Module 4

Ultrasonic Testing

Introduction:
UT is a nondestructive method in which high frequency sound waves are introduced into the
material being inspected.
Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies between 0.5 and 15 MHz - well above the
range of human hearing.
The sound waves travel through the material with some attendant loss of energy
(attenuation) due to material characteristics are measured after reflection at interfaces(pulse
echo) or flaws, or are measured at the opposite surface (pulse transmission).
The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws.
Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating power to radiography and can detect flaws
deep in the test specimen (up to about 6 to 7 meters of steel).
It is quite sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and
size of the flaws.
Besides its wide use in engineering applications (such as flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, etc.), ultrasonics are also used in the
medical field (such as sonography, therapeutic ultrasound, etc.).
In general, ultrasonic testing is based on the capture and quantification of either the reflected
waves (pulse-echo) or the transmitted waves (through-transmission).
Each of the two types is used in certain applications, but generally, pulse echo systems are
more useful since they require one-sided access to the object being inspected.
Basic Principle of Ultrasonic testing:

 A typical pulse-echo UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the
pulser/receiver, transducer, and a display device.
 Pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses.
 Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy.
 The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves.
 When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface.
 The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is
displayed on a screen.
 Knowing the velocity of the waves, travel time can be directly related to the distance that the
signal traveled.
 From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features
can sometimes be gained.

Ultrasonic Inspection Methods :

 ACOUSTIC EMISSION (AE):

Acoustic Emission (AE) testing is a non-destructive testing method used to detect

and locate defects or discontinuities in materials. It works by detecting the ultrasonic
waves generated by the sudden release of energy from localized sources within the
material when subjected to stress. These sources can include microcracks, plastic
deformation, or any other structural changes.

During AE testing, sensors called transducers are placed on the surface of the
material being tested. These transducers pick up the acoustic emissions and convert
them into electrical signals, which are then analyzed by specialized equipment. By
analyzing the characteristics of these signals, such as their amplitude, frequency, and
arrival time, technicians can determine the location, size, and severity of defects
within the material.

Acoustic emission testing is commonly used in industries such as aerospace,

automotive, construction, and manufacturing to assess the structural integrity of
components, detect flaws, and monitor for potential failure. It is particularly useful for
detecting defects that may not be visible through other testing methods and for
monitoring the progression of defects over time.

Principal of Acoustic Emission :

The principle of acoustic emission (AE) testing is based on the detection and analysis
of ultrasonic waves generated by the sudden release of energy from within a material
when it undergoes deformation or experiences internal structural changes. Here's a
breakdown of the principles involved:

1. Material Deformation: When a material undergoes stress, such as

mechanical loading or thermal expansion, its internal structure may change.
This can lead to the formation of defects like cracks, voids, or dislocations
within the material.
 2. Energy Release: As these defects form or propagate, they release energy in
the form of stress waves or acoustic emissions. This energy is typically in the
ultrasonic frequency range and can propagate through the material.

3. Wave Propagation: The acoustic emissions generated by the defects

propagate through the material as stress waves. These waves can be detected
at the material's surface using specialized sensors called transducers.

4. Transducer Detection: Transducers are placed on the surface of the material

being tested to detect the acoustic emissions. These transducers convert the
mechanical waves into electrical signals.

5. Signal Analysis: The electrical signals detected by the transducers are then
processed and analyzed using specialized equipment. This analysis typically
involves measuring parameters such as the amplitude, frequency, duration,
and arrival time of the acoustic emissions.

6. Defect Localization: By analyzing the characteristics of the acoustic

emissions, technicians can determine the location, size, and severity of defects
within the material. Different types of defects may produce distinct patterns in
the acoustic emission signals.

7. Monitoring and Assessment: Acoustic emission testing can be used for both
real-time monitoring and periodic assessment of materials. It allows for the
detection of defects that may not be visible through other testing methods
and provides valuable information about the structural integrity and health of
the material.

Overall, acoustic emission testing offers a non-destructive means of detecting and

assessing defects in materials, making it a valuable tool for quality control, structural
health monitoring, and failure analysis in various industries.

Instrumentation :
The instrumentation involved can be broken down into the following stages:

1. Sensor: The sensor acts as the ears of the system, attached directly to the surface of
the material being tested [1]. When a source like a crack emits elastic waves, the
sensor picks up these vibrations and converts them into electrical signals [3, 4]. The
most common type of sensor used in AE testing is the piezoelectric transducer, which
generates a voltage when stressed [4].
2. Pre-Amplifier: The tiny electrical signals from the sensor are weak and need
amplification before further processing [1]. The pre-amplifier boosts the signal
strength without significantly altering the characteristics of the original signal [1].
3. Filter: The amplified signal might contain electrical noise from various sources that
can mask the AE signal. The filter eliminates unwanted frequencies and noise,
allowing only the frequencies of interest (those containing the AE signal) to pass
through [1].
4. Amplifier: After filtering, the signal is further amplified to a level suitable for
analysis by the data acquisition system [1].
5. Signal Conditioner: The signal conditioner may perform various functions to
improve the quality of the signal for analysis. This might include adjusting the gain,
correcting for signal baseline drift, or shaping the signal for optimal data acquisition
[1].
6. Data Storage & Post-Processor Computer: The conditioned signal is then digitized
by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and transferred to a computer for storage and
post-processing [1]. Software on the computer can analyze the signal features like
amplitude, time of arrival, and frequency to determine the presence, location, and
severity of possible defects in the material [1].

In essence, the instrumentation works together to amplify, filter, and analyze the weak
electrical signals generated by the sensor in response to the elastic waves (inaudible sound
waves) emitted from the material being tested. By deciphering these signals, technicians can
gain valuable insights into the material's health and detect potential sources of concern.

Parameters of AE :

Acoustic emission (AE) parameters are the measurable characteristics of the electrical signals
generated by the sensor in an AE test. These characteristics provide valuable clues about the
source of the AE event (damage or internal movement) within the material. Here's a
breakdown of some key parameters:

1. Amplitude (A): This is the peak voltage of the AE signal, measured in decibels (dB).
It represents the intensity of the elastic wave and is related to the severity of the
source event. Generally, a higher amplitude indicates a more significant source, like a
larger crack.
2. Rise Time (R): This is the time it takes for the signal to rise from the threshold level
(when it first crosses a set voltage) to its peak voltage. It is measured in microseconds
(µs) and is related to the source location and the propagation path of the elastic
wave through the material. A faster rise time might suggest the source is closer to the
sensor.
 3. Duration (D): This is the total time the AE signal remains above the threshold level,
measured in microseconds (µs). It can be influenced by the type of source event and
the material properties. A longer duration could indicate a more complex source or
continuous damage process.
4. Counts (N): This refers to the number of times the signal crosses a pre-defined
voltage threshold within a short time window. It is related to the ringdown
characteristics of the AE event and can be influenced by the material properties and
the sensor type. A higher count might suggest a more energetic source event.
5. Energy (E): This parameter represents the total energy released by the AE source
event. It's calculated from the area under the AE signal curve and is often expressed in
arbitrary units (a.u.). A higher energy might indicate a more severe source event.
6. Frequency Content: The frequency spectrum of the AE signal can also be analyzed.
Different source mechanisms might generate signals with distinct frequency
distributions. Analyzing the frequency content can sometimes help differentiate
between different types of damage sources.

It's important to note that no single parameter is a definitive indicator of a specific

damage type. However, by analyzing a combination of these parameters and considering the
context of the test (material, stress conditions), trained inspectors can gain valuable insights
into the health of the material under test.

Advantages , Limitations , Applications of AE :

Acoustic emission (AE) testing offers several advantages, along with some limitations,
and finds applications across various industries. Let's explore these aspects:

Advantages:

1. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): AE testing is non-destructive, meaning it

does not damage the material being tested. This allows for the inspection of
materials without compromising their integrity.

2. Early Detection of Defects: AE can detect defects in materials at an early

stage of development, often before they are visible through other testing
methods. This early detection can prevent catastrophic failures and minimize
downtime.

3. Real-Time Monitoring: AE testing can provide real-time monitoring of

materials under stress, allowing for the continuous assessment of structural
integrity. This is particularly useful in applications where ongoing monitoring
is necessary, such as in structural health monitoring of bridges or pipelines.

4. Sensitive to Structural Changes: AE is sensitive to changes in material

structure, including the initiation and propagation of cracks, plastic
 deformation, and other forms of damage. This sensitivity makes it effective for
detecting a wide range of defects and damage mechanisms.

5. Location Specificity: AE systems can often pinpoint the location of acoustic

emission events within the material. This allows technicians to precisely locate
defects or damage, facilitating targeted repair or maintenance.

6. Wide Range of Materials: AE is applicable to a vast array of materials,

including metals, composites, ceramics, and even concrete .

7. Environmentally Friendly: AE doesn't involve any harmful radiation or

chemicals, making it a safe and eco-friendly testing method.

Limitations:

1. Background Noise: External noise sources can interfere with AE signals,

reducing the signal-to-noise ratio and potentially masking important acoustic
emissions. Careful signal processing and noise filtering are necessary to
overcome this limitation.

2. Complex Interpretation: Interpreting AE data can be complex, requiring

expertise in signal processing and analysis. Differentiating between relevant
acoustic emissions and noise, as well as identifying the underlying causes of
detected events, can be challenging.

3. Limited Penetration Depth: AE signals are typically generated and detected

near the surface of the material. This limits the penetration depth of AE
testing, making it less effective for inspecting thick or opaque materials.

4. Calibration and Standardization: AE testing requires careful calibration and

standardization to ensure accurate and reliable results. Variations in
equipment setup, sensor placement, and testing conditions can affect the
interpretation of AE data.

5. Cost: While generally less expensive than some NDT methods, the initial
setup cost for AE equipment and trained personnel can be significant.

6. Data Interpretation: Analyzing and interpreting AE data requires trained

personnel who understand the specific material behavior and the
characteristics of different damage mechanisms.

Applications:
 1. Structural Health Monitoring: AE testing is widely used for monitoring the
structural integrity of critical infrastructure such as bridges, pipelines, and
pressure vessels. It can detect defects, fatigue cracks, and other forms of
damage that may compromise safety.

2. Materials Testing: AE is employed in materials testing to assess the quality

and integrity of materials during manufacturing processes. It can detect
defects in welds, composites, ceramics, and other materials.

3. Aerospace and Automotive Industries: AE testing is used in aerospace and

automotive industries to inspect components for defects, fatigue, and
damage. It helps ensure the reliability and safety of critical components such
as aircraft wings, turbine blades, and vehicle chassis.

4. Civil Engineering: AE is utilized in civil engineering for monitoring the health

of structures such as buildings, dams, and tunnels. It can detect defects,
cracking, and deformation that may indicate structural weaknesses or
impending failure.

5. Geotechnical Monitoring: AE testing is applied in geotechnical engineering

for monitoring rock formations, tunnels, and underground structures. It can
detect rock fracturing, ground movement, and other geological events.

6. Quality Control in Manufacturing: AE testing is utilized in manufacturing

processes to detect defects in fabricated components, such as welds, castings,
and composites, ensuring product quality and reliability.

7. Damage Assessment and Failure Analysis: AE testing is applied for assessing

damage in materials and structures, identifying the root causes of failures, and
determining the remaining useful life of components.

8. Research and Development: AE testing is used in research and development to

study the behavior of materials under various conditions, investigate failure
mechanisms, and develop new testing methodologies.

Overall, acoustic emission testing offers valuable insights into the condition of
materials and structures, making it a valuable tool in various industries for ensuring
safety, reliability, and quality.