as to be
negligible. Where extreme accuracy is needed, such as in expensive rock cuts, the
prismoidal method can be used. One arrangement of the prismoidal formula is:

Where VP is the prismoidal volume in cubic meter, A1 and A2 are areas of

successive cross sections taken in the field, Am is the area of a ―computed‖ section
midway between A1 and A2, and L is the horizontal distance between A1 and A2.
To use the prismoidal formula, it is necessary to know area Am of the section
halfway between the stations of A1 and A2. This is found by the usual computation
after averaging the heights and widths of the two end sections. Obviously, the
middle area is not the average of the end areas, since there would then be no
difference between the results of the end-area formula and the prismoidal formula.
The prismoidal formula generally gives a volume smaller than that found by the
average-end-area formula. For example, the volume of a pyramid by the prismoidal
formula is Ah/3 (the exact value), whereas by the average-end-area method it is
 25

Ah/2. An exception occurs when the center height is great but the width narrow at
one station, and the center height small but the width large at the adjacent station.

Example
Compute the volume using the prismoidal formula and by average end areas for the
following three-level sections of a roadbed having a base of 24 m and side slopes
of 1.5/1.

Volume computations
Volume calculations for route construction projects are usually done and arranged
in tabular form. To illustrate this procedure, assume that end areas listed in
columns (2) and (3) of Table 26.3 apply to the section of roadway illustrated in
 26

Figure 26.1. By using Equation (26.1), cut and fill volumes are computed and
tabulated in columns (4) and (5).

The volume computations illustrated in Table 26.3 include the transition sections
of Figure 26.1. This is normally not done when preliminary earthwork volumes are
being estimated (during design and prior to construction) because the exact
locations of the transition sections and their configurations are usually unknown
until slope staking occurs. Thus, for calculating preliminary earthwork quantities,
an end area of zero would be used at the station of the centerline grade point
(station 11+40 of Figure 26.1), and transition sections (stations 11+21and 11+64 of
Figure 26.1) would not appear in the computations. After slope staking the
locations and end areas of transition sections are known, and they should be
included in final volume computations, especially if they significantly affect the
quantities for which payment is made.
Table 26.3
 27

Stations Area Area Volume Volume

Cut(m2) Fill(m2) Cut(m3) Fill (m3)
10+00 992
70650
11+00 421
5134.5
11+21 0 68
215.3 940.5
11+40 34 31
2136 248
11+64 144 0
14940
12+00 686
80200
13+00 918
 29

VOLUME USING SPOT HEIGHT METHOD

This method is generally used for calculating the volumes of excavations for
basements or tanks, i.e. any volume where the sides and base are planes, whilst the
surface is broken naturally (Figure 11.22(a)). Figure 11.22(b) shows the limits of
the excavation with surface levels in metres at A, B, C and D. The sides are
vertical to a formation level of 20 m. If the area ABCD was a plane, then the
volume of excavation would be:
V = plan area ABCD × mean height

However, as the illustration shows, the surface is very broken and so must be
covered with a grid such that the area within each 10-m grid square is
approximately a plane. It is therefore the ruggedness of the ground that controls the
grid size. If, for instance, the surface Aaed was not a plane, it could be split into
two triangles by a diagonal (Ae) if this would produce better surface planes.
Considering square Aaed only:
V = plan area × mean height
 30

If the grid squares are all equal in area, then the data is easily tabulated and worked
as follows: Considering AEFG only, instead of taking each grid square separately,
one can treat it as a whole.

If one took each grid separately it would be seen that the heights of AEFG occur
only once, whilst the heights of abcd occur twice and he occurs four times; one still
divides by four to get the mean height.

VOLUME USING CONTOUR AREA METHOD

Volumes based on contours can be obtained from contour maps by using a
planimeter to determine the area enclosed by each contour. Alternatively, CAD
software can be used to determine these areas. Then the average area of the
adjacent contours is obtained using Equation (26.1) and the volume obtained by
multiplying by the contour spacing (i.e., contour interval). Use of the prismoidal
formula is seldom, if ever, justified in this type of computation. This procedure is
the basis for volume computations in CAD software.
The contour-area method is suitable for determining volumes over large areas, for
example, computing the amounts and locations of cut and fill in the grading for a
proposed airport runway to be constructed at a given elevation. Another useful
application of the contour-area method is in determining the volume of water that
will be impounded in the reservoir created by a proposed dam.
 31

Example
Compute the volume of water impounded by the proposed dam illustrated in
Figure 26.8. The proposed spillway elevation 940 m and the scale map is 1:10000.

Example 2
A reservoir is to be formed in a river valley by building a dam across it. The entire
area that will be covered by the reservoir has been contoured and contours drawn
at 1.5-m intervals. The lowest point in the reservoir is at a reduced level of 249 m
above datum, whilst the top water level will not be above a reduced level of 264.5
 32

m. The area enclosed by each contour and the upstream face of the dam is shown
in the table below.
Contour (m) Area enclosed (m2)
250.0 1 874
251.5 6 355
253.0 11 070
254.5 14 152
256.0 19 310
257.5 22 605
259.0 24 781
260.5 26 349
262.0 29 830
263.5 33 728
265.0 37 800

Estimate by the use of the trapezoidal rule the capacity of the reservoir when full.
What will be the reduced level of the water surface if, in a time of drought, this
volume is reduced by 25%?
SOLUTION

( )

( )

( )

( )
 33

( )

( )

V total =Σ vi