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18th edition International Technical-Scientific Conference

Modern Technologies for

the 3 Millennium
rd

April 4-5, 2019 - Oradea (Romania)

Editors-in-Chief
Sorin Nistor, Gabriela A. Popoviciu
Advisory Committee
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. András SZEPES - Hungary
Assoc.Prof.PhD. Sorin NISTOR - Romania
Assoc.Prof.PhD.Eng. Marian DRUSA - Slovakia
Prof.Ph.D Eng. Hans-Berndt NEUNER - Austria
Prof.PhD.Eng. Pietro GRIMALDI - Italy
PhD.Eng. Azree OTHUMAN MYDIN MD - Malaysia
Scientific committee
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Aurora MANCIA - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Gheorghe IONESCU - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Marcela PRADA - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Johann NEUNER - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Petre-Iuliu DRAGOMIR - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Zeno BOGDĂNESCU - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Ioan TUNS - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Imre KOVACS - Hungary
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Dan TUDOR - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Alexandru CĂTĂRIG - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Corneliu BOB - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Ludovic Kopenetz - Romania
Prof.Ph.D. Eng. Man Eugen - Romania
Assoc.Prof.PhD.Eng. Titu HODIŞAN - Romania
Assoc. Prof.PhD.Arch. Andrei LUNCAN - Romania
Language Editor
Lecturer Ph.D. Amalia STURZA - Romania
Organizing committee
Lect. Ph.D.Eng. Dan GOMBOŞ
Lect. Ph.D. Eng.Gabriela CÎMPAN
Lect. Ph.D.Eng. Aurelian BUDA
Lect. Ph.D.Eng. Mihaela GHEMIŞ
Lect.PhD. Amalia STURZA
Lect. Ph.D.Eng. Norbert SUBA
Junior Assist.Arch. Cristian PUŞCAŞ
Junior Assist. Eng. Adriana SCURT

© Copyright 2019 by EDITOGRAFICA s.r.l.

Via G. Verdi 15/1, 40067 Rastignano (Bologna), Italy
www.edlearning.it • [email protected]

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form,
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission,
in writing, from the publisher.

Printed in december 2019 by Editografica • Bologna (Italy)

ISBN 978-88-87729-61-0
Contents

Cadastre and Geodesy ............................................................................................. 1

Analysis of Current Trends in Geospatial Standards

Badea, G., Badea, A.-C. ................................................................................................... 3

Some Aspects on Using Thermal Images in Monitoring Bituminous Layers

David V., Mușat C., Belc A.L., Jianu R. ........................................................................... 9

Geospatial Input Data Validation in Modelling Hydrological Risk

Diac M., Crenganiș L., Bofu C., Marcu C. ....................................................................... 13

Spatial Data Mining Using GIS Web Services

Droj G., Droj L. ................................................................................................................. 21

Study on Real Estate Development through Land Registration

Henț E., Popoviciu G.A., Mancia M.S., Mancia A. .......................................................... 27

Modern Methods Applied in Remote Sensing Image Fusion

Hugianu R., Dima M., Telisca M., Hraniciuc T. ............................................................... 31

Global Navigation Satellite Systems Applicability in Bathymetry

Measurements
Luca L., Bala A.C., Brebu F.M., Nemeș I......................................................................... 37

Retrospection on Agricultural Land Resources in National and European

Context
Mancia M.S., Popoviciu G.A., Henţ I.E............................................................................ 43

Use of Low Altitude Aerial and Terrestrial Photogrammetry for Cultural

Heritage Conservation-Restoration Works
Nache F., Nache R.A., Păunescu C., Manu C.-S., Cucăilă S., Tivig D.-F. ....................... 47

The Role and Importance of Large Dam Monitoring by Geodetic Methods

Nestorović Ž., Trifković M., Bešević M., Marinković G., Lazić J. .................................. 55

Determining the precipitable water vapor using multiple satellite

constellations: GPS, GALILEO and BEIDOU
Nistor S., Suba N.S., Buda A.S. ........................................................................................ 61

The Use of UAV in Urban Public Utility Systems

Sălăgean T., Șuba E.E., Moscovici A.M., Păunescu V., Călin M., Iliescu A., Pop I.D.... 67

Researches Regarding the Use of GIS for Monitoring the Degraded Land
in Floreşti, Cluj County
Solcan P., Sălăgean T., Vereș I. ........................................................................................ 73

© EdLearning.it III
Heritage Studies in Spatial Planning; Development and Environmental
Policies
Vîlceanu C.B., Alionescu A., Grecea C., Herban S., Moscovici A.M. ............................. 79

Measurement and Calculation of the Volume of the Heap Located in

Zastawie Village in Poland
Warchoł A., Balawejder M., Banaś M., Matkowska K., Paweł N., Grzegorz W. ............ 85

Construction and Architecture ............................................................................ 91

Soil Investigation & Ground Improvement in Urban Metro Station

Arghiroiu O., Ghemiş M. .................................................................................................. 93

Revisiting Traditional Materials for Contemporary Practice

Bănescu O., Pătraşcu D. .................................................................................................... 99

About the Vulnerabilities of a Reinforced Concrete Structure

Bob C., Iures L., Chendes R., Dan S. ................................................................................ 105

Bioarchitecture – an Architect's Contribution to a Healthy Environment

Boca M.-C. ........................................................................................................................ 111

The Response of In-Line Connection of RHS Sections Subjected to

Bending and Shear
Both I., Nunes D.L., Ivan A., Vučićević D. ...................................................................... 117

Low-Energy School Building – Effect of 2D vs. 3D Steady-State Simulation

of Thermal Bridges
Brata S., Ene R.C., Dan D. ............................................................................................... 123

About the Importance of the Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW)

Chendes R., Bob C., Iures L., Dan S., Tănasie C. ............................................................. 129

Drainage Arrangement of Checea Jimbolia, Timis County. Rehabilitation

of the CENEI’S Drainage Pumping Station
Cojocinescu (Guran) M.I., Man T.E., Pelea G.N., Cretan I.A. ......................................... 133

The Development of the High Health Regime of Buildings

Cristescu A., Man T.E., Beilicci R., Gombos D. .............................................................. 139

Analysis of Floods and their Relation to Wetland Ecosystems

Cucuteanu A., Hrăniciuc T.A., Giurma-Handley R., Cercel P., Dănilă A. ....................... 149

Generation of Flood Hazard Maps for Jijia River

Dănilă A., Giurma-Handley R., Hrăniciuc T.A., Cercel P., Cucuteanu A. ....................... 155

Polynomial Distribution of the Local Pressure Drop in the Case of Wind

Turbine
Dubău C., Cătaș A., Iambor L., Borşa E. .......................................................................... 161

© EdLearning.it IV
Analysis of the Linear Thermal Coefficients According to Multiple
Insulation Systems
Ene R.C., Brata S., Dan D. ............................................................................................... 167

Strengthening of RC Flat Slabs Against Punching Shear - State-of-the-art

Report and Preliminary Aspects of Research Program
Floruț S.C., Popescu D. A., Stoian V., Nagy-György T., Todea V., Teodorescu A. ....... 173

Experimental Investigation on Glulam Beams Strengthened with CFRP

Plates
Furdui I., Diaconu D., Todut C., Fekete-Nagy L., Pescari S. .......................................... 179

Comparison of Two Solutions for Strengthening the Reinforced Concrete

Deep Transfer Beams
Gergely V., Campian C., Pop M., Chira N. ..................................................................... 185

Improvement through Complex Measures of Upper and Middle Areas

from Crisul Negru Hydrographical Basin
Gligor E., Dume D., Gomboș D., Andrișca S. ................................................................. 193

Controlled Corrosion Conditions to Limit Wastage of Water and Heat in

Urban Networks
Ionescu Gh.C., Cret P., Badea G.E., Ionescu G.L. , Hodut N. ......................................... 199

Study Regarding the Expansion and Rehability of an Existing Metallic

Structure
Ionescu G.L., Varga A., Varga C., Ionescu Gh.C. ........................................................... 205

Thermal Analysis of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polyamide Fasteners

Karda Sz., Nagy-György T., Daniel D., Boros I. ............................................................. 217

Wind Effect Modelling for a Wind-Sensitive Structure in Timisoara

Kun L., Crisan A., Nagy-György T., Boros I. .................................................................. 223

Validation of FE Model for Bolted Steel Macro Component

Marginean I., Both I. , Dogariu A., Pintea D., Dinu F., Zaharia R. ................................. 229

Proposals to Improve Some Aspects of Regulation Approaches in our

Country for Assessment of Actions and Capacities from Axial Forces,
Bending Moments and Shear Forces from Seismic Action
Mironescu M., Stanescu A., Brotea T., Comanescu R., Purdea D., Stanescu M. ............ 235

Applications of stabilized soil in hydraulic constructions

Nagy A.-Cs., Cîrcu A.-P., Ciubotaru V.-C., Crăciunescu B.-M., Topan G.,
Cherecheş T., Fărcaş V.S. ................................................................................................ 241

Experimental Investigations for Joints Made by Cold-Formed Sigma

Profiles
Nagy Z., Mureșan A.-A., Fodor R. .................................................................................. 247

© EdLearning.it V
Durability Assessment as Cumulative Damage using Modern Tools
Software
Omer I., Popa M. .............................................................................................................. 253

Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Historical Group of Buildings in

Timisoara City
Onescu E., Onescu I., Mosoarca M., Ion A. ..................................................................... 259

Transdisciplinarity in Earthquake Architecture Promoted by Architect

Victor Vlad
Opriţa R. ........................................................................................................................... 265

Restoration and Preservation - An Interdisciplinary Concept

Pericleanu B.D., Pericleanu M., Grămescu A.M. ............................................................ 271

Contributions Regarding the Analysis of Moisture Influence in Time on

the Resistance Structure of Natural Stone Masonry Heritage Buildings
Pericleanu M., Pericleanu B.D., Grămescu A.M. ............................................................ 275

Nomographic Chart for Assessing Shearing Force

Pop T.M. ........................................................................................................................... 281

The Staircases of the Art Nouveau Buildings of Oradea

Pop Maria T., Lepădatu D. ............................................................................................... 285

The Jewish Funerary Art in Oradea and its Surroundings

Pușcaș C. .......................................................................................................................... 291

Structures Specific to Muslim Worship Constructions in the Dobrogea Area

Suliman S., Grămescu A.M., Gelmambet S. .................................................................... 299

On the Influence of FEM Modelling Approach upon the Analysis Results

for RC Structures Modelled using Two Distinct Software Packages
Teodorescu A., Floruț S.C., Todea V. , Popescu D.A. ..................................................... 307

Nonlinear Behaviour of Hybrid Steel-Concrete Shear Walls with Central

Openings
Todea V., Stoian V.A., Dan D., Floruț S.C., Popescu D. ................................................. 315

Seismic Behaviour of Precast Reinforced Concrete Wall Panels Weakened

by Cut-Outs
Toduț C., Dan D., Stoian V., Fofiu M., Diaconu D. ........................................................ 323

Experimental Determinations done on the Foundation Soil of a Monument

Building
Tudorica M., Ghemis M.-T., Bob C. ................................................................................ 329

Solving the Expansion and Rehabilitation of an Existing Metallic

Structure
Varga C., Ionescu Gh.C., Varga A., Ionescu G.L. ........................................................... 333

© EdLearning.it VI
The Distance at which the Variation of the Groundwater Level Reaches
the Desired Elevation
Vorovei C. ........................................................................................................................ 343

Interdisciplinary ........................................................................................................ 347

Judicial Technical Expertise in Civil Engineering Construction

Grămescu A.M., Barbu D., Pericleanu M. ....................................................................... 349

Modern Land Improvement Technologies for Rural Agriculture

Adaptation to Climate Changes
Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir C., Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R. ................................................... 355

Renewable Energy – Key Aspects on their Potential Use in Land

Improvement Systems
Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R., Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir C. ................................................... 361

The Importance of Traditional Energy Resources and their Influence on

the Environment. Importance of Coal
Munteanu R., Tiuzbaian I.N. ............................................................................................ 365

The Influence of the Land use Change

Popoviciu G.A. ................................................................................................................. 369

Author Index 373

Analysis of Current Trends in Geospatial

Standards

Badea, G.1, Badea, A.-C.1, 2

1
Technical University of Civil Engineering, UTCB
2
Romanian Association of Standardization, ASRO, TC 359
E-mails [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
In this article, we are making an insight on existing or emerging standards, an analysis of today's
standardization challenges to highlight their importance, to substantiate the idea that specialists must be active in
ASRO, but also that they must undertake the task of teaching students to comply with the latest standards in
standardization, because only in this way can real progress be achieved in any field.
Geospatial information is ubiquitous in today's society, and technological developments, especially over
the past decade, require a massive expansion of location based applications and software products. The importance
of knowing the standards is fundamental from a geodetic engineer's perspective, as a specialist who acquires,
processes, organizes data that is retrieved, and then analyzes and represents the obtained information using GIS
technology.
Keywords: geospatial information, standards, ISO, CEN, OGC, ASRO

1 Introduction
The importance of knowing the standards is fundamental from a geodetic engineer's perspective, as a
specialist who acquires, processes, organizes data that is retrieved, and then analyzes and represents the obtained
information using GIS technology. Geospatial information is ubiquitous in today's society, and technological
developments, especially over the past decade, require a massive expansion of location based applications and
software products. Acknowledging that “geography” equates to location, place-based information, geospatial [15]
and other terms, in this paper the term “geospatial information” will be used. Figure 1 highlights that standards
have a big impact on quality [2].

Fig. 1. ISO 19157:2013 Standard Impact on Data Quality [2]

The standardization bodies coordinate the standardization activity and provide the necessary infrastructure
to deploy it at national, regional and international level. [9] The analysis, debate and consensus on technical issues,
as well as the actual development of standards, are carried out within expert groups, called technical committees
(TCs), organized and administered by standardization bodies. [9]

2 Activity in Geospatial Standards

2.1 The Main Bodies at International Level

The international standards organizations have representative members from government, industry,
research and academia who make decisions through a consensual process. Geospatial information, technologies
and standards help to enable and improve the sharing, integration and application of geospatial information for
decision making.
The main bodies involved in standardization activities are the following: the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) - Technical Committee 211 Geographic information/Geomatics; the Open Geospatial
Consortium (OGC); the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). CEN is an association that brings
together the National Standardization Bodies of 34 European countries [12]. The United Nations Initiative on
Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) Europe is a regional committee formally established on
1 October 2014 when the European UN Member States assumed full responsibility for its operations and adopted
a work plan. [15]
The term “open standard” is linked with OGC activity. This kind of standards having the main goal in
assuring interoperability are largely used, having the following characteristics [15]: publicly available;
unencumbered by patents and other intellectual property; anyone can download and use the standard
(nondiscriminatory); no license fees; vendor neutral; data neutral; agreed to in a consensus decision making
process; no single entity controls the standard.

2.2 Standardization in Romania

Geospatial information standards are coordinated and developed in Romania by the ASRO (Romanian
Association of Standardization) CT 359 (TC - Technical Committee) Working Group. Associated working groups
at international level are CEN/TC 287 - Geographic Information and Geographic Information/Geomatics ISO / TC
211.
Draft Standards and other standardization technical papers are developed through the input of experts
from the standardization committees to publish a standard, amendment, or revised edition of an existing standard.
The work of CT 359 working group is currently undergoing a revival, the TC team is working on a series
of national standards that are under review.

3 Overview of Current Standards

3.1 ISO 19100 Standards

ISO 19100 / Geographic Information standards [6] are applicable in all phases of the geodetic work. One
of the main standards is ISO 19104, with a focus on terminology, defining concepts and terms according to
professional factors, techniques, etc., as well as their harmonization. ISO 19104 needs to be correlated with ISO
19146, "cross-domain vocabularies "and ISO 19105 - compliance and testing. The provisions of these standards
are closely related to those of ISO 19115-1 (metadata core elements), ISO 19115-2 (metadata - Extensions for
acquisition and processing) [5] and ISO 19135 (procedures for feature registration). In fact, the standard data
quality elements are provided by ISO 19113, 19114, 19115-1, 19115-2, and 19138 - data quality assessment [4],
19157, 19157-2 - data quality, including the XML implementation schema, 19158 - data quality assurance
delivered.
The standard 19165-2, regarding the preservation of digital data and metadata, specifications on the
content of Earth observation data and digital derived products is still in development.
Coordinate reference is described in ISO 19111, but also in ISO 19111-2, which includes an extension of
the parameter values, expressed in UML. ISO 19112 complements the spatial reference on the basis of
geographical identifiers, and ISO 19162 (standard in development) complements the description of reference
systems through WKT (Well Known Text - see also https://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/wkt- crs). In this
context it is achieved the correlation with ISO 19155, 19155-1, the location identifier architecture (PI).
Geodetic information is organized through ISO 19127, geodetic register, including requirements and
management rules, which needs to be correlated with ISO 19135-1, procedures for registration of elements, ISO
19135-2 (registration of elements and scheme XML implementation) and ISO 19110, the methodology for
categorizing features.
There is an accelerated development in the area of positioning systems, as the following:
 ISO 19116 - Positioning Services has recently been put to the vote,
 ISO 19130-1 - geolocation sensor models,
 ISO 19130-2 - SAR, InSAR, LiDAR and Sonar,

 ISO 19132 - location-based services and ISO 19134 - location-based services - multimodal routing
and navigation,
 ISO 19159-1, 19159-2, 19159-3 aspects of calibration and validation of sensors and images are
highlighted and are organized as follows: optical sensors, LiDAR, SAR / InSAR.
The observations made are standardized by ISO 19156, which contains specifications for observations
and measurements. ISO 19161 (the standard under development) will contain provisions on reference geodetic
systems, to be composed of three parts: Part 1 - International Reference Terrestrial System (ITRS), Part 2 -
Universal Identification of Geodetic Stations from the ground, Part 3 - The International Reference Vertical
System.
An important standard for land management is ISO 19152 standard, LADM Land Management Domain
Model), being a reference for cadastral activity of geodetic specialists. It highlights that part of the land
administration that manages rights, responsibilities and restrictions (RRR – 3R paradigm) affecting the land (or
water), but also their geospatial components, addressing these 2D and 3D aspects.
LADM is a benchmarking model to provide an extensible basis for developing and improving efficient
land management systems. It is based on Model Driven Architecture (MDA) [13] and allows stakeholders from
different countries to communicate and exchange information based on a common vocabulary required by this
model. It is worth mentioning that this standard has also taken into account the conceptual scheme of the Cadastre
2014 document developed by FIG (International Federation of Surveyors).
An important aspect on which geospatial data and associated attributes depend is the ability to identify
by means of a standard geocoding model for postal addresses. In present there are some stadards in development,
like ISO 19160-1 (address-conceptual model) standards, 19160-2 (best address practices), 19160-3 (address type
data quality), 19160-4 (international postal address components and templates), 19160-6 (address data exchange
formats. [1]
Web representation standards are a part of the ISO 19100 series. The latest draft standard on
representation techniques is ISO 19170, having as subject DGGS (discrete global network systems). These are
spatial reference systems that are using a hierarchical transition of cells to divide and represent the entire Earth
globe, being characterized by the description of cell structure, geocoding, quantization strategy and associated
mathematical functions.
As Domain Data Model Standards, encoded using Geography Markup Language (GML) can be
mentioned the following:
 OGC CityGML [14] (for managing and Sharing Urban 3D models),
 ISO 19144, Geographic information - Classification systems,
 ISO 19152, Geographic information - Land Administration Domain Model (LADM).

Fig. 2. Concepts included in Geospatial Data Standards

3.2 An actual initiative: BIM-GIS integration

An aspect of broad interest, which is underway in the newer initiatives on standardization in the geospatial
field, is the BIM (Building Information Modelling) - GIS (Geographical/Geospatial Information System)
integration, which is still being worked on. The introduction of the BIM is considered the solution for managing
information during the design, construction and operational phases of the building life cycle.
Geospatial data from built-up areas and the surrounding topography are based on international standards
developed by ISO/TC 211 (GIS) and ISO/TC 59/SC 13 (BIM). GIS data is based on ISO/TC 211, while BIM data
sets are based on IFC (Industry Foundation Class – ISO 16739), requiring a bidirectional data exchange, but
without transforming the data. A joint standardization initiative coordinated by ISO/TC 59/SC 13 with ISO/TC
211 is currently in progress. [13]
At national level, BIM standardization work is carried out within the ASRO/CT 335 National Technical
Standardization Committee, Real Estate Construction, Performance, and Building Durability, the secretariat of
which is held by INCD URBAN INCERC. [7] In figure 3 is highighted the difference between GIS and BIM
approach.

A relevant initiative is from the end of 2017, when Autodesk and Esri announced the harmonization of
technologies to reduce the gap between BIM and GIS mapping technologies, with a major impact on spatial
planning, paying a particular attention to sustainability.
There already was developped an ISO 19166 draft, called "BIM to GIS conceptual mapping (B2GM)",
which is created on the basis of ISO 19136 - Geography Markup Language (GML). [1] The method of converting
the LOD (Level of Detail) from BIM to GIS is defined, including a set of LOD mapping rules. These provisions
should also be related to the first two parts of the recently published ISO 19650 standard, which include the
organization and digitization of information on buildings and civil engineering and Building Information Modeling
(BIM), providing a standardized framework for collaborative information management using BIM (developed by
ISO/TC 59, SC 13).

Fig. 3. Traditional GIS vs Traditional CAD/BIM (adapted from [18])

4 STANDARDS TIERS AND CURRENT CHALLENGES

Figure 4 is showing that the standards can be splitted on different tiers, according to the technical
evolution. [13], [15].

Fig. 4. Different Levels of Standards (adapted from [2] and [13])

According with [10], 1st tier of standards has the main goal to share maps over the web, 2 nd tier is about
partnerships, how to share, integrate and use geospatial data from different providers, 3 rd tier has the goal to
spatially enabling the nation (geospatial processing & analytics, grid systems, mobile devices, real time
observations captured by in-situ and dynamic (moving) sensor systems, GeoSemantics) and the 4th one was defined
relatively recently, when it has been associated with the spatial data integrated with global data ecosystem.

From this fourth level, discussion begins on the current challenges of standardization, emphasized in figure
5. IoT (Internet of Things) is about using a variety of sensors or sensors networks in the purpose of simulation,
modelling, sustainability and decision making. Good examples of IoT standards are OGC Sensor Web Standards
(SWE) and OGC SWE for IoT. [10]
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAV) represent new
technologies for achieving geospatial data and ISO is developping a standard for UAS in present. ISO/TC 20/SC16
Unmanned aircraft systems is developping standards regarding this topic. One applicable provision is Geographic
information - Imagery sensor models for geopositioning — Part 1: Fundamentals ISO/DIS 19130-1:2017(E). In
present ISO is developping a standard for UAS. Linked data is a concept related to the semantic web, related to
big data.
Full motion video is another challenge linked with the need (and the ability) to collect, analyze, and integrate
full motion video assets into decision support and situational awareness applications [10] and for change detection.
Big data and big science have impact on SDIs, a National SDI (NSDI) being composed of: Data Access
Policies, Clearinghouse, Metadata, Data Protection, Geospatial Data, Partnerships, Leadership, Standards,
Communication Network (Portal). [8] An important aspect about SDI is the INSPIRE directive [14] as a general
framework for the purposes of European Community environmental policies and policies or activities which may
affect the environment. The INSPIRE Directive entered into force on 15 May 2007 and it is based on the
infrastructures for spatial information established and operated by the member states of the European Union. The
directive addresses 34 spatial data themes needed for environmental applications. The INSPIRE specifications can
be seen as a standard package on organizing geospatial information. Data Science Analytics includes Machine
Learning and anomaly detection.
Detailed 3D models are created to represent and understand the real world and there are already developped
3D representations of the big cities, available in the online environment.
It exists an OGC Geospatial APIs Whitepaper [11] including successful geospatial mapping APIs
(Application Programming Interfaces) like the following: Google Maps, OpenLayers, MapQuest API for
OpenStreetMap, Leaflet, Esri ArcGIS REST and Mapbox.
Crowdsourcing means the process of obtaining content by soliciting contributions from a large community,
using online methods, being linked with Voluntary Geographic Information (VGI).

Fig. 5. Challenges in Standardization (adapted from [15])

5 Aspects of Implementing Geospatial Standards into University Education

Implementing information on geospatial standards in the university curriculum must be based on two
aspects. The first is related to involvement in the ASRO activity to gain access to new items, and the second is to
disseminate this information at the master’s level or even at the Ph.D. level for deepening.
For example, a specific course "Spatial Data Standards and Geoportals" was introduced in the master's
degree "Spatial Planning and GIS for Sustainable Development" (PSGISDD) curricula of the Faculty of Geodesy
(Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest). In this course are included the basic aspects of the specific
standards. [1]
On the other hand, in order to properly prepare the future specialists, universities should have a broad
perspective on active involvement in ASRO's technical committees, as it provides interested teachers with access
to current information, details on the work of ISO and CEN committees and participating in the standards
development. At the license level, information on applicable standards should be included in the various
specialized courses. It is possible to achieve the desideratum to share with the students the basic elements
correlated with the real stage of the present.

6 Conclusions
ISO/TC 211 teams develop ontological and semantic aspects of spatial information. The main difference
between OGC and ISO standards is that the OGC specifications are technical documents and ISO standards are
formal and normative specifications. A main difference between the ISO and OGC standards is payment because
OGC specifications are free of charge and can be downloaded for free from the website but ISO and CEN standards
must be purchased.
The standards support the consistent use of geospatial information throughout Europe [14] supporting
SDI achieved by:
1. adoption of the ISO 19100 series as European standards;
2. development and take-up of new standards, profiles of standards in cooperation with ISO/TC 211,
needed for the immediate INSPIRE initiative and other collaborative programmes;
3. facilitating interoperability with related standards initiatives through necessary harmonization and
associated agreements;
4. promotion of the use of and education on standards on geographic information.

From all the standardization efforts presented, the importance and complexity of geospatial data arise in
general, and the field of geodesy arise in particular. Thus, any effort to engage in the knowledge, analysis and
development of standards in this field is vital to a healthy evolution of geospatial data and society as a whole. It is
therefore deserving, especially as university professor, to always have the certainty that we are teaching actual
informations, correlated with international concerns and provisions.

REFERENCES
[1] Badea, A. C. (2019). Introducerea în pregătirea universitară a standardelor geospaţiale ISO şi
implicarea mediului academic în activitatea ASRO, Revista “Standardizarea”, Nr. 3 / Martie
2019, ISSN 1220-2061, Publicaţie oficială a Asociaţiei de Standardizare din România
http://www.standardizarea.ro/.
[2] Badea, G., Badea, A. C., Iliescu-Cremeneanu, A., Vasilca, D., Badea, D. (2018). Standards in
Geospatial Information Management and Spatial Data Infrastructures, SGEM 2018,
https://sgemworld.at/sgemlib/spip.php?article12686&lang=en.
[3] Badea, G, Badea, A. C. (2017). Planificare spaţială şi GIS pentru dezvoltare durabilă – sinteze,
Editura MATRIX ROM Bucureşti (capitolele Standarde și geoportaluri de date spațiale -Sinteze,
Aplicaţii), ISBN vol 1: 978-606-25-0379-6, ISBN vol 2: 978-606-25-0380-2,
https://www.librarie.net/p/313928/planificare-spatiala-si-gis-pentru-dezvoltare-durabila-sinteze ,
https://www.matrixrom.ro/produs/planificare-spatiala-si-gis-pentru-dezvoltare-durabila-aplicatii/.
[4] Badea, A. C. (2006). Iniţiative de standardizare ISO în fotogrammetrie şi teledetecţie, „Buletinul
de fotogrammetrie şi teledetecţie” no.31/2006, ISSN 1220-4986.
[5] Badea, G., Badea, A. C. (2005). Structurarea standardizată a metadatelor spaţiale digitale,
RevCAD no. 5/2005, ISSN 1583 - 2279, pages 141-150,
http://revcad.uab.ro/index.php?pagina=pg&id=3&rev=da&id_rev=14&modul=rev.
[6] Badea, G., Badea, A. C. (2005). ISO Standards used for geospatial data, Scientific Bulletin of
the North University in Baia Mare, Series D, volume XIX, 2005, ISSN: 1582 – 0548.
[7] Chirea, C. (2017). Standardizarea în domeniul BIM – Building Information Modelling (Modelul
informaţional al clădirii), Revista “Standardizarea” nr. 3 / martie 2017, ISSN 1220-2061,
Publicaţie oficială a Asociaţiei de Standardizare din România, p. 1 – 2.
[8] Govorov, M. (2008). Standards, Specifications and Metadata for Geographic Information,
Vilnius, www.geoportal.lt (accessed March 2018).
[9] Toma J. (2015). Ce sunt comitetele tehnice?, in Revista “Standardizarea” nr. 4 / Aprilie 2015,
ISSN 1220-2061, Publicaţie oficială a Asociaţiei de Standardizare din România, p. 4 -5.
[10] UN-GGIM (2018). A Guide to the Role of Standards in Geospatial Information Management
Companion document on Standards Recommendations by Tier.
[11] http://docs.opengeospatial.org/wp/16-019r4/16-019r4.html (accessed February 2018).
[12] https://www.cen.eu (accessed February 2018).
[13] https://www.iso.org (accessed February 2018).
[14] https://www.opengeospatial.org (accessed February 2018).
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[16] Nistor, S., Popoviciu, G., ed.(2018)., Proceedings of the 17th International Techncal-Scientific
Conference Modern Technologies for 3rd Millenium, EDlearning.

Some Aspects on Using Thermal Images in

Monitoring Bituminous Layers

David V.1, Mușat C.1, Belc A. L.1, Jianu R.1

1
Politehnica University Timișoara, Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundations and
Cadastral Survey, Traian Lalescu no.2, Timișoara, (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
This paper describes some aspects from a research project in progress at Politehnica University
Timișoara, aiming bituminous layers monitoring using thermal images. Thermal and geospatial data is collected
with a thermal camera equipped with radiometric registration. The thermal camera is mounted on the board of
the unmanned aerial vehicle, equipped with a visible camera. This study aims to track the state of the bituminous
layers degradation, as well as the temperature evolution assessment in the bituminous layer during its execution
on public road sectors from the Banat area, Romania.
Keywords: Thermal images, UAV, Thermal infrared, Asphalt mixtures, DSM.

1 Introduction
Thermal images have become increasingly popular due to their efficiency in many areas, from military
applications, security, transport, medicine to thermal inspection of buildings and bituminous layers, as well as
many other industrial applications.
The infrared visualization or thermal imaging consists of identifying the temperature variations and
differences of an object in order to obtain its image or location.
Nowadays, the thermal imaging sensors are used to detect and identify objects in applications such as
surveillance and recognition [1], and because they have low a geometric resolution and low contrast, they are
mainly used for interpretation and monitoring. However, thermal mapping is becoming more and more important
in civil applications, because the thermal sensors operate in mist and night conditions, which is not possible for
visible cameras [1].
This article aims to highlight the efficiency of thermal imaging in monitoring bituminous layers by
determining the thermal regime during execution (laying, the compaction start and exploitation) using thermal
images taken with a thermal camera mounted on an unmanned air vehicle.

2 Materials and methods

Internationally, studies and researches have been done on the thermal records in order to monitor
bituminous layers, and also potholes, cracks, even structural changes (crazing, longitudinal rutting, etc.) being
successfully detected and located. Thus, images of the runway were taken in both the thermal infrared (Figure 1-
left) and the visible field (Figure 1-right) of the electromagnetic spectrum, the thermal images being taken with a
thermal camera mounted on a measuring terrestrial vehicle. Figure 2 shows the thermal map of the bituminous
layer (cross-section profile).

Fig.1. Images taken in the thermal infrared (left) and visible field (right) [2]

Fig.2. Thermal map of the bituminous layer (cross-section profile) [2]

In the ongoing project, in order to take images, we are using a thermal camera designed and optimized
to aerial records in thermal spectrum – FLIR Vue Pro R 640, mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle DJI
Phantom Pro 4 Advanced, which is equipped with an improved sensor - 1-inch 20 Megapixel, capable of
shooting 4K/60 fps video and RGB (Red, Green, Blue) images with Burst Mode stills at 14 fps.
We opted for using a UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) equipped with a thermal camera, because it offers the
advantage of capturing images at any time of the bituminous layer laying. This cannot be achieved by using a
measuring terrestrial vehicle equipped with a thermal camera, because the access during the laying process is not
possible. On the other hand, UAV systems are easily controlled and have incorporated various functions that
facilitate the flight: possibility of programming the aerial photography’s route, automatic maintenance of flight
altitude, the return to the launching point if the radio connections are interrupted or other technical problems
occur during the flight [3].
The collected data are downloaded and processed using dedicated software, obtaining the Digital
Surface Model (DSM – visible and DSM – thermal) as well as the thermal map of the bituminous layer. The
thermal images are combined with the RGB images to create 3D models and keep the thermal information at the
same time.
We also intend to accurately calculate the length of the revealed cracks, the potholes surface, crazing,
etc., as well as the length of longitudinal rutting through specific degradation processing software.
In order to assess the degradation state of the bituminous layers, two flights will be carried out at
intervals of at least six months between them, which determines the type and extent of the breakdowns of a
bituminous layer, as well as the silting devices silting up state. The flights to determine the thermal regime will
be performed on the same day on a road sector where a bituminous layer is made, at least three temperature
values being determined (at the mixture laying, at the compacting beginning and at the works completion) and
on the basis of the obtained depth results the temperatures profile on the thickness of the executed layer it will be
also determined.

2.1 Importance of Compaction Temperature in Bituminous Layers

The compaction is a major step within the technological chain of realizing bituminous layers. The
compaction ensures the stuffing of the asphalt mixture at adequate temperatures, with specific equipment, in
order to obtain appropriate physical and mechanical characteristics
The purpose is generally to obtain a bituminous layer with maximum a few percentages voids and a
compaction degree of minimum 96…98%. A large number of factors influence these characteristics, such as [4]:
temperature of the asphalt mixture during compaction, weather conditions (environmental temperature, wind,
rain, etc.), thickness of the bituminous layer, temperature of the supporting layer, compaction energy (type and
mass of roller used, etc.), type and characteristics of mixture rate of spread, etc.
The result is known to determine the operation behaviour of bituminous layers, but in the same time,
this can be decisively influenced by a great number of factors, out of which the temperature of the layer during
compaction is essential. Therefore, the adaptation of the asphalt mixture temperature to the working conditions
on site is of outmost importance (such as spreading bituminous layers at high temperature during cold weather)
in order to avoid porous, moisture susceptible, bituminous layers.
Existing scientific literature presents certain correlations between several of the factors mentioned
above, without offering solutions to correlate the layer temperature (measured continuously on the entire depth
and surface of the layer) with the compaction energy required to obtain an adequate compaction. In order to
exemplify the importance of the compaction temperature, figures 3 and 4 show the conclusions concerning the
relation between the layer temperature, the compaction degree and the number of passes of a vibrating tandem
roller (fig. 3), and respectively the decrease of the layer temperature after spreading (fig. 4), in two situations: 1 –
environmental and supporting layer temperature of 21 oC and 2 – environmental and supporting layer
temperature of 2 oC presented in [5].

Fig. 3. Compaction degree variation with temperature and number of passes [5]

It was found crucial to maintain the compaction temperature above 120 oC. A decrease of temperature
under 100 oC does not lead to the increase of the compaction degree, even if the number of roller passes is
increased. For that matter, the Romanian standards [6] stipulate that, depending on the type of bitumen, the
temperature at the beginning of the compaction should be 135…160 oC, and that of the compacted bituminous
layer should be 100…120 oC.
In the condition mentioned above, the authors think that finding a method to determine the temperature
of the bituminous layer in real time may lead to taking efficient measures either for completing compaction in
adequate conditions or for applying later technical solutions to avoid the degradation of insufficiently compacted
bituminous layers. Thus:
- in the short term, during compaction, either the decision of supplementing the compaction energy
(using an additional roller for instance) in order to speed up the operation if the temperature of the layer is
relatively low, or respectively, the decision of postponing the compaction until the optimal compaction
temperature is reached, if the layer temperature is too high, can be taken;
- in the medium term, after the complete compaction and before the cold season it is possible to make
the decision for waterproofing of the porous surfaces that would result from the monitoring of a low temperature
compaction.
The research is to investigate the temperature variation when spreading bituminous layers in different
field conditions (environmental and supporting bituminous layer temperature, thickness of bituminous layer,
possible shady versus sunny areas, etc.), and propose a wide scale application method of this technology in
laying asphalt mixtures.

Fig. 4. The bituminous layer temperature decrease, in time, depending on weather conditions [5]

3 Conclusions
The use of an unmanned aerial vehicle equipped with a thermal camera during the bituminous layer
laying offers the advantage of taking pictures at any moment, which cannot be realized by using a terrestrial
measurement vehicle equipped with a thermal camera, because the vehicle which cannot pass on the definitive
uncompacted layer surface.
Applying such a solution in practice to real-time temperature verification in spreading the bituminous
layer allows efficient measures to be taken both to complete compaction in appropriate conditions and to avoid
the bituminous layer degradation with insufficient compaction, by waterproofing its surface before the cold
season.
The implementation process will allow a real-time temperature monitoring while laying the bituminous
layers, by adapting of the working technology to the in-situ conditions and with the identification of the surfaces
that require special treatment (e.g. shaded surfaces in relation to the sunny surfaces).
The first results obtained by applying the previously mentioned technology experimental sectors, will
be published during the current year.

Acknowledgements
This article was produced with the financial support of Politehnica University Timisoara, within the
programme “National Research Grants – ARUT 2018 – Research projects to stimulate young researchers within
ARUT universities” (No.1352/01.02.2019).

REFERENCES
[1] Bedshid, K. et al., (2015). 3D surface generation from aerial thermal imagery. International
Conference on Sensors & Models in Remote Sensing & Photogrammetry.
[2] Janku, M., Stryk, J., (2017). Application of infrared camera to bituminous concrete pavements:
measuring vehicle. IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
[3] Nache, F., Stănescu, R.A., Păunescu, C. (2017). The Processing Workflow Needed in Order to
Obtain the Main Photogrammetric Products Used in Cadastre and Topography. Modern
Technologies for the 3rd Millenium – Oradea, Romania, ISBN 978-88-87729-41-2, pp.43-48.
[4] Lucaci, G., Costescu, I., Belc, F., (2000). Construcția drumurilor. București, Editura Tehnică
(Road Building. Bucharest, Technical Publishing House).
[5] Arquie, G., Morel, G., (1988). Le compactage. Paris, Editions Eyrolles.
[6] * * * Normativ privind mixturile asfaltice executate la cald. Condiții de proiectare, preparare și
punere în operă a mixturilor asfaltice. Normativ AND 605-2016. (Standard concerning hot
asphalt mixtures. Design, manufacturing and laying asphalt mixtures. Standard AND 605-2016).

Geospatial Input Data Validation in Modelling

Hydrological Risk
Diac M.1, Crenganiș L.1, Bofu C.1, Marcu C. 1
1
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Environmental Engineering (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

Abstract
The rapid development of geoinformation technologies leaded to higher precision and amount of
geospatial data, able to accurately describe earth`s topographic surface and to model/predict extreme natural
phenomena. As a result of climate change and anthropic (human) influence (actions/interference) on river basins,
the studies of hydrological models able to provide hydrologic risk maps even in areas without significant
hydrological events/history are of real importance.
The paper herein addresses technical problems related to geospatial data integration/validation process
used for hydrological modelling in order to create the hydrological risk maps. The proposed geospatial data
integration/validation process used for hydrological modelling consists in processing of high amount of various
data: available LSA data, Earth quasi-geoid model obtained from EGG2008 regional equipotential model and
GNSS measurements, GNSS measurements to complete the LSA data specific to the river being in study,
photogrammetric data, ortophotomap of the entire river basin used to determine the terrain cover, climatological,
symptomatologic and pedologic data.
Finally, the flowchart of geospatial data processing, which includes data processing in Arc Gis and data
integration/including/transfer in Hydrology Risk hydrologic modelling software is provided/suggested/proposed.
The case study of resulting flooding strips and recurrence period probability for a specific study area of the
Nicolina River is presented.
Keywords: LSA data, quasigeoid, hydrologic, map, risk.

1. Introduction

The methodology for risk maps layout according to 60/2007 Directive of European Community adopted
by our country too, assumes the hydrologic modelling of main rivers and of those with certain/known flooding
risk. However, the climate change leaded to new areas prone to flooding/hydrologic risk. The main goal of the
paper herein consists in creating a flowchart of existing geospatial data processing and validation. Databases like
existing LSA, orthophotoplan photogrammetric data, climatic, symptomatologic and pedological data are
forwardly used in order to generate hydrologic or other type of risk maps. Selection of the area in study was
made after a thorough analysis of the entire Nicolina river basin that was made at 1st of July 2013 when the most
recent and significant flooding was produced and affected some rural and urban zones. The flooding occurred
after two consecutive days of abundant rainfalls of more than 100mm/24h (112 mm on 30th of June 2013 and
101 mm on 1st of July 2013 according to data provided by INMH).
At that time, after visual assessment of the entire river basin, all flooded areas were identified and
compared with those obtained by the hydrologic simulation according to 60/2007 Directive of European
Community.
The studied area chosen for hydrologic modelling includes the superior stream of the river together with
the water sources and also the area identified / suspected as being prone to flooding and that is not marked on the
existing risk maps elaborated according to 60/2007 Directive of European Community (Fig.1, Fig.2).

Fig. 1. Hydrologic risk map provided on the Romanian Fig. 2. Flooding captured by the author on 1st of July
Waters official website at section risk maps (Ciurea - (Ciurea - Todirel area)
Todirel County Road area)

2. Materials and method

The area being studied is 17.1358 Km² and is located on the territory of Birnova village on the border
with Ciurea village and includes the following localities: a part of the Barnova, Todirel and Cercu countryside.
The area is scanned with 5 LSA strips with the average width of 1100 m and the length of 10000 m and contains
658797 LSA points.
The flowchart of data processing starts from using as input the Las and other types of data gathered with
the scope of hydrologic modelling according to 60/2007 Directive of European Community. [1]
The data format and their technical properties - not classified; high spatial resolution; UTM Z35N
rectangular coordinate system; altimetry system of ellipsoidal elevations - have conducted a specific processing,
validation and completion runway in order to obtain the numerical model of the terrain to be used for drawing
the hydrologic risk maps (Fig.3).

Fig.3. The flowchart of processing / integration of geospatial data

For transforming the DEM with ellipsoidal elevations in a DEM with orthometric elevations (Fig.4) a
regional geospatial model was created specific to Nicolina river basin obtained by interpolation of GNSS and
levelling common nodes, in different computation hypotheses (polynomial, spline etc.) by using the EGG2008
European gravimetric model.
The calculation formula:
DEM (cote normale) = DEM (cote elipsoidale) - DEM (cvasigeoid).

Fig.4. Orthogonally rectified DEM in normal elevations in Black Sea 1975 (grid 3 m)

2.1. DEM validation

For validation of the proposed DEM, three types of tests were considered: in function of landforms, in
function of location with respect to LSA scanning strips and other singular nodes identified on the DEM of the
river`s thalweg.
Test zones in function of landforms were chosen according to the following three situations: plan zone
(of the river meadow), coastal zone (skew plane) and in the mixed area (fig.5).
The test zones are of approximately 250 m to 500 m.
The test zones are of approximately 250 m to 500 m.
For all test zones in situ measurements were made by using a GNSS receiver and aiming that nodes
density to be similar to that of LSA nodes and to measure as closely as possible of characteristic nodes of the
landform (slope change, difference of level etc.). The GNSS measurements can be done using the PPP technique
or DD technique but a special attention have to be done at the ambiguity resolution for the measurements from
the firs technique [8] and to the noise that dominates the results [9][10].

Fig.5. Test areas in function of landforms Fig.6. Test areas in function of thalweg

Only in three points from thirteen, the elevations from DEM are validated on site (Fig.6). This is the
result of the fact that river bed morphology is not correctly registered by LSA scanning with the 1point/4m2
resolution. Thus, topographic measurements in the river bed are absolutely required. The importance of
topographic measurements is also to identify the humidity vital zones in order to create a hydrologic model able
to describe the flooding risk maps.[2]

2.2. Hydrological modeling with Hydrologic Risk

Hydrologic Risk software was developed by a group of italian researhers and enables 1D hydrodynamic
simulation bazed on a global deterministic model built up on some sets of equations or empirical formulas
resulted from hydrographic system variables, formulas that do not take into account the spatial distribution of the
processes and transformations that occur inside the hydrologic system. [3]
For 1D simulation of the study area multiple spatial data types were required, as DEM, transversal
profiles to show humidity on specific cross-sections, flow direction, flow accumulation direction, the contour of

the watershed, sloping regime, terrain covering and also climatic and symptomatically data. The hydrologic
simulation to obtain flooding risk maps basically assumes the following conceptual model (see Fig. 7).

Fig.7. Flowchart of hydrologic simulation

The topography of the study area of Nicolina river basin was introduced by means of two different
resolution DEMs:
- DEM (with elevation digital model) with 200 m grid used to roughly model the topography of the
studied river basin;
- DEM (with elevation digital model) with 3 m grid to more in detail modeling of river bed and of the
zones prone to flooding risk.
The river basin contour and the hydrographic grid/network were 3D edited with ArcScene and exported
in XYZ.txt format to Hydrologic Risk hydraulic simulation software.
To accomplish the 1D hydrodynamic model, seven transversal profiles were measured on site using the
GNSS RTK sattelite technology and topographic measurements considering the following characteristic points:
thalweg, humidity zones, cross-section contour of river bed, other points on the topography of the land adjacent
to the river bed. Through the final topographic model, 18 transversal profiles named SEZ1 - SEZ18 were created
, by interpolation and extraction from 3 m grid DEM (Fig.8).

Fig. 8. Cross-sections created on the main stream of the study zone

a) Morphometric and hydrographic analysis

For each basin characterized by its cross-section the calculation that determine the morphometric
propertis of the basin and accumulation/concentration time.
The contour of the hydrographic basin and obtaining the hydrographic network was made by specific
ArcGis functions exported in XYZ.txt format to Hydrologic Risk.
The morphometric elements of hydrographic basin were considered for the entire basin and also on each
cross-section after obtaining the 3D Delaunay triangulation model based on the DEMs with 200 m and 3 m grids
(Fig.9). The average elevation of the river basin is obtained from the average of the hi mean altitudes by the
weight equal to partial areas Ai. [7]

Fig. 9. 3D view of the study zone obtained through Hydrologic Risk software

After postprocessing the the traingularization model of the river basin the following morphometric
parameters were obtained for the entire hydrographic basin: Surface: 17.1358 Km², barycentre coordinates:
X=547723, Y=5212606 UMT Zone 35N, Perimeter: 19.366 Km, Elevation: Max=417.850, Med=153.748,
Min=118.020, Maximum breadth: 4763.36 m, Average slope of the river basin: 0.00%.
For the main stream the following parameters were obtained: Main stream length: 6.370Km, Elevation
of closing cross-section: 118.020, Average slope of the main stream: 2.330%,, Accumulation time determined by
Puglisi-Znframundo1978 is 3.89 hours. [4]
b) Kennessey Drainage coefficient

In order to obtain this parameter, that is important for the succesive steps of hydrologic balance, the
following data are needed: rainability - measured in mm of rain to determine the P flows, averge, maximum and
minimum temperatures for each month.
The climatic data were provided by Iasi weather station considering that the studied basin area is
located in of the town`s proximity. Climatic time series are monthly and are considered for 10 years timespan,
between 2003 and 2013 and are presented in Table 1 below. [5]

Table 1. Climatic data of the study zone

Station code Date av. temp max temp min temp total rainfall
710736 01.01.2003 0.3 13.4 -11 38.9
710736 01.02.2003 -3.8 6.4 -20.9 47.1
710736 01.03.2003 2.8 21.3 -12 20.7
……… ………………. ……… ……… ……… …………
710736 01.10.2013 10.8 24.6 -1.9 2.3
710736 01.11.2013 8.6 23.7 -6.8 23.7
710736 01.12.2013 0.6 13.8 -6.6 8

Aridity index Ia with the value of 7.50 was determined by the formula:
P 12p

I a  T  10 t (1)
2
where: P - mean monthly input flow; T - anual mean temperature; p - input flow in the most arid month. With
Kennessey method, three intervals of Ia coefficient with re4spect to each factor (Ca - waterability, Cv -vegetation,
Cp - permeability). The values depend on the terrain cover, the slope regime and soil permeability that are
implemented in hudrologic risk software and described in the corresponding technical documentation. The anual
average drainage coefficient computed by Kennessey (1930) was obtained based on terrain cover, slope regime
and soil permeability. Terrain cover was determined by digitization in ArcGis on orthophotoplan resulting the
following statistics of terrain cover, (Fig. 10)
Area covered by forests: 9.1 Km², Area covered by agrisultural and: 4.028 Km², Area covered by
grassland: 3.008 Km².
For areas covered by rock or with no vegetation a mean land utilization coefficient was used/applied of
15% - (1 km2) to the cumulated area of the Visani, Cercu and partially Birnova localities, the rest of 85% of the
area being considered arable land.

The soil permeability of the study area was investigated on pedologic maps scale 1:200000 and were
clasified as folowing:
- very low permeability soil, 1 Km² corresponding to terrain inside localities;
- low permeability soils, the remaining 16.17 Km² being clayed soils.

Sloped areas were analyzed with ArcGis based on DEM and are clasified in four ranges, 0 < p < 3.5;
3.5 < p < 10; 10 < p < 35 and p > 35, that are mentioned in Hydrologic Risk.(Fig.11)

Fig.11. Slope classes - study area

Fig.10. Land coverage - study area

The interogation results on slope ranges: 0 < p < 3.5 - area of 2.057 Km² , reprezenting 12% of the
study area, 3.5 < p < 10 - area of 1.885 Km² , 11%, 10 < p < 35 - area of 14.91 Km² , 87%,p > 35 - not found in
the study area.

Computed Drainage coefficient according to Kennessey:

c) Rain rule
To determine the rain rule the symptmatological data were processed included in the observation files
of the Bârnova weather station registered on a period of ten years, between 2003 and 2013. The used data are the
average rains registered on several hour intervals: 1 hour, 3 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours and 24 hours. Data
processing leads to calculation of rain rule (law) for a specific recurrence period, or considering the determined
relationship between the rain height h and time span t.
All rain rules have the formula of this type:

h  a  tn (2)
Where: a and n are constants varying in function of the recurrence period and are determined for each individual
case.
For the study zone the historic maximum rainfall registered for a 24 hours interval was recorded in
August 1940 with the value of 158 mm. After statistically processing of symptomatology data regarding rainfall
in the last 10 years with Hydrologic Risk software, the value of 146 mm was obtained for a recurrence period of
100 years.

For the hydrologic modelling of the study zone, the maximum flooding flow were determined by using
the rational method in all 18 cross-sections.

d) Flood Hydrograph
Beside the maximum flow, knowing the flowing evolution by time in the reference cross-section (Flood
Hydrograph) may be significant.

The flood hydrographs for all 18 cross-sections defined in the study zone for the three recurrence
probabilities of 1%, 2% and 10% were determined and selected in the general Data section of the software (Fig.
12).

Fig. 12. Flooding Hydrograph for different recurrence probabilities

3. Results
After checking the uniform and permanent flow for all 18 defined cross-sections, the software provides
the risk maps for all three recurrence periods 1 % (Fig.12), 2% and 10% (Fig.13).

Fig.12. Flooding strips with reccurence probability of 10% Fig.13. Flooding strips with reccurence probability of 1%

Another result that could be obtained with this software are the longitudinal and transversal profile
corresponding to the 18 defined cross-sections with specifying the water level in the river bed according to the
three recurrence probabilities. The figure below shows a flooded cross-section, Fig. 14 that is validated also
through the visual assessment made on 1.07.2013.

Fig.14. Flooded cross-section

For risk assessment, resulted flooding strips from the model in Hydrologic Risk were imported in
ArcGis and superposed on orthophotoplan and analysed in conjunction with longitudinal and transversal profiles
together with the elevation digital model (Fig.15) [6].

Fig. 15. Flooding strips showed on orthophotoplan

After analysis and interogation of the newly created graphical data base generated on the basis of the
flooding strips obtained through the 1D hydrologic modelling of the study zone, the identified risk are
considered as following:
- for the reccurence probability of 10% - flooding of 6.3 ha arable land and partially damaging on a 250
m length of the Barnova – Ciurea county road;
- for the reccurence probability of 2% - flooding of 14.6 ha arable land and total damaging oon a length
of 350 m of the Barnova – Ciurea county road;
- for the reccurence probability of 1% - flooding of 19.8 ha arable land and total damaging on a length
of 400 m of the Barnova – Ciurea county road, leading to traffic interruption, the height of the water on the road
reaching 70 cm.

4. Conclusions
The pre-processing – procesing and validation flowcart proposed herein highlights that existing data
casn be used for hydrologic modelling but only if they are accompanied by on site measurements in bed rivers
areas.
The numeric model of the land corresponding to the study zone based on LSA measurements, high
precision geometric levelling, bed river topographic measurements, GNSS measurements, orthophotoplan,
pedologic maps, climatic and symptomatology data constitute an accurate geospatial basis to be used for
hydrologic modelling.
1D hydrologic modelling on the basis of the DEM obtained from existing LSA data on the ABA Prut –
Barlad territory may be an efficient tool for the local authorities for reducing human and goods losses in case of
flooding.
Allthough at the first glance the flooding risk in the sudy area seems not so high, (19 ha flooded and
400 m affected county road), the consequences of localities isolation even for only 24 h in case of medical
emergencies, fires a.s.o. should be taken into consideration.

REFERENCES
[1] Balan, Isabela, et al. "Infiltration Losses Calculated for the Flash Flood in the Upper Catchment of
Geru River, Galaţi County, Romania." Present Environment and Sustainable Development10.2
(2016): 219-234.
[2] Corduneanu F., Vintu V., Balan I, Crenganis L., Bucur D., (2016) Impact of drought on water
resources in North – Eastern Romania. Case study – the Prut River, în Environmental Engineering
and Management Journal, Vol. 15, No.6, p.1213 – 1223
[3] Diac, Maximilian, et al. "Creating hydrological risk maps based on the rectified digital terrain model
in the Nicolina hydrographical basin." International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference:
SGEM: Surveying Geology & mining Ecology Management 1 (2016): 219-226.
[4] Diac M., Generation of digital terrain model for hydrological risk maps, Technical University
„Gheorghe Asachi” of Iasi, PhD thesis, Iasi, 2014
[5] L Crenganiş, C Bofu, I Balan, C Boariu, H Hogaş, (2018), Historic flooding in the Prut-Bârlad
catchments, International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference: SGEM: Surveying Geology
& mining Ecology Management, Vol 18, p. 351-358
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Improvement of Real-Time Monitoring Process Results." Environmental Engineering &
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month period,” J. Spat. Sci., pp. 1–14, Apr. 2016.

Spatial Data Mining Using GIS Web Services

Droj G.1, Droj L.2

1
Gabriela Droj University of Oradea, Faculty of Construction, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
2
Droj Laurențiu University of Oradea, Faculty of Economical Science (ROMANIA)
Emails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present the possibility of using spatial data mining techniques on public
geoportals. The usage of Web Map Servers, Web Feature Servers and public spatial data can improve the
development of decision support system in any field of activity starting from investment strategies, environment,
urban planning, resource management, taxation, property valuation and other type of analysis. In this paper, we
would like to present not only the sources for public spatial data in Romania, but also to emphasise the benefit of
combining different source of spatial date through a desktop GIS application.
Keywords: Spatial Data Mining, WFS, WMS, Geographic Information System.

1 Introduction
In order to achieve an optimal decision, the analysis process has to be based on an indispensable support
from the existing reality and depends on the quality of the information taken into consideration. Nowadays the
Internet makes possible accessing huge amount of information including geospatial data.
Geographical Information Systems have applicability in various fields. This fact led to an increasing
amount of heterogenous data from multidisciplinary sources. A huge amount of spatial data is captured in
various applications: remote sensing or specialized geographical information systems in fields such as
environment protection, economic, urbanism and much more. In order to benefit from the exponential growth of
geospatial data the specialists require data mining techniques such as classification, association and trend
detection, applied for spatial data.

1.1 Spatial Data Mining

Spatial data mining (SDM) is an extension of data mining: from relational and transactional database to
spatial database. In this context, the spatial data mining represents the integration of several fields including:
database system, data visualization, statistics, information theory, computational geometry and artificial
intelligence. [3]
Spatial data mining is the process of discovering interesting and previously unknown, but potentially
useful patterns from large spatial datasets by combining data mining techniques with spatial relationships and
computational geometry. Extracting patterns from spatial datasets is more difficult than extracting the
corresponding patterns from traditional numeric and categorical data due to the complexity of spatial data types,
spatial relationships, and spatial autocorrelation.
The complexity of spatial data and the spatial relationships limits the usefulness of conventional data
mining techniques for extracting spatial patterns. In order to reduce these limits is necessary to have a different
approach regarding the definition, the relationships and the organization of the data as well as in the case of
operations, statistics, algorithms and output. The table 1 presents a synthesis of the difference between classical
data mining and the spatial data mining.

Table 1. Classical Data Mining vs Spatial Data Mining (adaptation)

Classical data mining Spatial data mining

Data definition Simple Complex
Relationships Explicit: arithmetic, Ordering Often Implicit: topological, metrical, directional,
dynamic

Data organization Indexed Hierarchical Structured Spatial Indexing, Tree

Operation Local Local, focal and zonal,
Statistical Independent of context Spatial autocorrelation
Output Set based Spatial based
Algorithm Generic: divide-and-conquer, Minim Bounding Rectangle( MBR), Spatial indexing,
ordering, hierarchical structure Plane sweeping, Computational geometry

2 Web-based geographic information system

The Open Geospatial Consortium has defined several Open Web Services for accessing (usually
geographic) data. There are two basic service sets – the Web Feature Services (WFS) and the Web Map Services
(WMS).
The Web Feature Server (WFS) is an interface which creates a direct access to the geospatial data for
manipulating vector features. The access to the spatial data can be done by reading, writing, and updating,
according to the given rights of access for each specific user.
The Web Map Server (WMS) is an interface used for transforming the data into a map (image). The
client can connect to WMS and WFS through a GIS application in order to use the remote spatial data together
with its own geospatial and non-geospatial data in complex queries and analyses.

2.1 GIS Data Sources in Romania

The implementation of INSPIRE directive encouraged establishing a common infrastructure for spatial
information in Europe and in European Countries including Romania. The coordinator for Romania is the
National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (ANCPI).
The National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (ANCPI) made an inventory of Geospatial
Data Managers in order to create a national framework (INIS) called ”National Nomenclature of Geospatial Data
Managers” available on http://geoportal.gov.ro/Geocatalog/Organization/Index. Most of the Geospatial Data
Managers published their data available only through internet browsers. There are some data managers which
published spatial data desktop or client GIS tools using Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards such as
Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS).
In the following table we present the Geospatial Data Managers which published geospatial data usable
on the desktop or client GIS:

Table 2. GIS Data Sources in Romania GIS

Data source Warehouse URL Description OGC

standards
CNAIR http://gis.cestrin.ro/services/rest/servic National Roads, WMS
es/INSPIRE/TN_Roads/MapServer/ext
s/InspireView/service?
Romanian Geological http://81.196.111.132:443/geoserver/g Geological map of WMS
Research Institute eolro1M/wms?REQUEST=GetCapabil Romania
ities&SERVICE=WMS&VERSION=1
.3.0
Environmental http://gis.anpm.ro/services/services/A Environmental WFS
Protection Agency QD/AQD_Zones_Agglomerations/Ma Protection Agency
pServer/WFSServer?request=GetCapa Zones_Agglomerations
bilities&service=WFS
Romanian Spatial http://geodata.rosa.ro/arcgis/services/L Lands use WFS
Agency ccs03/MapServer/WFSServer?SERVI
CE=WFS&VERSION=1.1.0&REQUE
ST=GetCapabilities
Romanian Geological http://gmlid.eu/RO/GeoEcoMar/EUXI Measurements for WMS
And Gecological Marine NUS/WMS?request=GetCapabilities& water dynamics in
Research Institute service=wms&version=1.3.0 Black sea offshore -
2016
ANCPI http://geoportal.gov.ro Administrative limits Download
Cities

ANM www.anm.ro Meteorological Download

http://geoportal.gov.ro measurement points
Statistical National http://www.efgs.info/wp- Census 2011 Download
Institute content/uploads/Data/GRID/Grid_ETR
S89_LAEA_RO_1K.zip.
City Hall of Oradea www.oradea.ro Streets Download
City Limits

3 Results

The geographical informational systems became very popular tools for improving the efficiency of decision
making in various fields of activities: economy, urban planning, investment planning, environmental protection,
social development strategies and healthcare so on. Integrating different GIS data from different sources with
specific ERPs allows to create and maintain more accurate and complex database useful for decision support.

The development of applications on the web and the popularity of mobile devices led to an increasing usage of
web servers for geospatial data. The user of GIS webserver client can be:
• a mobile client which is using a smartphone or tablet to interrogate a remote geospatial webserver
through an internet browser or special apps
• a thin client who is using an internet browser
• a thick client who interrogates the geospatial web server through a desktop GIS software.
The thick client, by using a desktop GIS software can combine huge amount of information from remote sensing
provided by different geospatial webservers, with local data and to perform complex spatial analysis.

Fig. 1. Clients for GIS Web Services

Through a desktop GIS software, users can create a connection to the remote geospatial servers by using web
services like Web Map Service (WMS), Web Coverage Service (WCS), Web Feature Service (WFS), Web
Catalog Service (CSW) and Web Processing Service (WPS). The remote application server is responsible for
providing the geospatial information to the clients, and a client can overlay information received from different
servers, by using different webservices with own data.

Fig. 2. GIS Desktop Client

In the following figure we present a classification of the Romanian municipalities based on population in 2015.
For this, we created a classification, in 10 classes, based on the municipality’s population, by using the following
geospatial data:
• Counties Administrative limits and Territorial Administrative Units Border from ANCPI (shape)
• National Road structure from CNAIR (WMS )
• Oradea streets – local database (Microsoft Access)
• Census data from Statistical National Institute

Fig. 3. Classification of Territorial Administrative Unite based on population in 2015

In the following figure we present a Lands Use Classification in Oradea and neighbouring villages. For this map
we created a thematic map, a classification of land use based on geospatial data:
• Oradea streets – local database (Microsoft Access)
• National Road structure from CNAIR ( WMS )
• Lands use – from Romanian Space Agency (WFS)

Fig. 4. Lands Use Classification in Oradea and neighbouring villages

In the following we generated the geological structure for Bihor County. For this map we used three geospatial
data:
• Oradea streets – local database (Microsoft Access)
• Counties Administrative limits and Territorial Administrative Units Border from ANCPI (shape)
• Geological map of Romania published by Romanian Geological Research Institute (WMS)

Fig. 5. Geologic Unit 1 m in Bihor County

4 Conclusion
The usage of Web Servers (WMS and WFS) is offering access to various spatial data from
heterogenous fields making possible to develop multidisciplinary analyses but also reducing the cost for data
collection and improving accuracy.
The main disadvantages of Web Base GIS is that it can be slow and unresponsive and is highly
dependent on the Internet connection, but when working on a local computer, copies of data can be made in
order to fulfil advanced geoprocessing tasks which can be time-consuming.
The main advantages for web based GIS is the fact that the geospatial data is always up to date and any
updates made by data owners are becoming instantly available for each user.

REFERENCES
[1] Banaszeka Ł. (2010) - Public spatial data in service of Polish archaeologists. Advantages and
disadvantages of Web Map Servers usage,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267720374, viewed at 10.03.2019.
[2] Barik R K, Dubey H,. Samaddar A B, Gupta R D., Ray P K. - FogGIS: Fog Computing for
Geospatial Big Data Analytics 3rd IEEE Uttar Pradesh, International Conference on Electrical,
Computer and Electronics Engineering, December 09-11, 2016, Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi, India.
[3] Droj, L, Droj, G - Spatial Decision Support System for Property Taxation Modelling, 14th IBIMA
Conference on Global Business Transformation through Innovation and Knowledge
Management, Istanbul, Turkey, 23-24 June 2010.
[4] Hemlata G., Chilka S., Nisheeth J. (2017)- An Integrated Approach of GIS and Spatial Data
Mining in Big Data, International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 – 8887) Volume 169 –
No.11, July 2017.
[5] Michaelis, C. D. Ames D. P (2012) -Considerations for Implementing OGC WMS and WFS
Specifications in a Desktop GIS, Journal of Geographic Information System, 2012, 4, 161-167.
[6] ***Open Geospatial Consortium”Vision and Mission”, http://www.opengeospatial.org/ogc/vision.
[7] ***- Spatial Data Mining, www.iasri.res.in.

Study on Real Estate Development through

Land Registration

Henț E.1, Popoviciu G.A.2, Mancia M.S.1, Mancia A.1

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Construction, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
2
University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
The present paper tries to reveal that operation for the organization of land books which are based on
certain fundamental rules. These rules are known as being those principles resulting in an express or implied
manner from the content of the Law no. 7 from 1996 (The Law of Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity), as amended
and supplemented. In the same time, we will show the actual situation about real estates development in the base
of the land registration system. The references sources in the domain are both national and international. Through
these sources, we found that real estate development has the same principles, the differences being minor. First of
all, our main consideration through this paper provides a piece of background information on the system of land
registration and cadastre.
Keywords: land book, real estate, land registration, development.

1 Introduction
At present, the cadastre is conceived as an informational system of all land [9] and real estate irrespective
of their destination and landlord, being built from the general cadastre and the specialized cadastre obtained from
the cadastral data. The function of the general cadastre, as a primary source of topo-cadastral data, involves both
field measurements and their numerical highlighting in cadastral registers and plans.
Besides the main purpose, the land registry also ensures the following information:
- Identify financial resources [7] and provide the necessary data on updating maps and cadastral plans.
- Provides synthesis data on the state and evolution of the land fund.
- Prepares preliminary studies on territorial planning, environmental protection and other activities, to be
carried out on large areas of land.
Land registration is tasking at the national level (according to the Civil Code and Cadastre Law) through
the National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (ANCPI) [8]. The land information plays more and more
a role in many other government activities (especially in planning and environment).

2 Methodology
The valuation is required wherever a property is traded through sale-purchase, rentals, and generally
wherever there are situations where a decision has to be made or action is to be taken or a strategy for which an
estimate of value is required. Among the particular situations in which property valuation is required are:
- transfer of ownership or use;
- determination of the use program of the property;
- property taxation;
- property financing;
- compensation for damages.

In the case of the first situation mentioned above, the transfer of ownership, the valuation is necessary to
assist potential buyers in their purchasing decisions and potential sellers in determining acceptable sales prices,
establishing a basis for real estate exchange, establishing the basis for reorganizing or merging properties or the
business that uses them), determining payment terms for a particular transaction or determining the amount of rent.

According to the report The Emerging Trends in Real Estate® - The Global Outlook for 2018, the global
real estate market offers investors good returns and a positive global outlook [1]. Also, the report shows that on
such estate market highly competitive, real estate, in order to develop further, we must be able to adopt and adapt
new technologies and business models such as the concept of “space as a service".
The report includes an overview of market-specific factors in Asia, Europe and the United States of
America, which have global implications [1]:
Growing competition for Asian assets fundamentally changes the industry and is often unexpected. Many
key investors are at risk to manage profits, while others are looking for safer solutions but at the same time
providing them with no longer yielding government bonds. There are investors who have moved to the value-
added space segment. A result of this phenomenon is the migration of investors to markets and asset classes that
until recently did not generate too much interest. Fund managers now consider data centers, affordable residential
projects, rental halls, student hostels, and shelters for the elderly as healthy assets.
The profile market in Europe enjoys the most robust economic growth of the last ten years in the European
Union, which supports investment and high demand for space. Much of this growth was supported by developed
economies such as Germany, France, Italy or Spain. For European real estate specialists it is quite difficult to break
with London, especially in the unsafe conditions generated by Brexit. But the report notes that Asian investors do
not seem to have a problem with Brexite and are targeting long-term investment in London.
In the United States, the possible impact of new federal legislation on the real estate sector is being
pursued. The conclusions of this year's report of this report show that 61% of respondents believe it will be
beneficial to the sector. About a quarter of respondents say fiscal reform will boost investor demand, and a similar
percentage says it will improve rental demand. The report shows that it remains to be seen what the impact on the
residential area will be, but notes three potential effects: foreign investors will be able to invest and repatriate
profits more easily than before; US companies that have so far earned profits abroad to benefit from lower taxes
will be able to bring their earnings to the country, and last but not least, corporate tax will be reduced to the United
States.
This is what happened on the global level. At national level, the same report shown that 2017 year was
reached a record high on the transaction market. With other word, in Romania, for the real estate sector, 2017 was
a particularly prolific one, with transactions worth more than € 1 billion, up 10% from the previous year. From a
transactional perspective, the most dynamic sectors were hotel, followed by the retail and industrial sectors [1].
Within the framework of the National Cadastre and Land Register Program initiated by the National
Agency for Cadastre and Real Estate Advertising (ANCPI) for the purpose of free registration of real estate in the
integrated cadastre and land system, they are financed, according to the provisions of art. 9 paragraph (341) -
(3412) of the Cadastre and Real Estate Advertising Law no. 7/1996, republished, as subsequently amended and
supplemented (Law No. 7/1996), the systematic registration works initiated by the administrative-territorial units
(ATUs) having as object cadastral sectors within UATs that include buildings from outside, indifferent the quality
of the owner of the right, respectively the owner, the holder of a real right over the real estate or the owner. By
way of exception, in ATUs where there are no outside the town lands, systematic registration works can be started
at the level of the inside the town cadastral sectors. The cadastral sector is the surface unit delineated by stable
linear elements at times - roads, waterways, canals, dikes, railways, etc. The Territorial Office for Cadastre and
Publicity (OCPI) determines the cadastral sectors for the whole ATU in order to ensure efficient management of
the systematic ATU recordings: the coherent numbering of the cadastral sectors within the ATU, ensuring the
continuity of works at one cadastral sector to another, etc. Prior to the start of the public procurement procedure,
OCPI together with the City Hall shall establish the cadastral sectors that will be the object of the public
procurement contract for the systematic registration of buildings [2].
The utilities benefiting from the systematic registration [6] work have the obligation to include as a matter
of priority in the cadastral sectors covered by the public procurement contract the land corresponding to the
infrastructure projects of national interest, as well as the cadastral sectors comprising agricultural land subsidized
by the Paying Agency and Intervention for Agriculture (APIA), taking into account that the regulation of the
possibility of financing the systematic registration of buildings located in outside the town was adopted in order
to accelerate the implementation of the cadastre in Romania and to support the implementation of the new payment
schemes applied in agriculture, 2015-2020, thus ensuring a fair basis for payment of support for these lands [2].
Not are the subjects for settlement:
a) Land books that have associated geometry registered in the Integrated Cadastre and Land Register
System until the date when the performer receives the right to access the e-Terra database;
b) The buildings that are included in the parcel plans made on the basis of public financing contracts.
Partial plans in the present procedure are:
- parcel plans made out of public funds as a result of carrying out the procurement procedures provided
by the law, executed according to the provisions of the Regulation regarding the content, the way of drawing up
and receiving the cadastral documentation for registration in the land book, approved by Order of the General
Director of the National Agency for Cadastre and Real Estate Advertising no. 634 / 13.10.2006, with subsequent

modifications and those executed according to the Regulation for approval, reception and registration in the
cadastre and land register, approved by the Order of the General Director of the National Agency for Cadastre and
Real Estate Advertising no. 700 / 09.07.2014, with subsequent modifications, received by the cadastre offices and
real estate publicity by assigning cadastral numbers to the building components, not registered in the integrated
cadastre and land registry system;
- parcels under construction, contracted from public funds.
c) Buildings made up of several plots of which some parcels are located in the area and at least one parcel
is located in the outlying area.
- If at the level of the City Hall there are planned purchases for activities similar to those stipulated by the
provisions of GEO no. 35/2016, these should be taken into account both for the purpose of determining the
purchase method and for determining the amount to be requested for financing according to GEO no. 35/2016, so
as not to violate the provisions of art. 7 from the Law no. 98/2016 on public procurement, which refers to value
thresholds for public procurement.

3 Conclusions
The stages and the manner of carrying out the systematic registration are detailed in the Technical
Specifications for carrying out the systematic cadastral works on cadastral sectors in order to enrol the buildings
in the land book funded by the National Agency for Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity approved by ANCPI
General Director Order no. 979 / 2016, as amended.
ATUs participate in systematic registration work through the following activities:
1. Providing to the economic operator the documents and information existing in the mayor's office
regarding the buildings in the cadastral sector and those received from the OCPI, other institutions;
2. Carry out the public information campaign at the local level. The mayor provides support for the
campaign by providing the necessary premises as well as by informing the property owners by displaying and
other means of publicity about their rights
▪ to allow specialists to access the measurements;
▪ to present the legal acts relating to buildings;
▪ to identify the boundaries of the buildings together with the teams carrying out the
specialized works;
▪ to check the information regarding the buildings they hold at the stage of publishing the
cadastral technical documents.
3. Monitoring and reporting to the OCPI of the state of execution of the public procurement contract
according to the law.
For a good and useful activity in the land registration of the real estate [10], the cooperation between the
institutions involved in the systematic registration works (City Halls, Executors, ANCPI / OCPI) could be the key
to success for a proper implementation of this activity.
The City Hall and the local community are the main beneficiaries of systematic registration projects, so
it is very important to involve them at all stages of the project.
Also, it is very important to involve the City Hall in notifying by means of advertising to the owners of
buildings the obligations they have in carrying out the systematic registration works.
On the same meanings, the opinion formers, people with moral probity who enjoy citizens' trust and can
easily communicate with them about what the citizen must do throughout the systematic registration process of
the property must be involved in the process.
In the process of systematic registration of properties, owners are not made available; this is the
responsibility of local land fund commissions to issue property titles.
It is recommended to involve city hall employees in the implementation of parcel plans, where there is
no provision of plans, other information necessary to establish the order of the owners in the country to provide
for the delay of the works.
In the case of immovable property, i.e. land with or without outside of town constructions, subject to land
fund laws, whether or not previously registered in the integrated system and whether or not fenced, to the extent
that there is a deficit in the sector the lands and the land areas can not be determined and can not be established, a
land registry of ownership titles in the cadastral sector will be established, in which the other real rights on the
buildings will be registered. In applying the provisions of paragraph (221), art. 11, the authorized person shall
identify the boundaries of the cadastral sectors that are established by the National Agency, as follows: a) carry
out measurements for the determined cadastral sector, specifying the fixed time limits of the said cadastral sector
and the location in cadastral plan for sporadic registration; b) checks and retrieves information from the integrated
bookshelves system in the respective sector; c) identifies the premises of the real estate in the sector for which no
land books have been opened on the basis of the titles of ownership and the limits indicated by the owner, the
representative of the local public authority and other interested persons.

If, on the basis of on-site verifications, the owners of the property rights agree with the corrected sites and
the reduced areas and proposed by the authorized person, based on the measurements made, he / she will take note
of the agreement of the owners in the sector based on their declarations contained in the datasheets interview
signed by the owners of property rights. Otherwise, the authorized person finalizes the cadastral documentation
for the entire sector in which he is located, to which he will be assigned a single cadastral number and underlies
the establishment of the land registry of the property titles in the sector, indicating the owners of the property
rights, the opening of individual derivative landed books, in which the owners of the rights in the respective sector
are registered. The land registry of the property titles in the sector will include the entry in the first part of the land
area identified according to the measurements, and in the second part of the owners of the property rights. Owners
of property rights will be enlisted in individual land books derived from the Land Book of Property Securities in
the sector, which states the owner of the property right over plots of property titles. The updating of the individual
land books derived from the land book of the property titles in the sector with the individual real estate geometry
can be done on the basis of the unanimous agreement of the owners regarding the recognition of the limits and the
locations and the surface of the buildings and in the absence of the unanimous agreement, on the basis of a final
court decision. The owner enlisted in the individual land book derived from the land registry of the property titles
in the sector may freely exercise the prerogatives of his property right, according to the law, as a land registry.

REFERENCES
[1] Ziua Cargo (2018), “Studiu PwC privind piața globală imobiliară”, viewed at 03.03.2019.
[2] OUG nr. 35/2016, privind modificarea și completarea Legii cadastrului și a publicității imobiliare
nr. 7/1996, M.Of. al României, partea I, nr. 489/30.VI.2016.
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imobiliare şi a serviciilor conexe tranzacţiilor imobiliare”, viewed at 03.03.2019.
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Development for Poverty Eradication and Slum Clearance in Nigeria”, Journal of Design and Built
Environment Vol. 14 (2).
[7] Frank F.K. Byamugisha (1999), „The effects of Land Registration on Financial development and
Economic Growth – A Theoretical and Conceptual Framework”.
[8] New Civil Code.
[9] Jaap Zevenbergen (2002), „Systems of Land registration. Aspects and Effects”, published by
NCG, Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie, Netherlands Geodetic Commission, Delft, The
Netherlands, Publications on Geodesy 51, ISBN 90 6132 277 4.
[10] Klaus Deininger, Gershon Feder (2009), Land Registration, Governance, and Development:
Evidence and Implications for Policy”, Published by Oxford University Press, The World Bank
Research Observer, vol. 24, no. 2, DOI:10.1093/wbro/lkp007, viewed at 03.03.2019.

Modern Methods Applied in Remote Sensing

Image Fusion

Hugianu R.1, Dima M.1, Telisca M.1, Hraniciuc T.1

1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The paper presents a review of the most important approaches for evaluating the spectral and spatial
similarities between the fused image and raw input images The quantitative evaluation is based on mathematical
modelling and is adopted by two approaches, with reference image and without reference image. Since early
‘90s much research had been done for the development of effective image fusion techniques to provide high-
resolution MS images using Pan image. The goal of this study is to evaluate the protocols and the families of the
methods established for pansharpening.
Keywords: remote sensing, image fusion, pansharpening.

Introduction
The Earth's natural resources, so necessary for the maintenance and development of human civilization,
are hidden by the environment. Creating remote sensing as an interdisciplinary system, especially spatial remote
sensing, has made it possible to discover new resources, to track known ones, to the environment, by detecting
and recording radiation emitted, absorbed or reflected by material objects or by sensing the influence of objects
on the environment.
The term "remote sensing" was first introduced in literature in the United States in the mid-50 as part of
the documentation American Oceanic Administration (currently NOAA or the Ocean and Atmosphere
Administration).
The author of this definition is E. Pruitt. Remote sensing is the technical field that deals with the
detection, measurement, recording and visualization in the form of images of electromagnetic radiation emitted
by objects and phenomena from Earth or the Universe from a distance without direct contact with them.
The final part of the definition is intended to best specify the meaning of this technical field.

1 Quality assessment of fusion

To acquire a single high spatial and spectral resolution image, pansharpening methods introduce the
details from high spatial resolution image into high spectral resolution image.
The quality of use fused image can be affected by spatial and spectral distortions introduced during the
translation of data.
In some research publications the image fusion quality evaluation approaches can be divided in two
main categories:
1. qualitative approaches - the disadvantage is that they are subjective and depends on the personal liberty of
the observers, on their experience and viewing conditions, therefore quantitative approaches are required to
determine the precision of the visuals evaluation;
2. quantitative approaches – it is a very debated topic; many researchers have proposed different quantitative
analysis. This method is an objective analysis based on quality metrics such as indicators and protocols.
Table 1 presents metrics used when reference image is available [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].

Table 1. Indices for performance evaluation when reference image is available

No Quality Matrics Formula

1 RMSE

2
SAM

3
ERGAS
4
CC
5 Δµ
6 MSE
7
NRMSE

8
UIQI

When the reference image is not available, the quality of the fused image is evaluated by using the QNR
protocol. This protocol quantifies the spectral and spatial distortions of two separate indices as proposed in [6].
Spectral distortion (Dλ) is calculated between the low resolution images and the fused multispectral
images. Therefore, two sets of interband UIQI values, are calculated at low and high resolution separately, for
determining the spectral distortion. In the pansharpening process the differences of corresponding UIQI values at
the two scales produce the spectral distortion.

Where represents the low resolution multispectral band, the pansharpened multispectral band, Q
represents the UIQI calculation, and N is the number of multispectral bands.
Spatial distortion (Ds) is induced by calculating the UIQI between each MS band and Pan Image at low
and high resolution.

Where PL represents the Pan image degraded to MS resolution and P is the high resolution Pan image.
The concept of the QNR metric can be described in two steps according to the UIQI interrelationship
between:
a) low resolution multispectral bands that doesn’t change with resolution;
b) each multispectral band and the low resolution Pan image must be identical to those between
each pansharpened multispectral band and the full resolution panchromatic image.
According to [7] QNR metric can be represented mathematically:

2 Protocols established for pansharpening

2.1 Wald’s protocol

Was first introduced in [8] and it is composed of two proprieties:
•consistency property states that any fused image once spatially degraded should be as identical as
possible to the original MS image. After spatial increase, consistency measures spectral quality in order to state
if the fused image possesses the necessary quality demands, both spatial and spectral quality. For ideal results,

the degradation should be achieved using decimation filters similar to the MTF of the MS sensor [9]. The
verification of this property is considered to be a necessary condition, offering an idea of the relative
performance of the pansharpening methods.
• synthesis property states that any fused image should be as identical as possible to the original image
acquired by the MS sensor if it had the high-resolution of the Pan sensor. The MS and the Pan image must be
degraded by the resolution ratio between the sensors before to fusion. The fusion method is applied to the
degraded images, producing the fused images at the resolution of the original MS image, which can now serve as
a reference. Hence, the protocol can be tested.

2.2 Zhou’s protocol

States that spectral distortions and spatial distortions are independently estimated from the initial low-
resolution MS bands and high-resolution Pan Image [10]. The spectral distortions are estimated for each band as
the difference between the interpolated original bands and the fused band. The spatial distortions, instead, are
estimated by using the correlation coefficient (CC) between the details extracted from the Pan image and each
pansharpened MS band. The high-frequency information are extracted from the fused MS image and the Pan
image using a Laplacian filter. The ideal value of CC according to Zhou’s protocol should be as close to one.

2.3 Khan’s protocol

States that spectral distortions and spatial distortions are extracted by filtering the pansharpened image
with digital filters. The fused image is regarded as the sum of a high pass term, matching to the spatial details
extracted from the Pan image that have been injected, and a low pass term, matching to the original interpolated
low-resolution MS image. The protocol combine the definition of spectral distortions from QNR metrics, spatial
distortions from Zhou’s protocol and the consistency property from Wald’s protocol [9].

3 Pansharpening methods of multispectral images

Since early ‘90s much research had been done for the development of effective image fusion techniques
to provide high-resolution MS images using Pan Image. In this paper we present three large families of methods:

3.1 Component substitution (CS) methods

Represents the spectral approach to pansharpening and the idea of the method is to project the MS
image into another space using a transformation that separates the spatial structure from the spectral information
in different parts. The part containing the spatial information is replaced with the Pan image. To produce less
spectral distortions the correlation between the replaced component and the Pan image must be higher. In this
manner, before the replacing, is performed the histogram matching of the Pan image to the selected component.
The pansharpening process is finished by bringing the data back to the original space through the inverse
transformation. Therefore, these methods are also called “Projection Substitution” [11]. In the following we will
describe the most essential component substitution methods:
a) Intensity, hue and saturation(IHS) / GIHS
Intensity gives the proportion of brightness of a pixel defined as the amount of light, hue is determined
by the proportions of the R, G, B colors and saturation designates the purity of a color relating to the gray. The
chromaticity of a pixel is determined by hue and saturation.
The IHS transform has the ability to separate spatial (intensity) and spectral (hue and saturation)
information from a standard RGB into an IHS color space [12]. To obtain the fused image the Pan component it
is matched to replace the intensity component of the IHS image by applying an inverse IHS transform. The
disadvantage of this method is that is suitable for only three MS bands. To overcome this problem a generalized
IHS (GIHS) method was proposed in [13] to support fusion of more than three bands.
b) Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
The principal component analysis (PCA) it is a statistical technique that creates an uncorrelated space
which can be used as an alternative of the information in the original MS space. The first component image
(PC1) contains the spatial information (shared by the spectral channels) while the spectral information
(characteristic to each band) is assumed by other components. In the end the PC1 component it is replaced by the
Pan image [14]. The disadvantage of PCA for fusion is that it is not certain if the PC1 spectrally matches with
the Pan image.
c) Gram Schmidt (GS) orthogonalization
The Gram Schmidt procedure was patented by Laben and Brower in 2000 [15]. In the fusion process the
MS bands are interpolated at the scale of Pan, all images are transformed to vectors with dimensions equal with
the number of the image pixels at the scale of Pan. The spatial average of each band is subtracted from each

pixel. As the first basic vector, a synthetic low-resolution Pan image is used in the orthogonalization procedure.
The sum of the projection and orthogonal components is equal to the zero-mean version of the original band.
Finally, an inverse GS transform it is applied to create the pansharpened MS bands.

3.2 Multiresolution Analysis (MRA) methods

Multiresolution analysis represents the spatial approach to pansharpening, and employ spatial filters to
extract the high-frequency information from the Pan image. Then the high-frequency information is added into
the resample MS bands [16], weighted by an injection model. The most used modalities to extract the spatial
details are: Decimated wavelet Transform (DWT) [17], Undecimated Wavelet Transform (UDWT) [18], Á-
Trous Wavelet Transform (ATW) [19], Laplacian Pyramid [20], counterlaths [21] and curvelet [22].
The interpolation in the MRA methods is less important than for the CS methods, because the following
step in MRA may realign the information extracted from Pan Image using linear non-zero phase filters.

3.3 Hybrid methods

The biggest strength of the hybrid methods is combining CS and MRA methods. Examples of hybrid
fusion methods:
• a hybrid-fusion method that combine counterlaths (MRA) and PCA (CS) is presented in [23];
• a hybrid-fusion method that combine IHS (CS) and wavelet decomposition (MRA) is presented in [24];
• a hybrid-fusion method that combine PCA (CS) and ATW (MRA) is presented in [25];
• a hybrid-fusion method that combine HIS and PCA (CS) methods with wavelet decomposition is
presented in [26].
The advantage of hybrid methods is that they are able to perform different aspects of image content and
quality, adaptable to user needs.

4 Pansharpening of Hyperspectral Images

Satellite sensor systems were initial designed to provide Pan Images and MS images. The modern
satellite sensor systems provide hyperspectral (HS) image, a new type of image with more than one hundred
bands. The fusion of HS and Pan Images is debated in [27], [28], [29]. As compared to MS image the main
advantage of HS image is the more detailed spectral information provided. In the context of pansharpening, the
details from the Pan image are added to the down-sampled HS image, therefore the spectral information must be
preserved. A model is needed to inject the Pan details, therefore to enhance the quality of the HS image, while its
spectral details remain unchanged. Thus, performing pansharpening with HS data is more elaborate than
performing with MS data, due to the Pan image which does not cover the same spectral range as the HS image.
An operative satellite is Earth Observer 1 (EO-1) launched in 2001 and is equipped with the Advanced
Land imager (ALI) MS sensor and Hyperion hyperspectral imager capable of monitoring 220 spectral bands (0.4
to 2.5 nm) with a Spatial Sampling Interval of 30 m.
The upcoming satellite system such as PRISMA, administered by Italian Space Agency will acquire HS
and Pan Data simultaneously of the same scene accessible to the user community. Image fusion can be described
as an HS data cube produced with a spectral resolution of 10 nm and an SSI of 5 m.
Some of the methods proposed for pansharpening of HS data were basically designed for the fusion of
the MS and data [30]. In the literature there are proposed examples of methods that try to overcome the spectral
mismatch of the datasets and are able to produce fused HS data. Examples of methods for pans happening HS
data:
• BDSD (Band Dependent Spatial Detail) – MMSE (Minimum Mean Square Error) fusion [31] - in
which spatial enhancement is evaluated by simulate fusion at degraded resolution and decrease the MSE between
the fused result and the initial HS data. The detail extracted from the Pan image is calculated for each HS band
by estimating the band-dependent generalized intensities.
• HS fusion with a Constrained Spectral Angle [32] – this approach leads to CSA method, therefore
preferable for HS pansharpening is MRA fusion method, because the problems with spectral mismatch are
avoided.

5 Conclusion
In this paper, we have provided a comprehensive review of the pansharpening methods for remote
sensing images and classified them into different categories according to the main technique they use. The Pan-
sharpening techniques help to make the best use of satellite images by fusing the high spectral information from

the multispectral image and the high spatial information from the panchromatic image to produce a high spatial
and spectral resolution pan-sharpened image.
A clear trend in the Component substitution family, as we explained in Section 4.1, is to use
transformations of the MS image, so that the transformed image mimics the PAN image. The performance of the
two main categories of pansharpening methods, the CS-based methods and the MRA-based methods, developed
between 2000 and 2016, has been innovatively statistically analyzed based on the articles ever published.
Even though, the future work can potentially expand the research into the performance evaluation of the
individual methods within each category of pansharpening methods, and the specific factors, such as the
different ground features, for the pansharpening methods.

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for merging spot panchromatic and multispectral image data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens.
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pansharpening of multispectral images,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett., vol. 6, no. 2, pp.
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Global Navigation Satellite Systems

Applicability in Bathymetry Measurements
Luca L.1, Bala A.C.2, Brebu F.M.2, Nemeș I.2
1
Water Basin Administration Banat, Boulevard 16 Decembrie 1989 no.4, Timisoara (ROMANIA)
2
Politehnica University Timisoara, Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundations and Cadastral
Survey, Traian Lalescu no.2, Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Over the last decade, major advances in observation techniques have been achieved in the field of
bathymetry measurements through the continued development of technology GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite
System). Bathymetry works involve a high degree of complexity by using multiple technologies for
measurements.
In this paper we will present the methodology for determination of cross sections (transversal) and
longitudinal towards the direction of water flow in the Bega dam area, Sanmihaiul Roman, Timis county using
as a support for bathymetry measurements sonar and real-time observations GNSS / RTK. An important element
is knowing the shape and capacity of water retention in the Bega Dam to prevent flooding in that area. Based on
the periodic measurements of the Bega dam water, it will be possible to make bathymetry maps.

Keywords: GNSS, bathymetry, depth, profile.

1 Introduction
Bathymetry works involve a high degree of complexity by using multiple technologies for
measurements [1].
The bathymetry measurements find their applicability in different areas of activity such as:
 monitoring of lakes and rivers clogging
 underwater situation plan
 exploration of mineral aggregates from the river
 monitoring rock excavations
 making flood risk maps
 sections and bathymetry maps
Using the bathymetry measurement technique, data acquisition can be done both in a uniform network
(especially for bathymetry maps) and on predetermined routes for underwater relief analysis on profiles. To
achieve these and the three-dimensional shape of a lake, river or dam, in bathymetry works will be used sonar
together with GNSS technology and will lead to exact determination of depths of lakes, rivers, etc. [2].
Monitoring bathymetry of lakes, rivers and dams has become easier to achieve due to recent advances in the
Global Navigation Satellite System, portable sonar and GIS analysis software [3].
In this paper we will present the methodology for determination of cross sections (transversal) and
longitudinal towards direction of water flow in the Bega dam area, Sanmihaiul Roman, Timis county using as a
support for bathymetry measurements sonar and real-time observations GNSS / RTK.

Fig. 1. Bega Dam localization on the satellite map

2 Methodology
For bathymetry measurements performed in October month 2018 was used a Midas Surveyor Echo
Sounder sonar, single beam with a frequency of 210 kHz, emitting a high frequency sonic sound (to determine
the depth water of Bega dam), a GNSS Hemisphere A325 receiver (for exact positioning in plan), and for to
compensate disturbing movements a SMC IMU 10. Measuring the sound velocity in water on the entire depth
profile and temperature were determined with the help of the profiler MiniSVP (figure 2). All equipment is
located on a pneumatic boat.

Fig. 2. GNSS Bathymetry equipment

Using the software Hypack Max of data acquisition and compensation I realized on guide lines
(transversal and longitudinal profiles) on the entire surface of the Bega Dam (figure 3). Software application of
the entire equipment is compatible with this for acquisition, planning survey and bathymetry data processing and
allows direct collection of all data in real time [4].

Fig. 3. Guiding lines across on entire water surface of Bega Dam

3 Results and discussion

Analysing and compensation of the bathymetry measurements was performed with software Hypack
Max (owned by Romanian Waters Timis Branch) and interpolation and calculation of volumes and surfaces is
done QGIS-open source.
After analyzing the raw data in the submerged part of the dam, the "peaks" resulting from measurement
errors will be eliminated and corrected by the sound velocity in water (figure 4).

Fig. 4. Analysing raw data in submerged part of Bega dam

Representing all bathymetry data purchased in software Hypack Max will be highlighted by color areas
and contour lines depending on the depth of water in Bega dam (figure 5).

Fig. 5. Representation of measurements depending to depth of water

After compensation data measured from a submerged dam Bega resulting point cloud that was analyzed
in QGIS-open source having as result a raster file (figures 6 and 7).

Fig. 6. Resulting cloud of points

Fig. 7. Raster file

From the resultant Numerical Model of Land, we analyze the volumes at various damages of the dam
based on the successive GNSS bathymetry campaigns for the observation of the clogging, as well as the time
frame during which the accumulation will completely collapse (figure 8).

Fig. 8. Volumetric curve obtained based on GNSS bathymety measurements from 2018 year

4 Conclusion
The equipment complies with the standards for hydrographical measurements. The works were carried
out in order to meet both personnel safety and measurement accuracy required to correct measure cross sections
transversal / longitudinal, contour of the lakes in the normal retention rate at canopy level.
There were measured longitudinal and cross sections (transversal) profiles that were designed in
advance, the ridge of the water and the normal retention contour and profiles downstream of the Bega dam. We
can conclude, on the basis of the paper presented, bathymetry works involve a high degree of complexity by
using multiple technologies for measurements. The method that combined sounder with GNSS equipment
achieves faster results.

REFERENCES
[1] https://geo-data.ro/page/masuratori-batimetrice.
[2] Dumitru Paul Daniel, Calin Alexandru, Plopeanu Marin, Ph.D, Lecturer, Badescu Octavian, Badea
Dragos, GNSS support for bathymetry, RevCAD16, pp.64-71, 2014.
[3] R.J.J. Dost(1), C.M.M. Mannaerts(1), GENERATION OF LAKE BATHYMETRY USING SONAR,
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Retrospection on Agricultural Land Resources

in National and European Context

Mancia M.S. 1, Popoviciu G.A. 2, Henţ I.E. 1

Abstract
The fundamental desideratum of the Romanian citizen and, in particular, of the Romanian peasant was
and still is to be the owner of the dwelling where he lives and the land he is working on. At different stages of
our history laws have been elaborated that have tried to improve the structure of private property in Romania. In
the post-war period, especially after 1959, imbalances in private property have developed, which have become
more acute over time. After 1989 there have been significant changes in the structure of private property,
mutations have occurred trying to fix, but besides the positive effects, there were also negative effects. In a world
context, they must be compensated by measures to ensure food security and sustainable development in
Romania.
Keywords: private property, imbalances in property, sustainable development, food security.

1 Introduction
The Earth is, by its nature, the most precious economic asset and the most essential means of human's
production. Due to the fact of being immovable, indestructible, limited, and for anyone perceivable, early people
have taken possession of it and have turned it into their own asset. (3)
Out of all the rights, real estate ownership is among the most important; it is the foundation of
sustainable and coherent democracy and development; it is the guarantor of economic mechanisms functioning.

2 Methodology
Romania's economy has as its basic branch agriculture; it is the primary resource and perhaps the most
valuable resource.
“The existing pressures in the field of primary resources geopolitics are endogenous. They come from
within human society [...] and are in the field of environmental protection, land use, food resource management,
and the development of appropriate policies and strategies.” (4)
After 1859 until 1918, the property in agriculture was divided into large properties with wealthy
landowners; 5,375 owners owned 48.7% of the active area of the Old Kingdom.
The rural population had the share of 75-80% of the total population. The rest of the properties were
small, split into small plots, with an inefficient farming proper only for subsistence.
In France, for the same periods, the average area was 8.60 ha; in 1930 of 11.65 ha; in 1955 of 14 ha; in
1992 of 29 ha and in 2014 of 53.9 ha.
In Romania in 1918, 95.7% of the agricultural properties were small properties with an average area of
4.35 ha.
Average ownerships accounted for 3.6% of the total with a 15.9% occupancy of the country's surface
area.
Large land ownership, accounting for 0.7% of the total agricultural properties, held 40% of Romania's
agricultural area.
After the Great Union and the 1918 agrarian reform, the share of small estates compared to the big
landowners increased: their surface area dropped from 40% to 10.4% (Table 1):

Table 2 Classification and Share of Small Properties in 1918 (Otiman I.P, 1994)

Classification Before the reform After the reform

exploitations ha % ha %
< 10 ha 8.330.760 43.8 14.838.857 73.7
Romania
10/100 ha 3.195.054 15.9 3.195.054 15.9
> 100 ha 8.108.847 40.3 2.100.750 10.4
TOTAL: 20.134.661 100 20.134.661 100

In 1923, King Ferdinand adopted the Constitution in which property rights have “social function”, being
“guaranteed” by Article 17. This article also refers to expropriation that is “done after a just and prior remedy
established by justice.”
Article 18 of the same document states that “only Romanians and Romanian naturalised citizens can
acquire any title and own rural real estate in Romania.”
It was considered a modern constitution, comparable to those of developed European states.
When Carol II came to the throne, he passed a new Constitution in 1938.
Art. 16 of this document stated that “property of any kind, as well as claims on individuals and the State
are inviolable and guaranteed as such.”
The paragraph on expropriations was the same as in Art. 18 of the 1923 Constitution.
Art. 17 states: “Mining deposits and any kind of subsurface wealth are the property of the State.” Article
27 contains a paragraph identical to Art. 18 of the Constitution of 1923 referring to Foreign Citizens and Rural
Property.
After the Second World War and the transition to the new form of government, by the abolition of
monarchical forms of government, the new constitutions were drafted in 1948, 1952 and 1965.
In terms of property, the 1948 Constitution refers to:
- the nationalization of the main banks, companies, enterprises,
- to the implementation of collectivization.
The 1952 Constitution regulates the transition to state ownership of nationalized goods and the
termination of activities based on market economy.
The 1965 Constitution reflects the dismantling of private property, the socialization of the entire
industry, and the termination of collectivisation.
Article 36 of this Constitution foresaw: “The right of personal property is protected by law. Personal
income and savings, dwelling, households, and the land on which they are located may also be the subject of
personal property rights, as well as property for personal use and comfort.”
Article 9, al. 3 of the same document foresaw the personal property goods of co-operator peasants.
Article 37 refers to the protection of the right to inheritance.
Legislative acts have been developed that were restricting ownership.
Thus, the Statute of the Agricultural Production Cooperative at Art. 5 said what personal property was:
“the dwelling house and the annexes, the land and the yard whose total surface cannot exceed 250 square
meters.”
In case of inheritance, the land that exceeded 250 square meters was taken by the cooperative.
Paragraph 6 of art. 5 was stating that those who acquire a second dwelling house are forced to estrange
one of them within one year.
Regarding agricultural land, according to Land Fund Law no. 59/1974, art. 44: “the acquisition of
agricultural land can be done only by legal inheritance, and it is forbidden to estrange or acquire such land
having legal documents.”
One of the first goals, materialized in Decree-Law no. 2/1989 issued by the National Salvation Front,
was the designation of a commission for the elaboration of a new Constitution.
The 1991 Constitution has its content in the category of "rights and social economic and cultural
freedoms" and the right to property.
Article 41 - Protection of private property - states that the right of private property is protected by law,
with the assumption that foreign citizens and stateless persons cannot acquire ownership of the land.
With regard to expropriation, paragraph 3 states that it is only for "a cause for public utility with fair
and prior compensation."
Paragraph 7 says: "The wealth legally acquired cannot be confiscated."
Article 42 - Right of inheritance – it says this is guaranteed.
In order to prepare for Romania's accession to the North Atlantic Pact in 2004 and to join the European
Union in 2007, it was necessary to revise the Constitution from 1991. Constitutional grounds for Romania's
integration in these bodies were established, for the optimization of the decision-making system, the
improvement of democracy, strengthening the constitutional means of protection of citizens' rights and

freedoms, in conjunction with those of EU countries.

Article 41, paragraph 2 says that “private property is guaranteed and protected by law. Foreign citizens
and stateless persons can acquire the right to private ownership of land under the conditions resulting from the
accession of Romania to the EU and other international treaties to which Romania is a party on the basis of
reciprocity.”
Art. 135, paragraph 5 says that “private property is inviolable under the conditions of organic law.”
From January 1 2014 in Romania the sale of agricultural land located outside the country was
liberalized.
A law was elaborated no. 17/07.03.2014 regarding the regulation of the sale and purchase of
agricultural land located on the outskirts of the city.
The European Commission has issued a set of guidelines regarding what Member States can do to
protect their agricultural land from price speculation and property concentration.
Romania is one of the states affected by the sale and purchase of agricultural land to and by foreigners.
The European Commission has specified since 2017 that “EU Member States have the right to limit
sales of agricultural land to promote sustainable agriculture.”
In 2010, there were 12.2 million agricultural farms in the EU, out of which 30% were Romanian.
In Romania, there were 3,858 million exploitations in 2016 (according to the National Institute of
Statistics); 70% of these exploitations produced an annual income of less than € 2,000/year, ie less than €
50/month.
Poland, with an area comparable to that of Romania, has 1.6 million firms.
Romania has 31.8% of the EU's small farms, and three quarters of them are under 2 hectares.
The average area of a farm in the EU, according to Eurostat, is 14.2 ha.
In Germany, the average farm size is 53.9 ha, France 54.4 ha, Denmark 55.1 ha, United Kingdom 61.4
ha, Luxembourg 65.5 ha.
U.E has warned Romania of the need to draft a new law restricting the sale of extravilan agricultural
land to foreign citizens.
It is estimated that more than 50% of Romania's agricultural area is in the possession or management of
foreign citizens or private firms.
In 2014, the European Commission carried out a report on the situation of agricultural land in the
European Union with the help of Transnational Institute. In this report, Romania accounts for 40% of the
alienated agricultural land.
Land plots were sold in Bărăgan and Banat, with prices of 8,000-12,000 euros/ha, according to the
county agricultural Directories.
Romanian farmers cannot compete with foreign capital.
Each country's own policies establish the trading rules.
In EU countries such as France, Belgium, Germany, in order to be able to buy a farm land, a resident
must prove that he lived 3-10 years in that country.
In Poland and Hungary, the previous residence is at least of 3 years old.

3 Conclusions
In Romania the agricultural land is very fertile, with a great productive potential. Due to the migration
and the aging of the rural population, these lands were traded at very low prices compared to other EU countries.
Legislation is needed to support and encourage the local farmers.
Food security is a component of Romania's geostrategy, a component that depends on ownership of
agricultural land.
If private land ownership has "disappeared" during the communist era, it is necessary to be encouraged,
protected and subsidized. It is a basic resource, becoming more and more valuable in the current world context.
The agricultural land resource is not inexhaustible. Keeping it under normal operating conditions is a
requirement that implies consistent strategies, laws protecting domestic property, subsidizing and conservation.
Keeping the land resource in the hands of Romanian citizens means:
- maintaining and improving the quality of life,
- maintaining access to fertile land reserve,
- avoiding compromising quality of life on the long-term,
- sustainable development for today's needs without affecting the future.

REFERENCES
[1] Ion Dona (2000). “Economie rurală”, Ed. Economica Bucureşti.
[2] Delia Pop (2009). “Ecomarketing. De la provocare la necesitate”, Ed. Univ. din Oradea.
[3] Mircea Miclea (1995). “Cadastrul şi carta funciară”, Ed. All Bucureşti.
[4] Gh. Văduva (2013). “Geopolitica. Teorii”, Societatea Scriitorilor Militari, Bucureşti.
[5] Ion Păun Otiman (1997). “Dezvoltarea rurală în România”, Ed. Agroprint Timişoara.
[6] www.curs de guvernare.ro/agricultura-de-care-atârnă-pibul.
[7] Eurostat – ferme agricole în U.E., 2016.
[8] Raport Transational Institute Amsterdam, 2015.
[9] Carta drepturilor fundamentale ale U.E.
[10] Direcţii Judeţene pentru Agricultură – Tranzacţionări terenuri.
[11] Studii Comitetul Economic şi Social European CESE, 2015.
[12] Constituţiile României: 1923, 1938, 1948, 1952, 1965, 1991, 2003.

Use of Low Altitude Aerial and Terrestrial

Photogrammetry for Cultural Heritage
Conservation-Restoration Works

Nache F.1, Nache R.A.1, Păunescu C.2, Manu C.-S.3, Cucăilă S. 3,

Tivig D.-F. 3
1
Ph.D. student, Eng., University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, Doctoral School
of Geology, Bucharest, (ROMANIA)
2
Prof. Ph.D., Eng., University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, Bucharest,
(ROMANIA)
3
Ph.D. student, Eng., Petroșani University - Doctoral School, Petroșani, Hunedoara county,
(ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The purpose of this study is the realization of cultural heritage conservation-restoration works through
photogrammetric techniques. An alternative to obtaining the 3D model of the given objective is realizing
measurements with the total station, this implies a very high number of points that needs to be measured. The use
of laser scanning technique leads to precise and detailed results, but involves expensive equipment required for
data collecting.
The accuracy of the final products was verified based on the distances measured on site and the points
determined with the total station.
By applying photogrammetric techniques in obtaining the 3D models we have the advantage of collecting
a high volum of data, also the equipments and programmes used have a lower price range. Nevertheless, there can
be some disadvantages, like errors from the quality of the images, data processing is very time consuming and the
hardware equipment used for processing the data which has to be high-tech.
Keywords: cultural heritage conservation works, photogrammetry, 3D model.

1. Introduction
This paper is set to analyze the possibility of attaining 3D models, needed for cultural heritage
conservation studies, by applying photogrammetric methods. The main stages of the workflow will be presented
along with the advantages and disadvantages compared with other techniques and the accuracy obtained.
This study is part of the work for consolidation, conservation, restoration and value enhancement of the
historical monument of national importance “Holy Great Martyr Gheorghe” Greco-Catholic Church, also
capturing a part of the medieval Church’s quire.
This medieval Church was built at the beginning of the 13 th century and has suffered great destruction
during the Mongolian invasion in 1241. The current Church was built in 1825 and encompasses the old landmark
(Fig. 1). This has a building print of 270 square meters and is 23,5 meters high with the bell tower-cross.

Fig. 1 Historical buildings from the intrest area along with LHM (List of Historical Monuments) code
The data acquisition on the field was realised using: U.A.V. (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) multicopter with
the Sony A6000 mirrorless camera, Sony A7R mirrorless camera, Stone R2W+ total station, stone S9i GNSS
(Global Navigation Satellite System) receiver. The images were processed with Airsoft Photos can Pro.
To obtain a 3D representation of “Holy Great Martyr Gheorghe” Greco-Catholic Church using
photogrammetric techniques it was necessary to retrieve a set of images from around the objective with more than
75% overlapping, at the most possible constant distance from its facades.
When acquiring the images, there might be cases where, because of the objective’s configuration, the
images taken at ground level are not sufficient. To perfectly cover the entire objective it is recommended to use
U.A.V. multirotor type systems, which have a high control capacity and can sufficiently approach the intrest area.
It has to be taken into consideration that images taken at ground level, for example at a 10 m distance from the
objective can not be processed together with the aerial images taken at a 70 m distance with the same sensor or a
similar one. An issue arrises when the pixels of the two sets of images have to be correlated, especially when the
coordinates for the perspective centers are unknown.
The above mentioned issue was also met during this study. Due to the building’s location in a densely
populated area (middle of the Rodna village) and the high vegetation around it, a flight at a closer distance than
70 m from the Church was not possible in a safely manner. Fortunately, the images taken at ground level include
a considerable part of the roof.
When acquiring the images, the light level also has a great influence. If during the photographic proccess
there are overly shadowed or dark areas on the images, this leads to a wrong result after the automatic pixel
correlation process (Fig. 2). [1]

Fig. 2 Influence of shadow in automatic pixel correlation

Some archeological excavations were also made in the intrest area, which led to human remains findings.
To describe the objective’s surroundings and to position the archeological excavations, aerial photography was
used with the purpose of obtaining the high-resolution digital true orthophoto and the digital terrain and surface
model.

2. Methodology
2.1. On-site data collection
First was acquired the aerial images of the intrest area (the block in which the Church is).
For this stage the next steps were followed:
- The photogrammetric premarking was realised. 12 ground control points were marked with marking
spray (Fig.3), their position (N,E,H) was determined with the GNSS Stonex S9i receiver, RTK (Real-
Time Kinematic) type measurements.
Along with the ground control points additional points were determined to verify the quality of the final
products (digital orthophoto and digital terrain/surface model).

Fig. 3 Ground control points

- Planning the aerial flight mission (Fig. 4). The Mission Planner software was used with the folowing
flight parameters:
o Flight altitude above ground = 70m
o Flight speed = 5m/s
o Overlap = 85%
o Sidelap = 70%
o Sony A6000 mirrorless camera
o Objective’s focal length = 30mm

Fig. 4 Flight planning

- Aerial image acquisition. To cover the 2,5 hectares area an 11 minutes flight was necessary, sufficient
for the entire area to be surveyed in one flight (one battery). However, the aerial photography was done
in 3 flights. Flight 1 with nadiral camera orientation, flights 2 & 3 in cross-section with the camera tilted
at 45o.
The GSD (Ground Sampling Distance) have a value of 0,9 cm.
To be mentioned: the coordinates for the perspective centers were not determined due to the low accuracy
of the airborne GNSS system.
The retrieved data (images + ground control points coordinates) were stored to be processed separately.
The next on-site phase consisted in taking the ground images from around the Church, before which the
control points were marked on the building’s walls and the 3D coordinates (N,E,H) were determined based on
total station (Stonex R2W+) measurements.
Both the coordinates for the markers used in aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry have as a reference the
system S-42. 1970 stereographic projection for 2D and 1975 Black Sea normal altitude system.
Next, the 3D survey network will be compensated at the office as free network and the link to the national
system will be done through the minimum needed number points.
As in the previous step, along with the coordinates of the points marked on the Church’s walls, the 3D
coordinates of additional points were determined (e.g. window corner, wall corner, etc) to verify the precision of
the 3D model.
To capture the images a Sony A7R mirrorless camera with a 30 mm focal length objective was used and
for a better stability of the camera, a tripod was also used. 1871 images were acquired in RAW format.

2.2. Data processing at the office

2.2.1 Processing the aerial images
Images were radiometrically corrected using the Adobe Photoshop Lightroom software.
Radiometric corrections are necessary to smooth the tone or the color differences in the pictures, with the
purpose of quality improvement and to level out the tone through the group of images. Some effects can be easily
modified, for example the lost of intensity at the image edges, but others are interfering making the modeling
difficult to achieve. There are cases where the analysis does not offer results because the image content varies in
radiometric effects, for example an image with shiny objects on one edge and dark ones on the other edge. These
type of problems can be surpassed if the operator is involved in the processing activity and excludes the
problematic surfaces. [2]
To photogrammetrically process the images, the Agisoft PhotoScan Pro software was used with the
purpose of obtaining a detailed point cloud (based on the 3 flights, enough data was acquired to cover the
contruction’s facade), a digital terrain model and a digital surface model. The DSM (Digital Surface Model) will
be used for orthorectification to obtain a true orthophoto.
True orthophoto is an orthophoto in which all the vertical details (tall buildings, industrial chimneys, etc)
are projected on ground using special techniques of retrieving and processing the digital images. In a classic
orthophoto the geometry of the objects from the picture is correct only at ground level, where as in a true
orthophoto the geometry is correct in all the content of the picture. In the true orthophoto there are no more hidden
areas, which are not visible around the tall buildings. [3]
The final products were realised through the folowing steps:
- Image quality assessment and elimination of improper images;
- Image alignment, process following which we obtained the coordinates for the perspectives’
centers and the tie point cloud (1.314.000 points);
- Automatic filtering the tie point cloud (Gradual Selection), followed by the manual filtering
realised by the operator;
- Importing and marking the 12 ground control points on corresponding images;
- Establishing the control and check points (9 control points and 3 check points);
- Indirect georeferencing of the image model (Fig. 5);
The 3D positioning accuracy estimated based on the check points is ± 6,2 cm.

Fig. 5 Indirect georeferencing results

- Generating the dense point cloud by automatic pixel correlation, resulted a point cloud with
134.064.00 points and a 5.360 points / m2 density (Fig. 6);

Fig. 6 point cloud from correlated images

- Unsupervised and supervised classification of the point cloud;
- Noise elimination and manual cleaning of the point cloud;
- Generating the digital terrain model using points from ground class;
- Generating the digital surface model (Fig. 7 - left);
- Generating the orthomosaic, seam lines editing and exporting the true orthophoto (Fig. 7 - right).

Fig. 7 Digital Surface Model (left) and true orthophoto (right)

2.2.2 Processing the images acquired on ground level for obtaining the 3D model of „Holy
Great Martyr Gheorghe” Church
As the aerial images, the ones from the ground level were radiometrically corrected using the Adobe
Photoshop Lightroom software. GSD = 1 mm.
These were after uploaded in the Agisoft PhotoScan Pro software and were processed in the following
steps:
- Image quality assessment and elimination of improper images. From the total of 1871 images, 972
were kept, many of them being in exces;
- Image alignment, process from which we obtained the coordinates for the perspectives’ centers and
the tie point cloud (2.959.000 points)
- Automatic cleaning of the tie point cloud (Gradual Selection), followed by the operator’s one (manual)
- Importing and marking the 13 markers placed on the walls of the Church
- Establishing the control and check points (10 control points and 3 check points)
- Indirect georeferencing of the image model (Fig. 8)

Fig. 8 Results of the indirect georeferencing of the image model

The 3D positioning accuracy estimated based on the check points is ± 3,1 cm.
- Generating the dense point cloud by automatic pixel correlation; resulted a cloud point with
103.886.208 points (Fig. 9A).
Cases where the process of automatic correlation leads to poor quality results are: different perspective
projections, different reflectance, radiometrically homogeneuos areas, very low signal/noise ratio. [1]

- Noise elimination and manual cleaning of the dense point cloud was realised by the operator.
- Mesh generating, resulted a solid model with 2.315.87 faces (triangles).
The mesh has a TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) type structure
- Generating the texture by draping the image model over the mesh (Fig. 9B).

Fig. 9 A) Point cloud. B) Mesh and Texture

Regarding the architectural side, usually the 2D representation of the facade is used. To manage this,
orthoimages for each facade were exported (Fig. 10)

Fig 10 2D Facade exporting

3. Results and discussions

For on-site data collection one day was spent.

Processing the aerial images took 15 hours for obtaining the true orthophoto and 4 hours for obtaining the
digital terrain model.
Data collected with the U.A.V system for the current study do not offer the required quality for obtaining
a detailed and precise 3D model which would be optimal for cultural heritage conservation-restoration works.
However, the true orthophoto and the digital terrain model help in analyzing the area around the objective.

Processing the images taken at ground level for obtaining the 3D model of the Church required:
- 30 hours for image quality assessment and alignment;
- 6 hours for cleaning the tie points cloud, control points marking on corresponding images, indirect
georeference of the image model;
- 6 days and 14 hours for generating the dense point cloud by automatic pixel correlation
- 4 hours for cleaning the dense point cloud;
- 9 hours for mesh and texture generation.
The photogrammetric station used for processing has 3.6 MHz Processor with 8 cores and 16 threads, a
graphic card with 8 GB memory and 256 bit frequency, SSD (Solid State Drive) with 1 TB capacity and reading
speed of 3400 Mb / s, 64 GB memory.
The obtained 3D model was verified based on additional measured points, but also distances. Having no
problems at the quality control, results that this is acceptable for cultural heritage conservation-restoration works.
The relative accuracy of the 3D model is ± 0,8 cm.

4. Conclusions
The amount of data collected is very high, but also the probability of wrong results, thus a significant
number of check points are needed.
Acquiring the data is conditioned by the on-site light level.
To obtain a good quality true orthophoto it is necessary to use the digital surface model. This model is
recommended to be generated by excluding the points from the vegetation class and also adding vectors to enhance
the constructions geometry where the point data was not sufficient.
Determining the coordinates for the perspectives’ centers is recommended for objectives with a complex
configuration. These help in reducing the processing time and enhances the image alignment.
Photogrammetric techniques are non-invasive.
The size and the level of details for the 3D models is increasing at a faster rate that the hardware
improvement. Due to the large size of the 3D model the smooth navigation is a impediment, the solution is
simpliﬁcation or usign creative rendering techniques.

References
[1] Nache F., Stănescu R.A., Păunescu C. (2016). The Processing Workflow Needed in Order to Obtain
the Main Photogrammetric Products Used in Cadastre and Topography. Modern Technologies for the 3rd
Millennium, pp. 43-48.
[2] Eija H., Lauri M. (2007). Radiometric Performance of Digital Image Data Collection - A Comparison of
ADS40/DMC/UltraCam and EmergeDSS. Photogrammetric week ‘07, pp. 117-129.
[3] Hamid G., Ayman H. (2018). True Orthophoto Generation from Aerial FrameImages and LiDAR Data: An
Update. Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292), pp. 1-28.

The Role and Importance of Large Dam

Monitoring by Geodetic Methods

Nestorović Ž.1, Trifković M.2, Bešević M.2, Marinković G.3, Lazić J.3
1
Public Enterprise Elektroprivreda Srbije (SERBIA)
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica (SERBIA)
3
Faculty of Techical Sciences Novi Sad (SERBIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Monitoring large dams by geodetic methods aims to discover the changes in dam’s geometry and its
displacements with time. Changes in geometry and displacements should indicate the trends or their absence.
Initial assumption is that design of dam geometry and placement represents its resistance on different forces and
provides its functionality in time reducing risk and hazard. Depending on the character of dam movements or
deformations the geodetic methods could provide different kind of information about its geometry and position
in time. Character of entire dam movement and local and/or global deformations could be defined depending on
the time interval in which they occur. This paper aims to define the importance and possibilities of dam
movements and dam deformation determination by geodetic methods. Also, some approaches of dam monitoring
were discussed.
Keywords: Large Dams, Geodetic measurements, Statistical hypothesis, Risk, Hazard

1 Introduction
Dam monitoring by geodetic methods is widely accepted as the approach for determination of dam
displacement and dam deformation. In the geodetic literature it is considered as the method for absolute
movements and deformation determination. The absolute determination of dam displacement and deformation
means that those are determined in relation of the position of geodetic control network. Determination of stable
points in control network is another problem which is issue of discussion for a few decades and it seems that the
final solution is not found yet. The concepts of absolute and relative measurements are given on figure 1 [1].

Fig. 1. Concept of relative and absolute meaurements

The knowledge about deformation analysis of geodetic networks in the last decades was significantly
improved and a lot of methods of detecting stable points between two epochs were introduced. In literature the
method introduced by Pelzer [2] is considered as initial method for deformation analysis. This model based on
the congruence of position of points between two epochs is considered as classical and based on geometry [3]. In
the same paper authors systematize the deformation models as descriptive (congruence and kinematic) and
cause-response models (static and dynamic) and describe the possibilities of their utilization in details. The
deformation analysis is nowadays widely utilized for dam monitoring in the 1D and 2D space [4], [5]. Also, the
methods for analysis are augmented in order to encompass physical and geodetic methods for discover the
correlation between results of those two methods by using Fourier method [6]. The possibility of researching
local deformations of large dams is suitable when it is needed to discover not only stability of points (i.e. their
displacement in time) but also their geometrical relation (directions and/or distances) in two epochs [7].
The base of any deformation analysis is the vector of coordinates in two or more points of time.
Consequently, it could be stated that without geodetic measurements the deformation analysis of any object would not
be possible. Bearing in mind the risk and hazard always exists when the large dams are considered it immediately
follows that geodetic measurement should be provided regularly and at the highest level of care. Also, the all
information from geodetic data must be researched carefully because they could indicate the sources of increasing
risks and hazards. The measurements can be done by using also the GNSS technology but a special attention has to be
done towards the ambiguity resolution [10] but also to the type of noise present in the results [11][12].
Despite the theoretical and practical efforts and the developed techniques and methods for risks and
hazard reduction the dam failures are still present all over the world. Figure 2 shows the map of dam failures in
USA [8].

Fig. 2. Map of dam failures in the USA

Classification of hypotheses related to the object displacement or the deformation testing could be
provided according to their global or local character. The global hypotheses are related to the whole object (all
points by which the object is discretized) while the local hypotheses are related to the displacement of certain
group of points, where the number of considered points should be smaller than total points by which the object is
discretized. Regarding the issue which is considered the hypotheses could be classified as positional (hypotheses
about points’ displacement) or relational (hypotheses about the relation between points: commonly – directions
and distances) in two different epochs of geodetic measurements. Also, the methods for similarity of figures
(group of points) between two epochs of geodetic measurements were developed [9], but in this paper only
separate hypotheses for each two points were considered.

The formulation of positional hypotheses could read:

 : The point(s) is (are) displaced against
 : The point(s) is (are) not displaced.

The formulation of relational hypotheses could read:

 : The relation between two points (direction, distance) was changed against
 : The relation between two points (direction, distance) was not changed.

For this paper the case for Vlasina dam (Serbia) is chosen in which the points are displaced and only
relational hypotheses were considered.

2 Methodology
The used methodology for relational hypotheses testing is described as follows. The standard statistical
procedures are combined with data obtained from network adjustment.
For testing of relation between points in two epochs changes between points which approximate large
dam it is necessary:
 To choose relation which will be analysed,
 To formulate null and alternative statistical hypothesis,
 To adopt the level of significance for decision making about adoption or rejection null hypothesis,
 To form test staistics based on adjustment of measurements,
 To compare value of test statistics and determine if it follows the theoretical distribution and
 If test statsistcs follows the theoretical distribution on the adopted level of significance conclusion is
that results are harmonized with null hypothesis and the reasons for its' rejection do not exists while, in
opposite case the reasons for its adoption do not exists.
Because of importance of data about the changes of large dams dimensions the authors suggests local
tests of each dimension.

The test statistics is:

where:
 – Students' statistics,
 – the difference of certain relation in two series of measurements (for example: null and ),
 – mean root square error of researched dimension,
 , – value of relation in two different epochs of measurements (null and ) respectively,
 , – mean square error of dimension in null and epoch respectively and
 – quantile of Students' distribution for significancy level and degree of freedom .
The difference of researched dimension is obtained on the base of coordinates in two epochs of measurements
while the mean square errors are obtained as a function of adjusted values by following formula:

where:
 – root mean square error of researched relation as a function of adjusted values,
 - root mean square error of unit wight obtained from adjustment,
 - linearized function of researched relation and
 - cofactor matrix from adjustment.
Statistical hypotheses could be formulated in this case in the following way:
 : dimension is equal in two series of measurements and
 : dimension is not equal in two series of measurements.
If relation is tested related to designed value then test statsistics (1) reads:

where – is designed value while the rest symbols have the same meaning as in formula (1). Along with
mentioned individual tests the tests of equality of sets of points as well as the tests of equality of positions.

3 Results and Discussion

The Vlasina dam is earth filled dam situated in South-east Serbia. It is measured by geodetic methods
more than fifty years (since it was being built). The geodetic network and the considered dams’ points as well as
they are shown on the figure 3.

Fig. 3. The 2D control network of Vlasina dam, considered points and displacements
The hypotheses for directions testing are formulated as follows:
 : The direction between two points was changed against
 : The direction between two points (direction, distance) was not changed.
The hypotheses for distances testing are formulated as follows:
 : The distance between two points was changed against
 : The distance between two points (direction, distance) was not changed.
The formulae for directions and distances are:

where denotes epoch, and denotes points’ names and ( ) denotes the coordinates of points.
Directions and distances are denoted by letters and , respectively.
Differences were obtained as follows:

Differences for directions and distances were obtained from adjusted values coordinates in two
epochs one of which is the first (zero) measurement provided immediately after dam was being built (in year
1955) and actual epoch (year 2017). The values of and were obtained according to formula (2) where
instead of and the notion of and is used because of high degree of freedom.
The obtained results for hypotheses testing are given in tables 1 and 2 for directions and distances
respectively.
Table 1. The results of hypotheses testing for directions
Hypotheses
Directions ["] testing
Station Vis. [o ‘ “] [o ‘ “] [“] 
24 30 268.56224 268.55431 -39.3 1.1 26.2589 No
30 6 45.30450 45.30513 6.3 5.3 0.8401 Yes
6 1 88.50079 88.50345 26.6 3.2 5.9000 No
1 24 150.37325 150.35245 -128.0 4.8 18.8622 No
24 6 285.41024 285.40175 -44.9 1.3 24.0743 No
1 30 254.16049 254.16197 14.8 2.3 4.5233 No

Table 2. The results of hypotheses testing for distances

Hypotheses
Distances testing
Station Vis. [m] [m] [mm] 
24 30 221.9267 221.9279 1.2 2.5 0.3386 Yes
30 6 73.7019 73.7062 4.3 2.2 1.3537 Yes
6 1 140.9669 140.9546 -12.3 1.7 5.2552 No
1 24 57.8409 57.7930 -47.9 2.6 12.9980 No
24 6 175.8571 175.8420 -15.1 1.6 6.4928 No
1 30 201.0481 201.0365 -11.7 2.6 3.2143 No

The values on which is based the hypotheses testing are obtained from adjustment and Students’
distribution. The values for hypotheses testing are in accordance with formula (1) as follows:
- for double sided test;
- for degree of freedom and
- for the theoretical value of Students’ distribution.

For hypotheses testing the values of and are replaced with and
respectively.
The analysis of obtained results shows that almost all relation (both directions and distances) between
considered points were changed significantly in two considered epochs. Only direction and distances
and were not changed in two considered epochs. Bearing in mind that 25% of total number of hypotheses
were accepted it is obvious that certain deformations of Vlasina dam have been occurred between two
considered epochs. Including the displacement of points (given in table 3) in deformation analysis it could be
concluded, without detailed analysis, that all points were displaced. Also, the utilization of formula (3) instead of
formula (1) does not change the results of hypotheses testing and consequently the final conclusions.

Table 3. The displacements of considered points

Y X mx my
Points [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
1 -2.0 -26.3 1.1 0.9
6 5.8 -9.1 0.9 1.2
24 -2.4 28.2 1.2 0.8
30 0.9 -8.2 0.8 1.0

Final conclusion about obtained results is that the considered points are displaced in different directions
related to axes of coordinate systems as well as the geometrical relations (directions and distances) between them
were changed significantly in two different epochs of geodetic measurements. Obtained mean square root errors
of coordinates, directions and distances indicate that conclusions are highly reliable.

4 Conclusion
The geodetic measurements could provide the crucial data for making reliable conclusions about
displacement and deformations of large dams in time. The analysis of dam displacements and deformations
could be on the global and local level. Global level requires complex theoretical and practical efforts while local
level of analysis could increase efficiency in obtaining reliable conclusions about changes in certain relations
between points.
The importance of geodetic measurements in dam displacements and deformation analysis is crucial for
both global and local analysis and the geodetic measurements could be considered as irreplaceable in large dam
risk and hazard analysis.
The role of geodetic measurements in large dams’ displacement and deformation analysis is to provide
reliable data for conclusions about the trends in dam behaviour. In some cases the prediction of large dams’
displacements and deformation is possible. Further research of the topic could encompass the possibilities of

comparing partial measurements of geometrical relation between points in different epochs of geodetic
measurements.

REFERENCES
[1] Klein, K.H., Heunecke, O.: Aims and Activities in German Standardization Respective
Engineering Surveys, Quo Vadis – International Conference, FIG Working Week 2000,
Proceedings, 21-26 May, Prague.
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Kommission, Reihe C, No. 164, München.
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monitoring observations." International Federation of Surveyors (2001).
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Displacements analysis of Concrete Dams, 17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific
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... & DRAGOMIR, L. (2017). Aspects Regarding the Tracking of the Behavior in Time of Vâlsan
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of Large Dams Determination by Geodetic Methods, The Contemporary Theory and Practice in
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(http://doisrpska.nub.rs/index.php/STPG/article/view/4722/4537).
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[9] Perovic, Gligorije. "Least squares." Monograph, Belgrade (2005).
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analysis centers on zenith wet delay using PPP method,” Acta Geodyn. Geomater., vol. 14, no. 2
(186), pp. 205–220, 2017.
[11] S. Nistor and A. S. Buda, “The influence of different types of noise on the velocity uncertainties in
GPS time series analysis,” Acta Geodyn. Geomaterialia, doi, vol. 10, 2016.
[12] S. Nistor and A. S. Buda, “GPS network noise analysis: a case study of data collected over an 18-
month period,” J. Spat. Sci., pp. 1–14, Apr. 2016.

Determining the precipitable water vapor using

multiple satellite constellations: GPS, GALILEO
and BEIDOU

Nistor S.1, Suba N.S1, Buda A.S.1

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Construction, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
In order to predict heavy rainfall, a crucial element is the determination of the precipitable water vapors
- PWV - presence in the atmosphere. It is also notable that the precipitable water vapor plays a crucial role in
climate change. Using the Global Positioning System technology - GPS - we are able the estimate daily the amount
of PWV in the troposphere by accurate retrieval from zenith total delay - ZTD - estimates. With the advent of
spatial sciences, the space segment experienced an impressing development, which led to the appearance of new
satellite constellations such as: GALILEO - which is a space constellation developed by the European Union,
GLONASS - the global satellite navigation system developed by Russia, and the BEIDOU constellation, which is
a property of the People’s Republic of China. Each system has its unique functionality and different orbital planes,
which makes a great tool for estimating the PWV. Another argument for using the space segment for PWV
determination is the unique characteristic of the systems, which provides high spatial and temporal resolution,
resulting in highly accurate determination of PWV, and also relatively low cost for tracking and monitoring of
permanent GNSS stations.
In this research we have used 5 permanent GNSS stations located in France to study the determination of
PWV using the following satellite constellations: GPS, GALILEO and BEIDOU.

Keywords: GNSS, non-gravitational forces, albedo.

1. INTRODUCTION
The Earth’s tropospheric component is one of the most influential sources of errors which has an
immediate impact on the performance of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Because of this, we need
to assess its influence on the GNSS receivers. Nowadays, due to the “spatial race” between different countries or
a certain group of them, this race generated four spatial constellations that have worldwide coverage: USA’s
satellite constellation called NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), the Russian GLObalnaya
NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS), China’s satellite constellation BEIDOU, and the European
satellite constellation GALILEO.
The signal transmitted from the GNSS satellites to the ground receiver through the atmosphere is affected
by the reflection and refraction effect, which causes the signal to travel slower of faster. The parts of the atmosphere
that causes these variations are the ionosphere and troposphere, from which the troposphere represents the lower
layer of the atmosphere, which is above the Earth’s surface at 50 km [1]. The troposphere is formed by dry part
(hydrostatic) and wet part (non-hydrostatic) components, and both these components generate an effect of signal
delay to the ground GNSS receiver, which increases the actual travelling time, thus the measured distance becomes
greater than it should be. Water vapor represents one of the main gases in the atmosphere that generates the
greenhouse effect, which is a crucial element in water cycles, energy conversion, water transport and global heat,
and that in turn, generates changes in global climate and weather [2]–[4], so it is very important to monitor,
evaluate and understand its variability and mechanism.
The first to propose GPS metrology was [5], suggesting that upon using a ground based GPS receiver, it
is possible to compute the amount of precipitable water vapor (PWV) contained in the troposphere. Weather
forecasters find this method useful for evaluating the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere to be able to
understand different meteorological processes such as: evaporation, rainfall, convective activity and so on [6].
After this revelation, as well as based on other published research results [7]–[9], [9]–[12], it was demonstrated

that using a GPS receiver it is possible to estimate the amount of precipitable water vapor from the troposphere
with an accuracy comparable to the conventional systems that computes the water vapor such as: radiosonde and
water vapor radiometers. As a comparison to conventional systems, the GPS technology presents several
advantages, including low operation cost, high spatial-temporal resolution and all-weather availability. With the
help of a worldwide GNSS network, consisting of thousands of stations, which continuously process data, the
zenith total delay (ZTD) is estimated, from which the precipitable water vapor is computed. The results are then
integrated into numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, such as the European E-GVAP project, which uses
an operational system of GPS stations made of 2400 continuously measuring receivers in order to form a ground
track network, which provides near real-time PWV values.
In order to estimate the precipitable water vapor, which is extracted from zenith total delay, two strategies
are employed: precise point positioning (PPP) – a technique developed by [13] and the baseline – network
approach. The major difference between the two strategies is that the PPP uses the un-differenced (UD)
observations, whereas the baseline – network strategy incorporates double -differenced (DD) observations.
As we have mentioned before, the troposphere generates GNSS signal delays, which leads to critical
issues, especially when we have nanosecond level time transfer [14] or geodynamic applications [15]. Although
the mitigation of the tropospheric delay has a major impact on precise GNSS applications, the tropospheric wet
delay itself has a very important role in meteorology [16] and also in climatology applications[17]. These are the
results of the fact that the wet delay presents a high correlation with the amount of water vapor integrated along
the signal path. By using dual frequency GNSS receivers, the ionospheric delays mostly cancel out, but this is not
the case with the tropospheric delay. The delay caused by the troposphere is more difficult to mitigate (especially
the wet component), which is caused by wet delays that represents the amount of water vapor in the troposphere,
causing high variability in temporal and spatial distribution [16]. It is also notable that GNSS observations can be
used for water volume calculations in polders[18], and the results, along with the precipitation predictions may
be further enhanced using the presented technology.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Because the troposphere (a layer at 50 km above the Earth’s surface, and a non-dispersive medium at
GNSS carrier frequency, that can be translated that no matter the operating frequencies), the impact on GNSS
signal transmissions is independent, and thus the GNSS signal has an extra delay compared to the theoretical
computed one. The delay generated by the troposphere on the GNSS signal varies by: seasons, pressure,
temperature, humidity and nonetheless – station location. The possibility of estimating the zenith wet delay (ZWD)
and precipitable water vapor (PWV) arises by the appearance of the continuously operating geodetic GPS
networks.
The mathematical part, which is described also in [19]–[21] for zenithal tropospheric delay computation
is:

(1)
𝑍𝑇𝐷 = 𝑍𝐻𝐷 + 𝑍𝑊𝐷 = 10 𝑁(𝑠)𝑑𝑠

where 𝑑𝑠 has units of length in the zenith, 𝐻 is the surface height and 𝑁(𝑠) is the refractivity of air given
parts per million (ppm):

𝑃 𝑒 𝑒 (2)
𝑁= 𝑘 𝑍 + 𝑘 𝑍 + 𝑘 𝑍
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

where 𝑃 is the the dry air pressure, 𝑇 is the air temperature in (K), 𝑒 is the partial pressure of water
vapour (hPA), 𝑍 and 𝑍 are the dry air and water vapour compressibility factors, that consider the departure of
air from an ideal gas.
Regarding the dry component (ZHD) and the wet component (ZWD), more mathematical relations can
be found on [19], [20], [22], [23].

3. RESULTS
In our study we have used the data from 5 GNSS permanent stations situated in France, the stations being
part of the EUREF network. The data source was from year 2019 day 050 at a 30 second interval, processed using
Gamit/Globk [24]. To observe the effect of the precipitable water vapor at each station for each constellation, we

have implemented the flowing strategy: in the first stage, we have downloaded the orbital data from the center for
orbit determination in Europe (CODE) in which all satellite constellations are taken into account; in the second
stage, each individual constellation was processed separately, using the same orbit and navigation file; the
precipitable water vapor resulted from the residual wet delay after the zenith delays estimates were extracted. The
stations that were used during the processing are presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The position of station used in computation

The resulted PWV is grouped in two parts: three stations - BSCN, BRMS and VFCH, which are located
mainly inland France (Fig. 2) and two stations - TLSE and MARS, which are closer to the shore (Fig.3). Reference
values are considered as the results from the GPS constellations. In the first set of stations, we can observe that the
computed PWV from the GPS and GALILEO constellations are very well alike, the largest difference being 2
mm, but for a relatively short period, because it can be seen that in the vast majority of time the difference in PWV
is around 1-2 mm. The difference between GPS and BEIDOU results of PWV determination is generally around
3-4 mm, which is 2 times higher than the PWV resulted from GPS and GALILEO.
The PWV from GALILEO data tends to behave the same during the entire day with relatively small
divergence, whereas the BEIDOU PWV, compared to the GPS PWV, tends to present different behavior 2 or 3
times a day by going in the opposite direction – the results from GPS presents an increase of the amount of the
precipitable water vapor, whereas the BEIDOU shows a dramatic decrease of the amount of the precipitable water
vapor. Also, the data from BEIDOU presents rapid variations by rapid increase or decrease of the amount of PWV,
but the data from GALILEO and GPS have a more sinuous tendency, lacking possibly unnatural pikes during the
day. By comparing the data between GALILEO and BEIDOU, not only the differences are largely different, but
also their behavior during the day, with antagonistically increases or decreases the amount of PWV - with pikes
going in the opposite directions.

Fig. 2. Precipitable water vapor for station BRMF, BSCN and VFCH

Fig. 3. Precipitable water vapor for station MARS and TLSE

These two permanent GNSS stations are closer to the seaside, where rapid changes can and may occur,
compared to the other three stations form the mainland. In this case, we can observe that the difference between
the PWV from GPS compared to the GALILEO results tends to increase - the largest difference is 3 mm, but the
mean difference tends to revolve around 2 mm. Also, it is notable that daytime processing results are not as close
as in previous cases, and rather than that, they tend to go in parallel and they don’t overlay as much the PWV from
main land. In the case of GPS, compared to the BEIDOU data, the largest difference is 7 mm – two times the
difference between GALILEO and GPS. Also, the PWV from BEIDOU presents situations in which the PWV
increases or decreases rapidly, but neither GPS or GALILEO results presents such behavior. The above results
show that the amount of precipitable water vapor determined from GPS observations tends to be more comparable
with the GALILEO data than the results from BEIDOU data processing.

4. CONCLUSION
Using the data from five GNSS permanent stations and using the signals from GPS, GALILEO and BEIDOU
constellations, we were able to retrieve the amount of precipitable water vapor from the troposphere. We analyzed
two distinct scenarios: when the stations are situated on mainland, and when they are closer to the sea. We can
draw the conclusion that there is a relationship between the PWV and the given terrain features. We can also
conclude that the PWV resulted from GPS and GALILEO observations are more convergent when the stations are
located on mainland compared to the PWV from the stations located next to the sea. This is also the case between
the outcome of GPS and BEIDOU data.
By comparing the results from GPS and GALILEO (mainland and the stations next to the sea) it can be seen
that there is better compliance between the GPS and GALILEO PWV then GPS and BEIDOU results. From Fig.

2 and Fig 3 we can draw the conclusions that the results from GALILEO compared to the BEIDOU presents the
largest differences in all the cases.

REFERENCES
[1] B. Hofmann-Wellenhof, H. Lichtenegger, and E. Wasle, GNSS–global navigation satellite systems:
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more. Springer Science & Business Media, 2007.
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measurements in Chengdu region: Distribution and evolution characteristics in autumn,” Adv. Sp.
Res., vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 656–667, 2013.
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[5] M. Bevis, S. Businger, T. A. Herring, C. Rocken, R. A. Anthes, and R. H. Ware, “GPS meteorology:
Remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the global positioning system,” J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 97, no. D14, p. 15787, 1992.
[6] B. Fontaine, P. Roucou, and S. Trzaska, “Atmospheric water cycle and moisture fluxes in the West
African monsoon: mean annual cycles and relationship using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis,” Geophys.
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[7] M. Bevis et al., “GPS meteorology: Mapping zenith wet delays onto precipitable water,” J. Appl.
Meteorol., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 379–386, 1994.
[8] G. Elgered, J. M. Johansson, B. O. Rönnäng, and J. L. Davis, “Measuring regional atmospheric water
vapor using the Swedish permanent GPS network,” Geophys. Res. Lett., vol. 24, no. 21, pp. 2663–
2666, 1997.
[9] C. Rocken, T. Van Hove, and R. Ware, “Near real‐time GPS sensing of atmospheric water vapor,”
Geophys. Res. Lett., vol. 24, no. 24, pp. 3221–3224, 1997.
[10] C. Rocken et al., “Sensing atmospheric water vapor with the Global Positioning System,” Geophys.
Res. Lett., vol. 20, no. 23, pp. 2631–2634, 1993.
[11] D. E. Wolfe and S. I. Gutman, “Developing an operational, surface-based, GPS, water vapor
observing system for NOAA: Network design and results,” J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., vol. 17, no. 4,
pp. 426–440, 2000.
[12] G. Gendt, G. Dick, C. Reigber, M. TOMASSINI, Y. LIU, and M. RAMATSCHI, “Near real time GPS
water vapor monitoring for numerical weather prediction in Germany,” J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan. Ser.
II, vol. 82, no. 1B, pp. 361–370, 2004.
[13] J. F. Zumberge, M. B. Heflin, D. C. Jefferson, M. M. Watkins, and F. H. Webb, “Precise point
positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks,” J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 102, no. B3, p. 5005, 1997.
[14] S. W. Lee, B. E. Schutz, C.-B. Lee, and S. H. Yang, “A study on the common-view and all-in-view
GPS time transfer using carrier-phase measurements,” Metrologia, vol. 45, no. 2, p. 156, 2008.
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time using global navigation satellite systems,” J. Geod., vol. 87, no. 10–12, pp. 923–934, 2013.
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(186), pp. 205–220, 2017.
[22] S. Nistor and A. S. Buda, “The influence of different types of noise on the velocity uncertainties in
GPS time series analysis,” Acta Geodyn. Geomaterialia, doi, vol. 10, 2016.
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The Use of UAV in Urban Public Utility Systems

Sălăgean T.1,2, Șuba E.E.1,2, Moscovici A.M.3, Păunescu V.2,4,

Călin M.4, Iliescu A.4, Pop I.D.1
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca (ROMANIA)
2
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest (ROMANIA)
3
Politehnica University Timisoara, Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundations and Cadastral
Survey, Traian Lalescu no.2, Timisoara (ROMANIA)
4
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Considering the current legislation in force at European and national level we can consider the water
supply, sewage and waste water sector, as a priority, given that in 2017only 50.8% of the Romanians (87.7% in
the urban area and 8.2% in the rural areas, according to INS) were connected to a sewerage system. Considering
the financing granted by the European Union until 2020, the current investments take into account the extension /
modernization of the water and sewerage networks, the construction / modernization of the drinking water
treatment plants and the water purification plants, as well as the increase of quality of the public water and
sewerage services, under the conditions of an acceptable charges for the population. The purpose of this paper is
to obtain the topographic support for updating and/or developing project of a technical-utility network,
highlighting the necessity of introducing new technologies based on images taken (UAVs), and processing them
with specialized software.
Keywords: technical-utility network, UAV, orthophotomap.

1. Introduction
Our country is directly linked to the cohesion policy of the European Union, whose objectives are at the
basis of the "National Development Strategy". By accessing the Structural and Cohesion Funds, Romania
undertakes to respect certain commitments, in line with the National Development Plan (NDP) and the National
Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) 2007-2013.
The National Development Plan aim is to prioritize public investments for the country's development and
to establish the application of public funds for investment. The Sector Operational Program for the Environment
contains essential elements for the successful implementation of the National Development Plan in the field of
environmental protection and complies with the provisions of the European Council Regulation laying down the
general procedures for the Structural Funds.
The main objective of this Program is to protect and improve the quality of the environment and living
standards in Romania. The implementation of the program will increase the quality of public utilities, water supply,
sewerage and sewage treatment, sanitation and heating, and for all of these are required new studies. To achieve
and update public utilities, a topographic survey must be done. Through classical geodesic methods, these works
can be done, but the field data collection and processing would be accomplished in a much longer time and having
much higher costs. [1]
In 2017 were approved the new technical norms for the placement of public utilities works, like water
networks, electricity, gas, sewerage, public lighting etc.
Urban planning documents of the localities must include the framing of the underground public utilities
networks, which are usually placed outside the carriageway. If this is not technically or economically feasible,
networks may also be located under the carriageway with the following priority order:
- sewerage of rainwater;
- sewerage of domestic water;
- district heating;
- water supply;
All these works could be accomplished in a long time with economical deficit through a classical geodetic
method, the advantage of the technology of taking images with an UAV is that it provides a much larger coverage
in terms of the surface, the precision of the determinations satisfies the centimetre requirement and the time is

considerably reduced. The resultant orthophotomap can be used as support for several projects. [4] Typical
products like orthophotos, digital elevation models (DEM), contours, cross-sections and 3D models depend on this
understanding of the fundamentals of photogrammetry, remote sensing, GNSS and mapping. [2]

2. Materials and methods

In a work of this type the initial data is very important so that the community administration or the water
and canal operator to own a map of the locality in which may be indicated the water sources, the water supply
networks, the district heating, the domestic water sewerage, the rainwater sewerage or other water related
information. A potential "cross contamination" can be more easily identified when all these systems are visible on
a single map.
The area of interest for our case study was chosen at the level of Târgu Jiu Municipality.
A total of 83,400 peoples are currently connected to the centralized water supply and sewerage system of
the municipality.
The gross water admissions from the sources presented to the treatment plant located in the city have a
total length of approx. 90 km, these are:
- Runcu (Vâlceaua) with a total length of 14.5 km, made between 1966 and 1976;
- Sohodol - Runcu, L = 2,5km, made of steel;
- Suşiţa - Stăneşti, L = 18,2 km, is realized in 1966.
The water treatment plant is located in the city on Târgul Hill. The station can cover theoretically all the
existing and future water demand.
The distribution of drinking water to consumers is done through a network of 183 km long, made of steel,
cast iron, polyethylene. This does not completely cover the street tram of the municipality, and the age of the
pipelines is considerable, reaching 50 years.
Waste water sewerage in Târgu Jiu municipality is done in a dividing system, however, for various
reasons there is a large number of sewerage pipes that operate in a unitary system. The household sewerage
network has a length of 82.5 km, of which 22 km is the main collector channel, built between 1958 and 1999 and
serves about 61.300 inhabitants. The materials from which the network is made are PVC, concrete and asbestos.
The main collector channel (built in 1970) cannot take up all the waste water, and about 10.000 km of the sewerage
network requires total remediation. Wastewater is transported gravitationally to the treatment plant.
In non-network areas, wastewater discharges are carried out in their own system (septic tank or drainage
basin).
The drainage system has a length of 55 km and serves about 50% of the city. The lack of centralized
sewerage network in some areas of the city contributes to soil and groundwater pollution. Communication on
certain portions between the domestic sewerage and pluvial sewerage leads to an increase in the volume of waste
water reaching to the sewage treatment plant. On the other hand, the wastewater reaches in the pluvial sewerage
and from there directly into the rivers near by the Jiu city, Amaradia and Hodinau channel. [3]

3. Result and discussion

The UAV photogrammetric determinations for this case study were performed using a DJI Phantom 4
Pro drone, having the following technical specifications as shown in Table 1:

Table 1. Technical specification of the drone

AIRCRAFT CAMERA
Weight (Battery & 1388 g Sensor 1’’ CMOS
Propellers Included)
Diagonal Size (Propellers 350 mm Effective pixels: 20M
Excluded)
Max Ascent Speed S-mode: 6 m/s FOV (Field of View) 84°, 8.8 mm / 24 mm
P-mode:5 m/s (35 mm format
equivalent)

Max Descent Speed S-mode: 4 m/s f/2.8 - f/11.

P-mode: 3 m/s
Max Speed S-mode: 45 mph (72 kph) auto focus at 1m-∞
A-mode: 36 mph (58kph)
P-mode: 31 mph (50 kph)

Max Service Ceiling 19685 feet (6000 m) ISO Range Photo: 100 - 3200 (Auto);
Above Sea Level 100- 12800 (Manual)
Max Wind Speed 10 m/s Mechanical Shutter 8 - 1/2000 s
Resistance
Max Flight Time Approx. 30 minutes Electronic Shutter 1/2000 - 1/8000 s
Satellite Positioning GPS/GLONASS Max Image Size 3:2 Aspect Ratio: 5472
Systems × 3648
4:3 Aspect Ratio: 4864
Hover Accuracy Range Vertical: × 3648
±0.1 m (with Vision 16:9 Aspect Ratio:
Positioning) 5472 × 3078
±0.5 m (with GPS
Positioning)
Horizontal:
±0.3 m (with Vision
Positioning)
±1.5 m (with GPS
Positioning)

The precision of the airborne points is expressed by the mean square error of the weight unit and the
square average errors calculated based on the discordances between the reference points, the connection points
and the control points (Table 2);
The average square error:
[ ]
𝜎 =± (1)

Where r - compensation redundancy

𝑟 = 3(𝑛 + 𝑛 ) − (7𝑛 + 3𝑛 (2)
nM-no. block stereomodel;
nL - no. pass points;
n'R- Total no. of control points appearances on nM models;
nL - Total no. Of control points appearances on nL models;
The mean square errors in control, pass and sparse points are calculated as follows:
𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣
𝑒 =±
3𝑛′

𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣
𝑒 =±
3𝑛′

𝑒 =± (3)

Table 2. Table with errors for each control points

Label Error (m) Projections Error (pix)

1 0.001 7 0.259
2 0.001 9 0.361
3 0.002 11 0.178
…. …. …. ….
60 0.013 5 0.798
61 0.015 10 0.276
62 0.027 5 0.313
… … … …
114 0.009 10 0.179
115 0.008 7 0.103
116 0.002 10 0.146
TOTAL 0.014 - 0.328

Projections - The number of occurrences of the ground control point on the photograms, respectively on
the models.
Although it is an alternative method, all the problems and constraints imposed in order to achieve a
topographic survey to carry out an extension or maintenance work on a water supply or sewerage network are
successfully accomplished.
To obtain the orthophotomap in the studied area, a flight with a drone was performed at an average altitude
of 82.8 m. The flight took place on an area of 3.16 km2 and the number of images taken was 3652 with a camera
of a 4864X3648 resolution and a focal length of 8.8 mm. A total of 11 flights were made to cover the area of
interest with a 75% frontal and 65% lateral grid imaging overlay. (Fig.1) As a result of the processing of images
in which elements such as flight height and the camera characteristics were taken into account, with which the
images were taken resulting an orthophotoplan with a ground resolution of 2.08 cm / pixel.

Fig. 1. Camera locations and image overlap

Overlaying the number of images is highlighted by colours, with blue is the overlapping of over 9 images,
and on the edge of the interest area red colour appears where the overlay is of 1-2 images.
The technological flow of obtaining the orthophotomap is:
- Creating the Project
- Importing photograms
- Photograms aligning and the key points (Sparse points) identification (Fig.2.)

Fig.2. Sparse point cloud

- Point cloud adjustment made up of sparse points based on ground control points
- Obtaining dense points cloud and filtering the ground points
Generating DTM based on the dense points cloud (ground points)
- Ortorectification and mosaic of images. (Fig.3)

Fig. 3. Mosaic of images

The ground control points used on block processing (Bundle Adjustment) are 116, out of which 8 have been
dropped because they are either not sufficiently clear on the photograms, or due to the fact that have been pre-
marked before the flight were subsequently obstructed by various objects (cars parked above the photogrammetric
premarket, or other obstructions). The total error on XY coordinates was 1.3 cm, expressed as mean square error
(RMSE), and on Z coordinate was 5 mm. In the following figure is shown the layout of control points on the
surface of the studied area, points determined by using GNSS technology. The ground control points were
determined by two methods, namely: by ground control work, identifying existing survey marks and by pre-
marking. Results from the study case can be seen in Fig. 4-6.

Fig.4. Control Point Location Fig.5. Reconstructed digital elevation model

Fig.6. Results from the case study

From the 2D model resulted by using the orthophotomap were attributed from the ground elevation model
the altitude. The digital model of the terrain was performed by photogrammetric methods, and the points bridging
from the photograms has resulted the points cloud. The point density is 144232 per square meter.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are now filling in the gaps between space borne and ground-based
observations and enhancing the spatial resolution and temporal coverage of data acquisition. [5]

4 Conclusions
In order to obtain a quality result, as a 3d model and orthophotomap, a factor to consider is the image
gathering method (the type of the drone, the type of the camera, the ground control points) and the processing
software used.
Following the obtained results on the orthophotomap, a GIS database can be developed / upgraded, which
can be used in the future to obtain much easier the necessary data for possible technical interventions, but also for
mayors in issuing urbanism certificates and building permits. In the database we can also add elements such as
pipe age factor, physical parameters, pressure and any data that can be measured on the field.
As a result of this study we can conclude that the presented method is more efficient for gathering
geospatial data with lower costs than the classical methods. The method is recommended for topographic surveys
on large surfaces, but if we refer to small surfaces, classical measurements in the field are much more reliable.
Having a GIS geodatabase previously developed, by relying on the presented method the geodatabase can
be easily kept up to date.
It can be concluded that the rehabilitation of the utility networks can be optimized by using UAV
photogrammetry, because it brings an advantage to the decision-maker dealing with rehabilitation, extension or
construction. Comparing this method to classical survey methods, we can say that we obtained similar results as
accuracy, but in a much shorter time. As a disadvantage to classical methods, we can highlight the fact that it`s
impossible to map areas beneath dense vegetation, and also we cannot obtain the heights of the underground pipes,
as they must be measured on the field.

References
[1] https://www.comunicatii.gov.ro/planul-national-de-dezvoltare-a-infrastructurii-ngn/.
[2] Popescu, G., Iordan, D., & Păunescu, V. (2016). The resultant positional accuracy for the
orthophotos obtained with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Agriculture and Agricultural
Science Procedia, 10, pp.458-464.
[3] http://www.targujiu.ro/portal/gorj/tgjiu/portal.nsf/Index/100?OpenDocument.
[4] Vîlceanu, C.B.; Herban, I.S.; Grecea, C.; (2013). Creating 3D models of heritage objects using
photogrammetric image processing. AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 1558, no. 1., pp. 1599-
1602.
[5] Ridolfi, E., & Manciola, P. (2018). Water level measurements from drones: A pilot case study at
a dam site. Water, 10(3), pp.297.

Researches Regarding the Use of GIS for

Monitoring the Degraded Land in Floreşti, Cluj
County

Solcan P.1, Sălăgean T.2, Vereș I.1

1
Faculty of Mine, University of Petroşani(ROMANIA)
2
Faculty of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca
(ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The importance of this paper is to estimate the potential for erosion processes in a given territory, but a
problem of a magnitude requires multiple and repeated studies. In order to highlight the evolution or involution
of the soil, all factors that trigger such processes must be taken into consideration.
A very important reason is to raise awareness to local authorities that it is imperative to conduct studies
to prevent the risk included in spatial and urban planning. This paper presents the method of determining the
occurrence probability of degraded land using seven parameters: altitude, slope, and slope orientation, depth of
drainage, drainage density, wetness index and stream power index. Using GIS (Geographic Information
Systems) techniques and patterns will lead to determine vulnerable areas prone to landslides in Floreşti, Cluj
County (fig. 1).
Keywords: Erosion, Landslide, Risk, GIS

1. Introduction
The problem of degraded soils is a very common situation, both nationally and globally, which is why
we chose to seek a solution with the help of geographic information systems. Of all natural hazards, soil erosion
has the worst negative consequences with immediate effect and using GIS we can create a database which in the
future is crucial for organizing and maintaining soils.
A society with an increasing population, researchers ‘attention falls on risk management and prevention
of geomorphological processes in order to avoid loss of life and reduce damages. Erosion is the process of
detachment, transport and deposition of soil particles under the action of water and wind exogenous agents [2],
[3].

Fig. 1. Framing the study area; Floreşti, Cluj

The development of metropolitan areas provide a boost to integrate planning at the administrative-
territorial unit, linking the downtown area with the adjacent one eliminating imbalances of these factors caused
by social and economic environment.

Expanding residential areas Floreşti has experienced fast expansion in recent years and studies in the
administrative-territorial unit or those recorded in the existing PUG are too few, unclear and with low accuracy.
Because of the chaotic real estate expansion that occurred in 2006 to 2010 and even in present caused a
huge pressure exerted on land without risk studies to be conducted in advance to be taken into account in
releasing construction authorization. Therefore, some buildings were left to decay started because of erosion
which has not allowed to complete the construction. Progress in the field of GIS and remote sensing draw
attention of the creation of a fair and efficient evaluation for the situation on the ground and determine the speed
and direction of development phenomena to fight it.
The purpose of this research is to monitor land degradation potential from surface erosion due to natural
factors, in order to establish the objectives for eliminating the consequences of the economic social and
environmental nature and to bring land into production.

2. Material and method

The method of quantifying the value of the probability for degraded land, Government Decree 447/2003
proposed refers to analysis of quantitative and qualitative terms landslides for each probability interval.
It takes into account the rules on the compilation and content of risk maps naturally to landslides, but it
must be remembered that this is based on variables that are hard to calculate, have no spatial continuity
(lithology, hydrogeology, seismicity).
The model validation is possible using morphological and morphometric parameters derived from
digital elevation model (DEM) [6].
Parameters are quantified in an objective and rigorously way, leaving no room for other data that are
either not complete or did not correspond in terms of scale.
Method used to draw up the maps is ArcGIS software and the seven parameters: altitude, slope, and
slope orientationor aspect, depth of drainage, drainage density, wetness index and stream power index.
Material used in acomplishing the aim of the paper is, first of all, the location, database with
hydrographic network, digital elevation model, and territorial administrative units.
Each probability values of each factor used in the modeling of landslides is based on three equations,
according to [6]:
1. The equation for calculating the value of the probability interval:

2. The equation for calculating the probability coefficient specific of the area extension for each range of
probability:

3. The equation for calculating the probability coefficient for each range:

Where: A represents the core value of the probability range; Y represents the surface of the spatial extent of the
range, in percentage; Vpmax is maximum value of the probability range and Vpmin is minimum value of the
probability range.
After the calculation of X, Z and Vp reclassification of the raster using probability index value is done.
Than the conversion of reclassified raster is done into one of the corresponding real values. In the end, that will
lead to spatial distribution of vulnerability factor: chart and map.

3. RESULTS
Regarding the appearance of erosion phenomena, a very important factor to be considered represents the
use of the land so that land under forests best protects the soil due to leaf area which intercept raindrops,
reducing the force of impact and speed drainage on slopes. At the other extreme are unproductive land without
vegetation, followed by monocultures of corn.

1st parameter: Altitude (Fh factor):

In figure 2, from the digital elevation model it can be seen that the altitude in Floresti varies between
734and 353m.

Fig. 2. Digital elevation model of Florești Fig. 3. Reclassified raster

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fh factor

It is considered that the areas below 400 meters are not generally affected by slope processes, those
between 400 and 700 meters, specific to terraces are partially affected by slope processes, and those more than
900 meters altitude, characteristic to mountainous areas, presents a morphodynamic highlighted potential.
According to figure 4 we can conclude that a very high vulnerability of this factor is just 11%.
2ndparameter: Slope (Fs factor):
The calculation of the slope expressed in degrees is made by using the Spatial Analyst Tools - Surface-
Slope function; this is calculated based on the digital elevation model as seen in figure 5.

Fig. 5. Slope Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fs factor

The areas of low slope (<5°) are characteristic for major riverbeds of the main rivers, plain terraces and
are not affected by landslides in general. Surfaces with a slope of 5.1-15° are preferred for the processes of
gravity while highly inclined surfaces (> 25°) presents large and very large susceptibility to landslides. Acording
to figure 6, in Floresti, the vulnerability of this factor is 28% reduced and very high only 6%.
3rdparameter: Orientation of slopes (Fa factor):
The qualitative parameter in the spatial analysis of the morphometric characteristics of the topographic
surface is defined by the slope orientation or aspect. It participates in the evolution of the geomorphologic
processes of the slope due to climatic factors that are not dispersed equally on the terrestrial surface: solar
radiation, sun exposure, precipitation and temperatures. This parameter causes differences in the duration of sun
exposure and in Floresti is distributed as in figure 7 and its vulnerability as in figure 8.

Fig. 7. Aspect Fig. 8. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fa factor

Flat surfaces, specific to valley corridors, plain terraces and extensive basins are not affected by
landslides. Slopes with N, NE, E and NW exposure are shaded and semi-shaded representing decreased
susceptibility to landslides. The SE, S, SW, W (sunny and semi-sunny) oriented slopes are highly susceptible to
landslides because of high rain fall and high level of solar quantity that is conducive to freezing and thawing.
4thparameter: Depth of drainage (Fda factor):
The depth of drainage represents the vertical variation of the altitude per unit area and in the case
study`s región it is represented in figure 9.

Fig. 9. Depth of drainage Fig. 10. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fda factor
Low values of depth of drainage represent a low potential for landslides but high values indicate a big
potential caused by high altitude even more if the area has big degree of slope. In Floresti, according to figure
10, 50% is an average vulnerability of this factor.
5thparameter: Drainage density (Fdd factor):
The drainage density represents the length of the hydrographic network (figure 11) per unit area
(generally km²), expressing the degree of horizontal fragmentation.

Fig. 11. Hydrographic network Fig. 12. Drainagedensity

Fig. 13. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fdd factor

Low values of drainage density indicate a low probability for the occurence of landslides because the
hydrographic network is almost absent. This can be concluded from figure 13, where there is only low and
average vulnerability. High values are characteristic to confluence zones and to areas without vegetation with the
presence of linear erosion.
6thparameter: Wetness index (Fwi factor):
The wáter infiltration potential (wetness index) is the degree of wáter accumulation in certain areas.
It is calculated by the formula : Ln((“accumulation”*400)/Tan(“slope”)) and the result can be seen in
figure 14.

Fig. 14. Drainage density Fig. 15. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fwi factor
Low values of this parameter indicate a low saturation of water very commune in hydrographic basins
areas and hills with little altitude. High values relieve a high saturation of water in soil trigging a sensibility for
landslides. From figure 15, it can be said that in Floresti this factor has a average vulnerability of 40%.
7thparameter: Stream power index (Fspi):
The stream power index (Spi) represents the product between the land area and the slope.
It is calculated: Ln (“accumulation”+0.001)*(“slope”/100+0.001)) and the result appears in figure 16.

Fig. 16. Stream power index Fig. 17. Spatial distribution of vulnerability for Fspi factor
Low values of stream power index indicate a low probability to occur landslides, while high values of
this factor are characteristic for areas with strong erosion, causing a big probability for appearance of degradable
land. A very high vulnerability of Fspi factor in Floresti is only 7% (figure 17).

To perform spatial analysis model the factors determined above were integrated in the equation by GD
447/2003 thereby achieving the area vulnerability to landslides.
The final result (figure 18) has been obtained by using the equation implemented in a GIS environment
using the Raster Calculator function:
Square Root ("Fs" * "Fa")/7 * "Fh" * "Fdd" *"Fda" * "Fwi" * "Fspi")

Fig. 18. Final result

4. CONCLUSIONS
The present work was aimed at identifying areas of geomorphological processes affected by landslides
and wáter erosion in Floreşti using GIS methods and models.
The whole processis systematically exposed to be understood by anyone and highlights the benefits of
using geographical information systems over other methods of qualitative and quantitative assessment of
vulnerability to different geographical phenomena territory.
The final product of modelling is the full spatial distribution of areas. Overall, the study falls within a
range of low vulnerability, however, to prevent extension and amplification of sensitive areas, it is recommended
the pursuit of amelioration works, protecting against degradation. Its validation by overlapping the final result
over an orthophotomap indicates that modelling the reality was successfully made.

REFERENCES
[1] PĂCURAR I., Pedologie generală şi bonitarea terenurilor agricole, EdituraAcademicPres, 223
pag, ISBN: 973-99784-3-6, Cluj-Napoca, 2000.
[2] DÎRJA M., BUDIU V., (1997) –The study of run off and soil erosion on the eroded soils,
managed as artificial lawns, Simpozion “Alternative de lucrare a solului”, USAMV Cluj-Napoca,
vol. II, 187-198.
[3] DÎRJA M., (2000), Combaterea eroziunii solului, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
[4] PIMENTEL D., (1993), Soil erosion and agricultural productivity, Cambridge: Univ. Press.
[5] BULLOCK P., JONES R.J.A. și MONTANARELLA L., (1999), Soil resources of Europe. Office
for oficial publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
[6] Petrea, D., Bilașco, Ș. ,Roșca Sanda, Vescan I., Fodorean. I (2014), The determination of the
landslide occurrence probability by GIS spatial analysis of the land morphometric
characteristics (case study: the Ttransylvanian Plateau), Carpathian Journal of Earth and
Environmental Sciences, May 2014, Vol. 9, No. 2.
[7] *** Manualul inginerului geodez, EdituraTehnică, București, 1973.
[8] *** (1986) Metodologia elaborării studiilor pedologice, ICPA.
[9] www.icpa.ro
[10] www.floresticluj.ro

Heritage Studies in Spatial Planning;

Development and Environmental Policies
Vîlceanu C.B.1, Alionescu A.1, Grecea C.1, Herban S.1,
Moscovici A.M.1
1
Politehnica University Timisoara, Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundations and Cadastral
Survey, Traian Lalescu no.2, Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
Nowadays the world’s population continues to grow; we deal with a severe migration from rural to
urban areas. Increased numbers of people and cities guide to a greater exploitation of the world’s limited
resources. Every year, more and more cities feel the devastating impacts of this situation.
In this context, there is an urgent need to reposition cultural heritage policies also drawing attention to
the environment, which has wider repercussions. Moreover, the reuse of cultural heritage has a significant
importance in spatial urban planning. Lately, geodetic tools are more and more used in these domains,
photogrammetric studies knowing a growing development within the past years in the field of cultural heritage,
setting the framework towards the future in the virtually built environment.
The actuality of the paper is given by the fact that preserving cultural heritage and historical sites
represents an important issue that must be taken into account when urban planning projects are required for
developing the model of urban growth.
Studies of heritage require new solutions in a changing context, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary
research, trialling new models and new methods and new technologies such as photogrammetry, UAVs or laser
scanning.
Keywords: surveying engineering, spatial planning, cultural heritage, 3D modelling.

1 Introduction
In 2017 the member states of the European Union adopted “Recommendation CM/Rec (2017) to
member States on the “European Cultural Heritage Strategy for the 21st century” and in May 2018 a new agenda
regarding Cultural Heritage has been adopted.
The "Paris Agreement" (2015) and the 13th objective for sustainable development goal on climate
action of United Nations also brought together the identification of good practices and innovative measures for
their transformation into sustainable buildings. Another approach implies protecting these buildings as well as
historic objectives from the effects of climate change.
The information from the Horizon 2020 scientific projects will be shared with the EU and the "Disaster
Patrimony Survey" will be considered.
Romania, as a member state, has aligned its priorities to the EU and is constantly trying to develop
smart solutions regarding the issue of preserving its Cultural Heritage. 3D modelling of cultural heritage objects
is an expanding application and can be easily combined with other technologies. [1]
When taking into account the 21 Agenda for culture – initiative of the Cultural Committee of United
Cities and Local Governments, the increased interest is for the Section D referring to territorial and economic
development. Within this strategy, 11 recommendations were made, namely:
o D1 promote cultural heritage as a resource and facilitate financial investment;
o D2 support and promote the heritage sector as a means of creating jobs and business opportunities;
o D3 promote heritage skills and professionals;
o D4 produce heritage impact studies for rehabilitation, construction, planning and infrastructure
projects;
o D5 encourage the reuse of heritage and use of traditional knowledge and practice;
o D6 ensure that heritage is taken into account in development, spatial planning, environmental and
energy policies;
o D7 give consideration to heritage in sustainable tourism development policies;

o D8 protect, restore and enhance heritage, making greater use of new technologies;
o D9 use innovative techniques to present cultural heritage to the public, while preserving its
integrity;
o D10 use the cultural heritage as a means of giving the region a distinctive character and making it
more attractive and better known;
o D11 develop new management models to ensure that heritage benefits from the economic spinoffs
that it generates. [2]

2 Concepts and Methods

An efficient urban planning must include 3D modelling of heritage sites for purposes such as:
documenting historic buildings and monuments for reconstruction or restoration if they are destroyed. [3]
Timişoara has the widest architectural heritage (Fig. 1) area in the country, of important value to both
Romania and Europe. The preservation of this cultural heritage is a duty of the authorities, the owners and the
citizens with a well-developed civic spirit.

Fig. 1. Map of Timişoara with historical areas

The case study referring to such an objective in Timisoara, Romania can be integrated within D4 and
D8 recommendations. Other rehabilitation projects that have made a contribution to changing the perception of
historical monuments only with a past without a functional future are also presented. For example, images with a
historical building from the Union Square (Fig.2) and the Michelangelo Bridge (Fig.3) are presented after
rehabilitation.

Fig. 2. Historic building in Union Square before and after renovation [4]

Fig. 3. Michelangelo Bridge

Basically, Timișoara is an important economical centre, an important cultural centre, it has a wide and
interesting architectural heritage (with 3 poles, unique in our country), it currently is an important migration
magnet, a smart city wannabe and an upcoming tourist magnet. [5]
Timișoara Municipality has set its goal to become one of Europe’s smart cities and communities, taking
into account both, cultural and ecological strategies. These are very much supported by winning the title for
“European capital of culture” in 2021, thus involving the entire community in embarking socio-economic and
infrastructure projects and databases which ensure efficient management for the municipality.
In 2021 Timisoara will be the European Capital of Culture, but the budget for this project does not
include investments for infrastructure or rehabilitation of buildings. Moreover, by winning the title of this
initiative, the context for implementation of several policies for the buildings’ rehabilitation, consolidation and
infrastructure by the city hall and the county council is created.
By recognizing the role of culture for development and quality of life, contemporary cultural policies
call attention to the need to inherently integrate the cultural sector in other areas of public life. [6] Concern for
the cultural life of the city of Timişoara implies a strong relationship between culture and urbanism, architecture,
environment, education and contributes to local and regional development.
Bridges in Timișoara are important in two aspects, one aspect would be their functionality and the other
aspect would be their historical importance (Fig. 4). In Timisoara there are ten bridges, two passages and four
pedestrian walkways. In the image below we have marked these bridges and walkways on the map of Timisoara
where they can be seen as belonging to the category of historical monuments. The natural disasters [7] that
primarily affect this type of monument are floods. That is why we consider that our case study demonstrates the
complexity of the measurements [8] and the importance of the 3D model (also necessary for a possible
reconstruction), of the elevation model of the terrain and the orthophotoplan.

Fig. 4. Map of protected bridges in Timisoara

The case study refers to a pedestrian walkway on the Bega River which, because of climate change and
the fact that the constructor's warranty has expired, finds itself in need of a structural consolidation, but because
it is a historic objective, its identity from this point of view must be preserved.
The pedestrian bridge (Fig.5) at the end of the Chrysanthemum Street, which connects with Gelu Street,
is situated in the area of Dâmboviţa-Iosefin neighbourhoods. It is the first bridge in Timişoara, which is under
repair, 70 years after its construction.
The bridge connecting the streets of Chrysanthemums and Gelu was built in 1949 and has never been
completely rehabilitated ever since. It is currently being used by people who shorten their way from one side of
the Bega River to the other, without having to circumnavigate more than one kilometre to the nearest bridge.

Fig. 5. The pedestrian bridge under study [9]

The technical project to upgrade the aforementioned bridge linking the watersides of the Bega River is
at a stage of consultation with local authorities and architects. Our contribution to the project consists in
conducting topographic surveys by using two methods in order to acquire geospatial data and have a real image
of the field situation with a view to obtaining as much details as possible. The two methods are:
- Surveying engineering using GNSS technology and the total station;
- Photogrammetric measurements using UAVs – drones. [10]
The topographic survey was made using GNSS equipment. In order to measure the inaccessible
elements of the bridge (bridge abutments, beams etc.), the total station was used.
In the image below the topographical plan containing field details and the orthophotoplan are presented.

Fig. 6. Site plan, scale 1:500

3 Results and discussions

For photogrammetric measurements, a smart drone with 5 directions sensors system composed of vision
and infrared sensors, which allows it to avoid obstacles during the flight was used. Its camera delivers
unprecedented image quality with improved clarity, less image noise, and greater photo and video resolution (20
Megapixels). The remote control supports dual frequencies, making video transmission more efficient and stable.
To carry out the measurement, the Pix4DCapture application, available for free for any Android or iOS user, was
used. This application turns the drones into a professional mapping tool. 2 flights have been performed, the first
flight at an altitude of 60m with 90 degrees inclination. The duration of the flight was about 4 minutes and 55
images were taken. Image overlap was 80% -70% as grid. For the second one, the flight altitude was 30m with
60 degrees camera inclination. The flight duration was 8 minutes and 189 images were taken.
Further, we used a data processing program that allows users to create orthographic, georeferenced,
high resolution images (up to 5cm using ground reference points) and highly detailed digital terrain models
stored in irregular polygonal and textured structures. The application provides high-quality combined and
rectified images even when alignment is used without coordinates being assigned to images previously.
On the field, 7 Ground Control Point have been materialized as seen in the figure below in order to be
identified on the images acquired by the drone (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Description of the Ground Control Points

The totally automated workflow enables ordinary users to process, in a natural language without the
need for advanced modelling knowledge, thousands of aerial or terrestrial images only by using a computer to
obtain end products that consist of professional photogrammetric data (Fig. 8). Image alignment and
reconstruction 3D models are totally automated.

Fig. 8. Image alignment and Elevation model with GCP

Photogrammetric analysis can create a virtual 3D model of the bridge to be rebuilt after a flood of water
or it can be illustrating for architects dealing with its rehabilitation. A realistic impression of geometric 3D data
can be generated by draping real colour textures simultaneously captured by a colour camera images. [11]

4 Conclusions
The documentation of cultural heritage through the acquisition of digital data and the realization of 3D
models currently can count on many procedures and survey instruments which have been developed in the last
decades and still more specialized for the acquisition of metrical information with high resolution levels,
reliability and precision. The paper proves its applicability as photogrammetric technologies are nowadays used
at a large scale for obtaining the 3D model of cultural heritage objects, efficient in their assessment and
monitoring, thus contributing to historic conservation.
All its aspects play an important contribution to recording and perceptual monitoring of cultural
heritage, to preservation and restoration of any valuable architectural or other cultural monument, object or site,
as a support to architectural, archaeological and different art-historical research. 3D modelling has much
functionality: the possibility of creating sections for a thorough analysis, collaborative work between specialists
in different countries, calculating cost of restoration before actually doing the work, allowing virtually visits of
objects in order to evaluate them, being the most important advantage.
Timişoara, as a European city and more importantly, as an upcoming European Capital of Culture,
needs a modern interface, which organizes built environment and appeals both to locals and tourists. In this
context, the study case can also serve as a basis for implementing a spatial data geoportal at Local
Administration level (Timişoara City Hall) to streamline the data workflow and provide easy access to it in order
to increase the visibility of cultural and historical heritage of the municipality, to contribute to efficient urban
transportation and infrastructure monitoring.

REFERENCES
[1] Vîlceanu, C.B.; Herban, I.S.; Grecea, C.; (2013). Creating 3D models of heritage objects using
photogrammetric image processing. AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 1558, no. 1., pp. 1599-
1602.
[2] https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/strategy-21.
[3] Herban, SI; Vilceanu, CB; Alionescu, A; (2014). Application of close-range photogrammetry to
cultural heritage, RevCad Journal of Geodesy and Cadastre, ISSN 1583-2279, No. 16-2014, pp.
104 – 112.
[4] https://www.primariatm.ro/.
[5] Bănescu, O.-A.; Vîlceanu, C.B.; Hapenciuc, A.-D.; (2018). Spatial data geoportal – a powerful
interface for the local administration, CoHeSION 2018 – International Conference on Heritage
and Sustainable Innovation, Timisoara, Romania, November 15-17, 2018.
[6] Grecea, C.; Herban, S.; Vîlceanu, C.B.; (2016). WebGIS Solution for Urban Planning Strategies,
Procedia Engineering Journal, Vol. 161, pp. 1625–1630, Elsevier.
[7] Bonazza, A., (2018). Study on Safeguarding Cultural Heritage from Natural and Man-Made
Disasters, International Conference Danube University Krems.
[8] Dinca, I., Linc, R., Tatar, C., Nistor, S., Stasac, M., Bucur, L., (2017). Surveying the Rural
Resiliance within the Oradea Hills Household Independent Cellar Landscape, Romania, 17th
National Technical-Scientific Conference on Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium,
Romania, ISBN 978-88-7587-724-8, pp.13-22.
[9] https://mapio.net/s/62770987/ .
[10] Tóth, Z.; Balázsik, V.; Kiss, A.; (2018). Modern data acquisition tools in archaeology, 17th
edition International Technical-Scientific Conference Modern Technologies for the 3rd
Millennium, March 22-23, 2018 - Oradea (Romania), ISBN 978-88-87729-49-8, pp. 117-123.
[11] Moscovici, AM.; Brebu, FM.; Bala, A.C.; (2017). Geospatial Data Acquisitions Using 3D Laser
Scanning Technology in the Context of Monitoring Mines, 16th National Technical-Scientific
Conference on Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium, Romania, ISBN 978-88-7587-724-
8, WOS:000413420300006, pp. 33-38.

Measurement and Calculation of the Volume of

the Heap Located in Zastawie Village in Poland
Warchoł A.1,2, Balawejder M.1, Banaś M.1, Matkowska K.1,
Paweł N.1, Grzegorz W.1
1The Bronisław Markiewicz State Higher School of Technology and Economics in Jarosław, Institute of
Technical Engineering (POLAND)
2ProGea 4D sp. z o.o. (POLAND)

E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

[email protected]

Abstract
Calculating the volume of earthwork is a typical geodetic task, often performed during road construction
or geodetic works in the mines. The article presents three various measurement technologies for determining the
volume of cut ground material using classical tachometry method, GNSS RTK and terrestrial laser scanning. The
object of research had dimensions about 230 m long, 4m width in the narrowest to 10 m in the widest part and 4
m height. During measurements, 1133 points by total station, 811 points by GNSS and 40 scans were collected.
The second aim were to use different software to calculate the volume of the heap. The results were
summarized in the tables. The differences between measurement methods and between the various programs have
been presented. Additionally, aspect of time consuming was very important and was subject to analysis both in
collecting the data and post processing.

Keywords: volume calculation, GNSS, totalstaion, Terrestrial Laser Scanning.

1. Introduction
Measurement and calculation of the volume of heaps or dumping grounds are the works that the surveyor
performs most often during road and rail construction works. These works, due to the continuous development of
road and rail infrastructure, are currently very often used. Accurate determination of the volume of earth masses
that should be relocated is important for the investor, because it involves high costs and time necessary to perform
such works. In Poland the use modern technologies to realization road network [5].
The most frequently used methods of measurement are classical methods, which include: total station,
GNSS RTN method, leveling with the use of distributed points method, leveling using grid net, leveling using the
cross-section and profile. If the area to be measured is extensive and it is not possible to measure by the classical
method, to accelerate the measurement process UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) methods and/or laser scanning
can be used [3].
To determine the volume of heaps, you can take advantage of raids made by means of a drone or aircraft
that are equipped with appropriate cameras and/or a laser scanning system. Due to the size of heaps, the use of an
aircraft or a helicopter is economically unjustified. This is also the reason for the most often used for this purpose
drone, which during the raid move on the previously designed route (mission). During the raid, photographs are
taken at a specific time interval providing adequate longitudinal and transverse coverage. In the post processing
work we can generate a cloud of 3D points from photographs using the SfM (Structure from Motion) algorithm.
The downside of this method is the lack of penetration of vegetation, therefore it is not suitable for measuring the
volume of vegetation covered objects. In this case, a much better solution is to perform laser scanning from the
ALS, using the UAV platform. Differences in the creation of point clouds and DTM depending on the data source
(LiDAR scanning and point cloud from SfM) are described in detail in [1].
Besides to the measurement method, it is also important how to calculate the volume. The most frequently
used ones are: squares grid method (GRID), triangles network method (TIN), horizontal section method and cross
section method. Each of the above calculation methods is described in detail in [2].

2. Object of studies and instruments

2.1 Object - heap in Zastawie

The measured heap is located in the area of the open-pit sand mine in the village of Zastawie, Puławski
poviat, Lubelskie voivodship within the new outcrop.
From all the heaps of soil and aggregate found on the square, a heap was chosen located in the newly
created area, because the measurements necessary to calculate the volume could be made without collision with
the mining work carried out in the mine. Heap is located in the north-western part of the mine site (fig. 1).
The material stored on the heap is a humus collected from the newly created open pit.

Fig 1. Location of the heap with orthophotomaps background

Dimensions of the heap selected for measurements:

- a length of about 230 m,
-width of about 4 m at the narrowest point to 10 m at the widest point,
- height about 4 m.
The views of the heap from different sides are presented on fig. 2 and fig. 3.

Fig 2. The heap from the south-east side Fig 3. The heap from east side

2.2 Instruments
In the investigation three various measurement technologies was used. For determining the coordinates
of characteristic points the measuring team used classical tachometry method with total station Leica TS02 ultra
7” (fig. 4), GNSS RTK method with Trimble SPS 882 (fig. 5) and Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) by Faro
FOCUS 3D X130 (fig. 6).

Fig 4. Totalstation Leica TS02

Fig 5. Trimble SPS 882 Fig 6. Faro FOCUS 3D X130
ultra 7”

2.3 Softwares
For post processing and volume calculating four different software were used. FaroScene for TLS point
clouds registration. WinKalk for tachometry calculation and volume calculation from GNSS and total station.
CloudCompare only for volume calculation from TLS, GNSS and totals taion measurements. Surfer for volume
calculation from whole three data sets.

3. Results
For every measurements technology data sets representing shape of the heap was collected. For total
station 1133 points were measured. 811 points by GNSS receiver and 40 scans were collected. Total station
measurements and GNSS RTK point coordinates were directly in PL-2000 s.8 (EPSG: 2179) recorded. TLS point
clouds were registered in target-based mode in local coordinate system and the georeferenced from GNSS was
applied in the next step. Post processing of the point clouds was made in Faro Scene. As the reference level the
GNSS point from the outer contour of the heap was set up.

WinKalk is one of the most popular geodetic programs in Poland, which has many calculation options.
In this research was used to calculate coordinates of the points from total station measurements (fig. 7) and volume
calculation from this measurements. GNSS receiver in RTN mode gave a set of points in proper coordinates system
(fig. 9), so the volume calculation could be done also in the WinKalk software. WinKalk is a simple software so
the huge amount of coordinates from laser scanning couldn't be import and processing.
Volume calculation module in WinKalk based on TIN model, so the results of calculation is visualize as
triangle network. TIN models from WinKalk calculation is presented on fig. 8 - total station and fig. 10 - GNSS
RTN.

Fig 7. 1133 points from total station before volume calculation in WinKalk - top view

Fig 9. 811 points from GNSS receiver before volume calculation in WinKalk - top view

Fig 8. TIN model from total station after volume Fig 10. TIN model from GNSS after volume
calculation in WinKalk - isometric view calculation in WinKalk - isometric view

CloudCompare is an open source software who is able to process data from laser scanning. Point clouds
registered in Faro Scene were imported from LAS files. Others data sets were imported via ASCII files. In
CloudCompare the two surfaces are needed to calculate the volume. First is the upper surface representing the
shape of heap and the second (bottom) is the reference surface based on which the volume is counted on. In this
software volume is calculating based on grid model; for this research 0.25m was set up as a step to calculate the
volume. The volume calculate windows are presented on fig. 11, fig. 12 and fig. 13, respectively for total station,
GNSS and TLS.

Fig 11. Volume calculation in CloudCompare from Fig 12. Volume calculation in CloudCompare from
total station measurements GNSS measurements

Fig 13. Volume calculation in CloudCompare from TLS measurements

The last software tested in this article was Surfer. To calculate the volume in the Surfer program, the
"Grid Volume" function was used. In this function we have two ways to calculate the volume, we can use for this
two surfaces or one surface and a fixed height from which the volume will be counted. In this case, the method

with one surface was used, upper surface was created from the relevant data sets (total station, GNSS and TLS).
The lower surface had a constant height, which was 152.824 m. The results of the volume calculation in Surfer are
shown in figures 14-16.

Fig 15. Visualization of volume Fig 16. Visualization of volume

Fig 14. Visualization of volume
calculation in Surfer from GNSS calculation in Surfer from TLS
calculation in Surfer from
measurements measurements
totalstation measurements

The results of the volume calculation are gathered in tables 1 -3. In table 1the volume of the heap in cubic
meters calculated in different software and from different measuring methods are shown. Table 2 present
differences of volumes between software in m3 and table 3 the same differences but as the percent of the volume.

Table 1. Results of the volume calculation in different software and from different measuring methods in m3

Software
Method Volumes [m3]
WinKalk CloudCompare Surfer
Totalstation 9006 9163 9078
GNSS 8833 8996 9017
TLS 8773 8715

Table 2. Differences of volumes between softwares in m3

Differences of volumes between softwares [m3]

Software
Totalstation GNSS TLS
WinKalk CloudCompare -157 -163
WinKalk Surfer -72 -184
CloudCompare Surfer 85 -21 58

The last table should be compared to polish geodetic standards. As we could find in this act of law [4]:
"The relative error of measuring the volume of heaps and storage sites should not exceed for the volume: from 0
to 20,000 m3 - 6% of volume".

Table 3. Differences of volumes between software’s in %

Differences of volumes between software’s [%]

Software
Totalstation GNSS TLS
WinKalk CloudCompare 1,7 1,84
WinKalk Surfer 0,80 2,1
CloudCompare Surfer 0,94 0,24 0,66

4. Summary and conclusions

Measurement and calculation of the volume of heaps, dumping grounds is a very common task for
geodesists, especially during the construction of large-area, roads and railways. Increasingly, also investors who
build relatively small objects use the help of surveyors in determining the volume of earthworks due to the large
costs they will have to bear during earthworks. Participation of the surveyor in this process saves him time and
reduces the costs of works, because you can precisely determine the amount of material to be moved.

When taking measurements of objects which, as a result of calculations, get a volume, a very important
issue is the proper selection of the instrument which we will perform the measurement and thus also the
measurement method. The choice of method and instrument depends on the accuracy with which we want to obtain
the result of the work. The choice of instrument and measurement method often depends on the nature of the
object, shape, size, accessibility and location in the environment. Another important issue is the choice of the
method for calculating the volume, depending on the accuracy of the calculations we have to achieve.

During the measurement of the heap, the classic tachymetric method was used, due to the fact that the
heap was located in the open space, there were no infrastructure elements that would disturb the receiver's work
were also used GNSS RTN method and Terrestrial Laser Scanning.

Three programs were used to calculate the volume, where two of them calculate the volume based on a
grid of squares, and the third based on a triangles network It should also be remembered that the result is influenced
not only by the calculation software or measurement method used, but also the appropriate selection of
characteristic points on the object through which the mesh and 3D model are created.

As we could see in the results chapter the volume of the heap is very similar regardless of the measurement
method or software.

References
[1] Wężyk P., Warchoł A. Porównanie Numerycznych Modeli Terenu pochodzących z przetwarzania chmur
punktów z lotniczego skanowania laserowego oraz dopasowania zdjęć lotniczych. IX OGÓLNOPOLSKIE
SYMPOZJUM GEOINFORMACYJNE – 29-31.03.2017 Wrocław – conference materials, unpublished.
[2] Gocał J. 1999. Geodezja inżynieryjno-przemysłowa, Część I, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków.
[3] Poręba M. 2009. Modern methods of earth mass volume determination, Archives of Photogrammetry,
Cartography and Remote Sensing, vol. 19, pp.351-361.
[4] Regulation of the Minister of Economy of 19 June 2002 on the geological and metrological documentation.
[5] Balawejder M., Banaś M., Matkowska K., Warchoł A. 2018. The use of geomatic tools and modern
technologies to road network and registered plot analysis in Poland. 17th edition National Technical-Scientific
Conference Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium March 22-23, 2018 - Oradea (Romania) Editors
Sorin Nistor, Gabriela A. Popoviciu. ED learning. Bologna (Italy). p. 9-14. ISBN 978-88-87729-49-8.
http://www.edlearning.it/ebook/B322.pdf.

Soil Investigation & Ground Improvement in

Urban Metro Station

Arghiroiu O.1, Ghemiş M.1

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected].

Abstract
The Stage 1 Drumul Taberei – Eroilor (Bucharest Metro Line 5), is now performed as the first
emergency, within a contract leaded by ASTALDI SpA from Italy, FCC Construcction from Spain, Delta ACM
and AB Construct from Romania [1]. Work on Academia Militara station began in December 2011, with one
machine and ended in June 2012. At this station were used for wall panels were the TBM (Tunnelling Boring
Machine) will breakthrough, more cages of reinforcement fiberglass to facilitate breakthrough the concrete wall
of 1.0 m thickness. The method of excavation is “top-down”, characterized by the development of perimeter
support works represented by the reinforced concrete diaphragm walls. Groundwater is found to a depth of 8.50
m from ground level. That leaded to build a bottom pad (buffer) by jet grouting system in order to guarantee a
low humidity excavation to the bottom during execution stages and to achieve the invert (foundation slab). The
circular tunnels (6.4 m external diameter) will be performed by two TBM equipment (EPB – Earth Pressure
Balanced), manufactured by Herrenknecht AG and having 6.65 m in diameter.
Keywords: metro, underground, jet-grouting.

1 INTRODUCTION
The metropolitan area of Bucharest city has over 2.1 million people. From this point of view, the
population density is 3,600 people/km2, higher than in other European capital cities.
In the preparation of global development for Bucharest metro transport, the first step was the
identification of methods of increasing the share of Bucharest metro transport system, for increase in
performances under the specific circumstances that the urban public transport involves. One of the main
strategies which have been considered in the preparation of the metro and development directive is expansion of
the existing metro system.
The developing of the new metro lines soon will follow as below [3]:
• Line 5: Drumul Taberei – Pantelimon (West-East link), 17-km long, 25 stations, 2 depots (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Metro Line 5: Drumul Taberei – Pantelimon

• Line 6: Gara de Nord – “Henri Coandă” International Airport (link between the main Train Station
and the main international airport of Bucharest), 19 km long and 19 stations;
• Line 7: Bragadiru – Voluntari (link between two towns located within Bucharest Metropolitan Area,
North East – South West connection, 25 km long, 27 stations);
• Extension of Line 4: Gara de Nord – Progresul (metro rail link on the North – South axis and also
would lay the basis of a direct link to the future international airport which is planned to be developed in the
southern part of Bucharest, 7 km long, 9 stations).

2 GEOTECHNICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

In terms of geomorphologic conditions, the underground structures of Bucharest Metro System are
located between two rivers (Dâmbovița and Colentina, respectively – see Fig. 2), in areas where quaternary
formations (that have developed both horizontally and vertically) prevail.
Recent site investigations have confirmed the lithologic sequence defined at the beginning of the works.
A simplified geological profile is made up of fill, followed by layers of sand and clay. A typical lithologic
sequence is presented below (Fig. 3) [2], [3]. [5]:

Fig. 2. Bucharest lithologic cross-section Fig. 3. Block-diagram of geotechnical layers

• Type 1 layer – non-uniform and heterogeneous fills, in different consolidation stages.

• Type 2 (upper clay) layer – upper clay complex, encompassing silty clays and sandy clays, with
thickness ranging from 2 to 10 m. Apparently this is normally consolidated clay.
• Type 3 (upper sand) layer – sand and gravel complex (Colentina), made up of medium to large sands
and small gravels, with thickness ranging from 5 to 9 m. Grain size analyses indicate a high uniformity.
• Type 4 (lower clay) layer – intermediate clay complex, made up of clays with limestone concretions
and silty clays. Sand lenses in this layer are common, in the order of meters. It seems to be normally
consolidated clay.
• Type 5 (lower sand) layer – sand complex (Mostiștea), made up of medium, fine and dusty sands with
a high thickness, normally deeper than borehole depths. This stratum also has a high uniformity of grain sizes.
M5 consists of two sections, as follows [3], [5]:
• Section 1, Drumul Taberei – Universitate (Fig. 4), 9 km in length, 15 stations, 1 depot, linking the
eastern part of the city with the city centre, due to be completed by 2019 (currently Drumul Taberei – Eroilor
section is under construction);
• Section 2, Universitate – Pantelimon (Fig. 5), 8 km in length, 10 stations, 1 depot, linking the city
centre with the western part of the city, due to be completed by 2025;

3 SECTION 1: DRUMUL TABEREI – EROILOR

3.1 General information

M5 consists of two sections, as follows [3], [5]:
• Section 1, Drumul Taberei – Universitate, 9 km in length, 15 stations, 1 depot, linking the eastern part
of the city with the city centre, due to be completed by 2019 (currently Drumul Taberei – Eroilor section is under
construction);

• Section 2, Universitate – Pantelimon, 8 km in length, 10 stations, 1 depot, linking the city centre with
the western part of the city, due to be completed by 2025;
Section 1 is now under construction. It was split in two subsections (contracts) [1], [3], [4]:
• Stage 1 => Râul Doamnei (Drumul Taberei) – Eroilor: 6.23-km in length, 9 stations, 1.37-km length
cut-and-cover stations, 0.82-km cut-and-cover tunnels, 8.06-km TBM (Tunnelling Boring Machine) tunnels;
contract (Design & Built) awarded to a Joint Venture (JV) consists of: ASTALDI SpA from Italy, FCC
Construcctión from Spain, Delta ACM and AB Construct from Romania.
• Stage 2 => Valea Ialomitei Station, Depot and Tunnel Link: 1-km in length, 1 station, 1 depot, 300 m
length for cut-and-cover station and depot, 705-m length for cut-and-cover tunnels; contract (Design & Built)
awarded to a JV consists of: Max Bögl from Germany and Max Boegl from Romania.
The Author was charged as Deputy Project Manager of The Engineer.

3.2 Soil investigation

This section covers the soil and ground water investigations required to be performed by the Contractor
(JV ASTALDI SpA from Italy, FCC Construcction from Spain, Delta ACM and AB Construct from Romania)
prior the design phase. Soil investigations were carried out by the Contractor and by one approved specialized
subcontractor able to provide facilities, equipment and laboratory testing enabling performance of works in
accordance with the required standards and specifications.
According to surveys conducted in the foundation of existing buildings and according to soil
investigations, particularly in the area adjacent to Orizont, Academia Militară et Eroilor 2 stations, it turns out
that some consolidation works might need to be performed by the Contractor prior to the performance of civil
works for stations and tunnelling works.
The schedule of works shall include: surveying of existing utilities and building foundation along the
alignment of the project, soil investigation implementation in compliance with the preliminary campaign given
by the Employer, potential consolidation works of the areas investigated, at Contractor’s expenses. Additional
soil boring and testing investigation were and are conducted by experienced engineers of the Contractor in
accordance with the Romanian or European Standards.
Laboratory testing [2] are conducted to indicate the following characteristics: a) in case of cohesive
soils: Attenberg limits, natural water content, specific gravity, unit weight, shearing resistance, compressibility,
unconfined compressive stress, abrasivity and hardness tests; b) in case of cohesion less soils: particle size,
specific gravity, unit weight, void ratio, shearing resistance, subgrade reaction, triaxial test, abrasivity and
hardness tests. Tests in situ can also be performed among them: pressure meter for soils and very weak rock soil,
dilatometer for weak rock soil, lugeon value for permeability testing.
Chemical analysis of water and soil comprising chlorides and sulphates contents, bacterial analysis,
hydrocarbon percentage and ground water PH. Ground water level as well as variations in ground water level as
expected from previous studies.
Hydrogeological investigations [2] were carried with installation of piezometers to control the effect of
pumping of water table level. It were started the pumping tests in the deepest shallow stations and were
measured the settlements in the vicinity (buildings, various services installations) during pumping tests. No
problems occurred.

3.3 Diaphragm walls and excavation works on Academia Militara station

Works on the station metro consists in the execution of diaphragm walls and straps. The thickness of
walls under this excavation technique under the protection of bentonite mud is valid for all stations as 100 cm
and a maximum depth of 37.50 m (Fig. 4, Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Academia Militara station. Plan view [3] Fig. 5. Academia Militara station. Cross section [3]

Excavation wall panel was done [2] by equipment on cable and clamshell bucket, mounted on heavy
equipment that achieves an average yield of 2,000 m2 per month. In this station, where the TBM will
breakthrough the 1.0 m thick diaphragm walls, reinforcement fiberglass cages were used to facilitate the
breakthrough (Fig. 6a & 6b). Extraordinary force cutting clamshell bucket is obtained by using a set of pulleys
which, along with its weight, is leading to a shearing force in the jaws of 4 or 5 times higher than the weight of
the bucket. Thus, due to beam guide and bucket length (10 ÷ 12 m), deviations will be minimal for the first 12 m
of excavation.

Fig. 6. Academia Militara station. Panoramic view (a) and mezzanine slab reinforcement (b) [1]

3.4 Jet grouting bottom treatment

Mark in the plan of the station has a length of 127.70 m and a maximum width of 32.00 m, while the
maximum depth of excavation provided is 22.05 m from the ground level. Completely underground structure
consists of 4 slabs (coverage slab, vestibule, mezzanine and foundation slab) and diaphragm walls.
The method of excavation is “top-down”, characterized by the development of perimeter support works
represented by the reinforced concrete diaphragm walls. Groundwater is found to a depth of 8.50 m from ground
level. That resulted in building a bottom pad (buffer) by jet grouting system in order to guarantee a low humidity
excavation to the bottom during execution stages and to achieve the invert (foundation slab). Also this
waterproof buffer, by improving the mechanical characteristics of treated soil, will allow a noticeable
improvement of the static behaviour of the station structural diaphragm walls.
The soil affected by the station is characterized, according to the geotechnical study [3], generally
alternating different permeable deposits, starting from natural ground level to the complex dusty clay surface
(layer 2) of approximate thickness 14.50 m, and the lower complex made up of sand and gravel, called
“Colentina complex” (layer 3), within which are impermeable clay lens nature, with an average thickness of
about 3.00 m coarse layer and the aquifer hosting a free listing (-8.50 m) above natural ground level current.
Based on geotechnical investigations, showing that the soil affected by the performance of jet-grouting bottom
buffer is limited to the sand complex Colentina (Layer 3), being mostly of sand more or less silt, which is
suitable for treatment by jet-grouting consolidation. The following table (Table 1) shows the geotechnical
characteristics of the ground layers investigated in the Academia Militară station area.
Table 1. Geotechnical soil characterization of Academia Militara station [3]

Depth from ground level  φ' c'

Layer 3
ko
(m) (kN/m ) (°) (kPa)
0.00 ÷ 14.50 2 20.0 0.615 27 12
14.50 ÷ 17.00 3 19.5 0.384 38 0
17.00 ÷ 21.00 3' 19.5 0.645 25 5
20.00 ÷ 30.00 3 19.5 0.412 36 0

Geometric characteristics of the works, designed [2] based on verification at under pressure in the most
unfavourable condition stipulated in the station, provide execution of the bottom pad between absolute level
ranging from (+57.31 m) to (+62.31 m), especially resulting in lower (-7.00 m) from the bottom level of the
invert (Fig. 7).

Given the physical and mechanical properties of the Colentina complex layer provided, based on the
numerous applications performed with positive results, the bifluid execution system was adopted. Regarding the
diameters adopted, checked by performing field testing in question and the nature of granular land enabled an
accurate prediction of column diameter intervals: for the sand layer 3 columns are provided with a diameter of
about 1.80 m. Of fundamental importance is the definition of column spacing to ensure effective joint between
them and to ensure adequate hydraulic behaviour of the entire buffer (bottom pad). Given the depth where the
interventions will be made and considering the need to initiate work on the natural ground level, a distribution
network with 1.30 m spacing between axes of the jet grouting columns was considered.

Fig. 7. Longitudinal geometrical scheme of the station and bottom pad of the jet-grouting treatment [2]

Before completing the real bottom pad, an area for testing and investigation of the jet grouting treatment
was performed. After the execution of field samples, it was necessary to perform a set of investigations and tests
in order to check continuity, uniformity, size and characteristics of soils that have been treated with jet-injection.
Investigations were performed in field and lab samples, classified as follows: a) in situ: continuous core logging,
seismic tomography (Fig. 8), Lefranc-type permeability samples; b) lab samples: physical characteristics, simple
compression tests to measure deformations, traction tests.
Seismic tomography [2] consists of construction of two-dimensional images (or 3-D) of seismic waves
speed, continuous passing through a fixed solid volume. Exploration technique consists of simultaneous
acquisition of seismic pulses and measuring the travel time of seismic waves that run through a straight path,
between a set of points of energizing (seismic source) placed in a hole inside the survey and a set of receivers.
This test is to rebuild seismic velocity distribution of compressive P waves in a volume of field
investigation and its representation in terms of variations in density (this parameter is related to seismic velocity)
thus allowing an image of solid behaviour in terms of homogeneity and compaction [7]. Through the seismic
velocity correlated with density of the material, the method is useful for individual variations of density in
homogeneity related to lithology, fracture, goals and lines of discontinuity [8].

Fig. 8. 3D tomography seismic waves depending on the speed [2]

3.5 Tunneling by TBM works

Tunnels built by shield method [2] (TBM equipment) are circular, with an inner diameter of 5,700 mm
and 6,300 mm outer diameter. The lining will consist of at least 5 precast segments plus key located at the top of
the ring [6]. The TBM’s (two machines) were launched from Academia Militara station and were ended in the
Râul Doamnei station after more than 6-km each. The TBM’s are Herrenknecht AG made, Earth Pressure
Balanced machines (EPB), having 6.65-m in diameter each (Fig. 9 & 10).

Fig. 9. TBM - EPB front view [1], [4] Fig. 10. TBM - EPB back view [1], [4]

4 CONCLUSION
Jet grouting is a method of soil stabilization which involves the injection of a stabilizing fluid into the
subsoil (or the soil under treatment) under high pressure under high velocity. The injection process involves a
certain amount of site preparation as well as injection equipment. The soil stabilization by jet grouting is occurs
due to the hardening of grouted fluid within the soil. These hardened bodies forms like cemented columns which
are grouted in numerous numbers as per requirement, thus stabilizing the soil. Using this procedure for bottom
soil stabilization at Academia Militara station had real advantages as follows:
 large cemented material column creation without causing huge ground disturbances (subsoil);
 columns form continuous elements forming in different shapes thus improving the mechanical properties
and decreasing porosity;
 improvement in construction process thus emerging out with a better design philosophy;
 it’s attractive nature in terms of confined space working and under difficult site conditions.
The works on Metro Line 5 commenced in good conditions. Academia Militară station is the most
advanced in terms of work progress and starting November 2012 the two TBMs will be assembled underground
in order it had the breakthrough in February 2013. Commissioning M5, Section 1 is expected in October 2019.

REFERENCES
[1] Arghiroiu, O. & Călinescu, S. (2012). Bucharest Underground Development. New Metro Lines -
Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress WTC 2012. Bangkok, Thailand.
[2] METROUL SA & SYSTRA SA. (2012). Technical Report of the Engineer on Civil Works of
Bucharest Metro Line 5. Section Râul Doamnei – Eroilor. Bucharest, Romania.
[3] METROUL SA (2009). Feasibility Study on Metro Line 5, Section 1 “Drumul Taberei –
Universitate” (reviewed in 2011).
[4] Arghiroiu, O. & Călinescu, S. (2014). Bucharest Metro Enlargement. A Future Aim -
Proceedings of the 2nd Eastern European Tunneling Conference (EETC) – „Tunneling in a
Challenging Environment”. Athens, Greece.
[5] Arghiroiu, O. (2017). Underground Structures in Romania 2017 – Proceedings of 7th
International Symposium on Tunnels and Underground Structures in South-East Europe – SEE
Tunnel. Zagreb, Croatia.
[6] Fierbințeanu, V.; Țopa, N. (1994). Urmărirea comportării sistemelor de susținere a excavațiilor
la tuneluri pentru căi de comunicații executate cu scutul - Conferința Națională “Comportare In
Situ a Construcțiilor”, Băile Felix, România.
[7] Savarenski, E. (1975). Seismic Waves - Mir Publisher, Moscova, USSR.
[8] Abdel Salam, S.; Shallan, O.E.; Alk, A.Y. (1994). Dynamic Analysis of Tunnels - Tunnelling
and Ground Conditions, pp. 459-468, Balkema, Rotterdam, Holland.

Revisiting Traditional Materials for Contemporary

Practice

Bănescu O.1, Pătraşcu D.2

1
Politehnica University of Timişoara, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism (ROMANIA)
2
Politehnica University of Timişoara, Faculty of Civil Engineering (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Architecture engages the deepest social values of a culture by expressing them aesthetically, materially,
tangibly.
Today, the rural built landscape is oversaturated with questionable “modern” materials, which are
incorrectly used and insufficiently understood. This made us more aware of our surroundings and inspired an
extensive study on traditional rural architecture and materials and, subsequently, on contemporary solutions and
applications of the identified materials in the Banat Region.
One of the most common materials man used for building his first shelters is the one he found at his
feet: earth. A substantial part of the remaining rural environment in Banat is built from earth, be it alone or in
combination with other materials. Having different compositions depending on the site, earth has proved to be
one of the most sustainable building materials, and the technologies used to build with it constantly evolved.
Today we are still discovering its attributes, we conduct research in order to understand the
technologies used to work with earth, to discover new technologies to improve its qualities and find new
solutions to overcome its weak points, but most importantly, we conduct research in order to establish new
standardized and updated regulations in order for earth to be used at a larger scale, in both developed and less
developed regions, as a logic and basic solution.
Keywords: earth architecture, traditional, sustainability, prototype, techniques.

1 Introduction
Today, we face an exponentially growing problem in rural Romania regarding the image of built
landscape (Fig. 1). We are confronted almost everywhere with an eccentric image of the mutilated built
environment and no real, practical solutions. We are talking about an environment where there is always a model
to copy – never an essay to understand and improve. Some main issues that lead to this situation are the lack of
culture and knowledge, the lack of solutions for keeping and updating the existent - tabula rasa is preferred, but
at what cost?

Fig. 1. Eclectic built street view in Recaş

One viable solution would be looking at what has been done and trying to understand the mechanisms
that influence the birth of a “house”: social, cultural, material, plastic factors etc. This is why we see traditional
living and building as a starting point, a reference point for future actions, images and landscapes. [1] Here, we

discuss mainly about residential architecture, for its personal yet ever changing character, but also its sustainable
character. From here, we can learn to operate in these types of areas and even extrapolate concepts for a more
pertinent present environment – we can learn how to understand and integrate built folklore into modernity, but
also how to use natural materials nowadays.
Another aspect of great interest for us is building technology – as a component to understanding,
implementing and innovating architecture. In time, the interaction between architecture and technology has
changed not only the way in which we build, but also what and how we perceive. What is really captivating is
the assimilation of the new, while understanding the existent – this underlines architecture’s capacity of
producing something that is pertinent in the collective memory.
The Banat area has some of the best preserved rural environments in Romania. In addition to this, its
thriving economy, its diversity, its complex and diverse natural environment, which leads to various built
landscapes and typologies make it a great subject for this type of study (Fig. 2, 3). It is made up of several
counties, Timiş (result of a colonisation action), Caraş Severin (eclectic, static, county of contrasts), Hunedoara
and Arad.

Fig. 2, 3. Examples of well-defined street fronts and diversity of expression: perpendicular housing in Buzad,
parallel housing in Deta [2]

2 Specific materials in the existing built environment

The study of the Romanian peasant house is both romantic and pragmatic, based on atmosphere and
functionality. “The first construction on our lands” [2], it is the most frequent programme in the country.
The materials used in this area were of course determined by the natural surrounding environment, but
also by the inhabitants’ social status: adobe, wood, stone and brick. Industrially produced materials, like tiles,
bricks or glass, appear according to the settlement’s economic status. The traditional building systems are
divided into 2 categories: mono- or multi-material. The ones that use one material are stone, brick (Fig. 4), log,
cob (earth). The more complex ones use timber frames filled with twigs or lathing weave, held together with a
mix of yellow earth and different plants. [3]
Starting with the XVIIIth century, under the Habsburgic Empire, the common house’s characteristics
have changed substantially, following a set of common rules, in which clay played an important part as wall
filling material (Fig. 4, 5). There are numerous examples, throughout Banat, of walls made entirely of earth or
combinations with other materials: earth walls with brick corners, earth and wood etc. Earth was mostly used for
construction, regardless of the natural environment, be it plain or mountain, until the beginning of the XX
century, when it has been widely replaced by brick. An important aspect is that earth has been used traditionally
as a thermal mass, which tends to come back today as a more eco-friendly approach to insulation.

Fig. 4. Mono-material house in Bulgăruş (brick); Fig. 5. Multi material house in Vermeş (wood, earth and stone);
Fig. 6. Multi material house in Chizătău (wood, earth and stone) [2]
The Banat area also has a few areas where stone is predominant as a building material, but even there, it
is put in place using local earth – a specific type, rich in sand, extracted from the nearby river banks.

Nowadays, the most used building materials are brick and concrete, because they are fast and cheap and
because the know-how of building with earth or stone has been lost. The contemporary society has been
convinced that brick and concrete are preferred for their durability, which is mostly a result of propaganda.
The biggest danger for existing houses is their update with present standards regarding structure, fire,
insulation, hygiene and health. All the guides suggest solutions that are compatible with the existing materials,
that don’t influence negatively the existent and keep as much as possible of the valuable built context. Basically,
we should find solutions that are compatible, elastic, and that allow vapour flow – for example, earth mixed with
lime mortar, or even whey, is a sustainable technique even today, despite its long history (natural materials, local
workforce).

3. Building with earth today

In order to best exploit a material, one must study its characteristics, with both advantages and
disadvantages, so one can put it to best use. As many benefits earth might have as a construction material, it also
presents a series of weak points, which technology nowadays can improve in different ways.
The main reason man started to build with earth was its proximity and abundance in situ, in every
climate, all over the world. But as its parameters – grain size distribution, clay content, chemical composition of
the elements etc – vary dramatically from one context to another, so are the construction techniques developed.
The different soil types will reach different load bearing strengths and/or will require different amounts of
mixture with stabilizers in order to get the required strength performance.
Compared with modern construction materials, earth remains the most sustainable material during the
lifetime of a building, due to its low carbon footprint, low thermal conductivity, its ability to balance the indoor
climate, its availability on construction sites and the evolution of technology, which can now improve its
qualities.

3.1 Techniques - evolution

Depending on the context, climate, soil composition and the destination of the building, research is
being conducted on different earth building techniques:
3.1.1 Rammed earth and adobe
One of the most ancient building techniques – rammed earth – consists of layering 15 cm thick of wet
soil coats into a formwork, which are further compacted through battering (Fig. 7). This technique evolved from
a manual rammer, to an electric, then pneumatic rammer in the XXth century Australia. The rammed earth panel,
a prefabricated product, the height of a floor, can significantly decrease the time and effort used to build with this
technique. In order to illustrate the development of rammed earth technique, the time required to build 1m3 of
rammed earth wall in the very traditional way is between 20-30h. By using an electric rammer, the effort
becomes around 10h/m3 and with the pneumatic one, the time required decreases at 2h/m3 [4].
Wool fibre brick. Spanish researchers proposed the solution of reinforcing different types of soil with
sheep wool. "These fibres improve the strength of compressed bricks, reduce the formation of fissures and
deformities as a result of contraction, reduce drying time and increase the bricks' resistance to flexion." [5] The
wool fibres were added to the clay material, using alginate conglomerate, a natural polymer found in the cell
walls of seaweed. The mechanical tests showed the final product was 37% stronger than other bricks made using
unfired stabilised earth.
Kraft pulp residues brick. A research was conducted in Turkey in order to discover how kraft pulp
production residues (resulted in the earliest phase of paper production process) can improve the insulation
capacity of clay. In order to improve this characteristic, porosity must be generated in the material body.
Generally, combustible organic types of pore forming additives are used to increase the porosity of a material.
3.1.2 Cast/poured earth
Cast earth or poured earth is definitely one of the most interesting earth building techniques, developed
since the 1990s by American chemist and researcher Harris Lowenhaupt. Following the concrete pouring
technique, this method requires less effort, provides stronger material performance (the tensile strength
performance is better) and better aesthetic values in comparison with other techniques, like rammed earth or
adobe (Fig. 8). Lowenhaupt’s new approach to the material was adding calcined gypsum to the earth
composition, in order to stabilise it and make it castable. On larger scale projects however, this new mixture
needed retarding agents, to slow down the setup period. Within a few years, the researcher managed to find an

unconventional mix which allows up to eight hours setup time, making this technique viable for bigger projects.
Another advantage of this new material is that it is less likely to crack, as instead of shrinking when it dries, it
expands in a small percent. [6] In order to increase its insulation capacity, different applicable solutions exist:
from exterior insulation – any thermal insulation technique which allows the wall to breathe – to thermal
insulation placed into the formwork, before pouring the earth mixture. Another added value to this technique is
represented by the fact that the composition of the soil is not as crucial as it is in the case of rammed earth or
adobe, as it does not need the binding capacity of clay. [7]

Fig. 7, 8, 9. Modern ways of achieving architectural expression with earth: rammed, poured, bricks
Fig. 7. Roger Boltshauser, Martin Rauch, House Rauch, Schlins, Austria, 2005-2008; Fig. 8. Harris Lowenhaupt,
Cast Earth House, Arizona, USA; Fig. 9. Hilla Rudanko, Anssi Kankkunen, Sra Pou Vocational School,
Cambodgia, 2010

4 Case study – earth house prototype

Taking part in a research programme of the EU within a multidisciplinary team, we started the design of a
residential house prototype – made of earth, in order to study different material compositions, grain size
distributions, strength performances and further replace it in the collective memory of our peers. The idea behind
this concept was to use earth as much as possible, in various configurations, in different elements of
construction, in order to study the behaviour of the material in as many conditions as possible. Another purpose
of this prototype project was to achieve a form of passive house – a sustainable construction.
The proposed materials for the project were: in situ earth, mixed with sand and gravel, depending on the
granulometric curve of the excavated material, and whitewood for the roof structure, first or second quality. The
structure engineers proposed the sollution of continuous foundations under the load bearing walls, getting down
at -2.2m from the ground floor level dimension, made of crushed stone masonry mixed with earth and lime. The
load bearing walls will be made of rammed earth, in layers of maximum 50 cm. Between the earth layers, there
will be placed jute or hemp nets. The proposed thickness of the load bearing walls is of 60 cm at the exterior of
the construction and 50 cm at the interior. The roof is proposed of curved lamelar wooden beams disposed on
two directions, leaning on the load bearing earth walls. Over the structure, formed by the wooden beams, it is
proposed a layer of wooden rectangular sticks, a waterproof membrane, consisting of a geotextile with bentonite
or a bituminous membrane. Over this wooden structure, an earth layer of maximum 70 cm will be placed. The
house is 1.2m in the ground, in order to take advantage of earth’s heat.

Fig. 10, 11. Prototype floor plans

From a functional point of view, there have been different approaches of this house, depending on the
possible future inhabitants: one small family home, laying on the ground floor, with a night area of 1 bedroom

with bathroom and dressing and a day area consisting of a kitchen with pantry and living room (Fig. 10, 11).
This prototype was further developed in a ground floor plus one level house, adding 2 more bedrooms at the first
floor, or 1 bedroom plus extra height for the living room area downstairs (Fig.12, 13). There can be different
approaches of this type of housing. The common attributes of these proposals would be: the window screen of
the only façade which allows light enter the house (preferably placed on the south east part), the distance
between the load bearing walls axes of maximum 5 meters and the wood roof structure covering the house from
three parts (back and sides).

Fig. 12, 13. Prototype sections

Further research is going on, regarding the composition of the earth in the Banat area and its strength
performances, as well as technical attempts of improving these performances using different types of stabilisers,
like cement, gypsum, lime etc.

5 Conclusions
Studying traditional concepts and techniques can generate a necessary base for updating old buildings,
but at the same time proposing contemporary solutions.
Building with earth has a well established history in our country and its study can inspire new approaches
towards this material and its use.
One of the biggest disadvantages of earth as a construction material is that it is not currently normed in
Romania. The latest building standard regarding this material dates back to the 1960s and it refers to brick
masonry construction. This type of study could be materialised not only in practical tests, but it could also
emphasize and complete the existing technical regulations.

REFERENCES
[1] Bănescu, O. A., Hapenciuc, A-D., Cârjan, R. (2016). Ways of successfully integrating traditional
concepts into the present, Procedia Engineering, 161, pp.1551-1555.
[2] Ionescu, G. (1936). Istoria arhitecturii româneşti, pp. 391.
[3] Ordinul Arhitecţilor din România. Ghid de arhitectură pentru încadrarea în specificul local din
mediul rural, Judeţul Timiş, pp.10, pp. 40-45.
[4] Minke, G. (2006). Building with earth, Design and Technology of a sustainable architecture, pp.39-
43, 52-60.
[5] Galán-Marín, C., Rivera-Gómez, C., Petric, J. (2010). Clay-based composite stabilized with
natural polymer and fibre. Construction and Building Materials.
[6] Frerking, M. (2005-2015). Living Systems. Sustainable Architecture and Living Groupp.
https://livingsystemsarchitecture.com/poured-earth/.
[7] Lowenhaupt, H. (2001). www.castearth.com, viewed at 23 February 2019.

About the Vulnerabilities of a Reinforced

Concrete Structure

Bob C.1, Iures L.1, Chendes R.* 1, Dan S.1

1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Construction Faculty (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], *[email protected] (corresponding author),
[email protected]

Abstract
The cast in place concrete works with damages can lead to significant supplementary costs in buildings
industry. So, the case study presented into this paper refers to the consolidations that should be done due to different
errors that were made during the erection and execution of a church in Giroc, Timis County. Here we found
different big defects due to bad execution or due to wrong material chosen for a specific work.
Keywords: shrinkage, lack of co-linearity, mistakes in technology, rehabilitation.

1. Structure description
The structure analyses it is a church located in Giroc, Timis County, Romania. The structure it is made
of reinforced concrete structure, cast in place. The unregulated shape of the church presents the maximum
dimensions such as: 22.80 x37.20 m and a maximum height of 25 m (Fig.1 and Fig.2).
Foundations: They are reinforced concrete plates. The front pillars have an isolated block and casing
foundation. The concrete used is C20/25. The foundations were constructed according to PN 112-2014, taking into
account the height regime and type of the structure, respectively the nature of the foundation ground.
Basement: It consists of walls made of 35 cm reinforced concrete and concrete frames. Above the
basement there is an 18 cm reinforced concrete slab. The concrete used is C20/25
The main building:
Vertical resistance elements are:
- GVP wall masonry walls, fbmin = 15N/mm2, category I, group I (voids volume <25%), M10C
mortar, 50 cm thick and armed in horizontal joints, according to CR6-2013 and P100-1/2013.
- reinforced concrete columns with circular and square section. The concrete used is C20/25.
Horizontal resistance elements are: reinforced concrete beams, reinforced concrete arches which
discharge on pillars or slab slabs, beams, domes and reinforced concrete vaults. The concrete used is C25/30.
Central tower and side towers:
Vertical resistance elements are:
- GVP wall masonry walls, fbmin = 15N/mm2, category I, group I (voids volume <25%), M10C
mortar, 50 cm thick and armed in horizontal joints, according to CR6-2013 and P100-1/2013.
- reinforced concrete poles with circular section. The concrete used is C20/25.
Horizontal elements of resistance are: reinforced concrete beams, reinforced concrete arches that
discharge onto poles or beams, domes. The concrete used is C20/25.

Fig. 1. Ground level of the church Fig. 2. Cross section of the church

2. Damages during construction stages

2.1. The cracking from the shrinkage

The slab of the multi storey framed structure (Giroc church) was cracked [1] along the cross sections I, II
and III (partially), due to the partially restrained by the frame columns [2] (Fig.3 and Fig.4).

Fig.3. Multi storey framed structure (Giroc church)

Fig. 4. Slab cracks disposal

At the limit stage, the shrinkage deformation of the slab will produce the same elastic deformations in the
framed structure Δl1, Δl2 and Δl3 (Fig. 5); the values of the elastic structure response are:
12  E  Se1 12  E  Se1 l
H e1 = 2
 l1 = 2
s  ; (1a)
h h 2
12  E  Se 2  l
H e2 = s  l +  ; (1b)
 2
2
h
12  E  S e3  l
H e3 = 2l +  (1c)
 2
2
h
where:

Ee E
E=  e = 0.25  Ee ;
1+  1+ 3
 s = (0.25 − 0.50 )  10 −3 ;
K BA + K BC
Se = K BD 
( K )B
;

I BD
K BD = .
hBD

Fig. 5. Elastic point connection

The total elastic structure force for two storied building is:
12  E  Se 54  E  Se  l 54  E  Se  l
H ' = H1 + H 2 + H 3 = 2
  s  4.5  l = 2
s ; H ''= s (2)
h1 h1 h22

1 1 H
H = H '+ H ' ' = 54  E  Se  l   s   2 + 2  and  e = (3)
 h1 h2  A
It is to be compared with:

Hs
Hs = s  E  A and s = which is maximum restrained shrinkage.
A
Case study (Giroc church).

C20/25: fc=20,5 N/mm2; ft=1,65 N/mm2; Ee=30.000N/mm2; E=7500 N/mm2;

 s = 0.5  10 −3 ;
Elements of the structure are presented in Fig.6.

Fig. 6. Cross sections of the structure elements

The elastic deformation in the framed structure results:

Δl1 = 2.2 mm; Δl2 = 6.6 mm; Δl3 = 11 mm,
and consequently the elastic forces due to such shrinkage deformation on one storey and on one column are:
He1=50,9 KN; He2=152.8 KN; He3=254.6 KN
The total elastic structure forces are:
- Cross section I – I:

H e =  H ei = Astorey  qqqcolumns  (H e1 + He2 + H e3 ) = 11000 KN

He 11000 N N
fI = = = 3.33  f t = 1.65
A 0.2 16.5 mm 2
mm 2

- Cross section II – II:

N N
He=9600 KN f II = 2.9 2
 f t = 1.65
mm mm 2
- Cross section III – III:
N N
He=6000 KN f III = 1.82 2
 f t = 1.65
mm mm 2

2.2 The lost of the co linearity of some columns

Such non co linearity were deduced by topographical measurements between sub base
columns and the first storey columns and it was about 5..10 cm. Such results were due to
not professional implication of the constructor. The non co-linearity was observed at 8
columns.

2.3. The segregation of the annular vault concrete

The circular vaults of 20 cm depth are supported by 3 circular arches with a cross section of (20x80 cm).
The concrete were casting over the reinforcement in the bow members and was compacting by rod vibrator. After
the removed forms from concrete, the segregation of concrete on a large surfaces were observed; the reinforcement
was visible also (Fig. 7). The main causes of such result were the concrete consistency and not professional using
of rod vibrator.

Fig.7. Concrete vault segregation

The results of strength determinations, carried on cores, concluded that the obtained concrete class is
similar with the concrete class provided in the structure project.

3. Rehabilitation solutions
The cracking from the shrinkage [3] in the slab of the multi storey framed structure was proposed to be
solved by a common repair methods: it include chipping out the crack and applying a masonry patching compound
to the surface use of epoxies or other sealants [4],[5],[6].
The lost of the co linearity of the columns have been solved by increasing the cross section area of the
sub base columns till the centre line of the cross section area of the bottom and upper column become collinear.
At present day the co-linearity was solved by strengthening of base columns by coating of 15 cm around the
columns (Fig. 8).
The segregation of the annular vault concrete can be repair [7] like the cracking from the shrinkage: repair
method consist in applying on the entire surface of the vault a masonry patching compound to the surface use of
epoxies or other sealants. Even the reinforcement is visible, it seems to be without degradations and the necessary
method is to protect it against the corrosion; the masonry patching compound with epoxies binder is a sufficient
surface coating.

Fig.8. Concrete coated columns

4. Conclusions
The main ideas which can be underlined are:
a) The concrete cracking may cause by the two types shrinkages: plastic shrinkage and shrinkage of hardened
concrete. If the last type of shrinkage is very well known by engineers, the plastic shrinkage represent a new
debates. The plastic shrinkage is to be produced at 1-6 hours after the concrete is produced and is caused by cement
composition and environment conditions. The cracking of hardened concrete is produced functions of structure
types as well as of supports conditions.
b) The proper technology for producing, placing, compacting and treating after hardening of concrete are of most
important rules of realising of a building.
c) The rehabilitation solutions have to take into consideration: the real cause of degradation, technical possibilities
for does it, the cost of strengthening, and the socio-cultural conditions and so on; in conclusions the solutions are
necessary to be sustainable.

REFERENCES:
[1] L. Iures and C. Bob (2010). Theoretical Considerations and Determinations Regarding Concrete
Shrinkage. Analele Univ.Oradea, Vol.XIII-21.
[2] C. Bob, S. Marginean, A. Scurt (2016). Theoretical/experimental study of reinforced-concrete frame
with masonry inffill. ICE/proceedings; Structures and Buildings, Volume 169 Issue SB1.
[3] M. Toadere, C. Bob, A. Bota (2010). Some Solutions for Rehabilitation of a Bridge. WSEAS
Conference EPESE-10, Tunisia.
[4] M. T. Ghemis, L. A. Golea, R. M. Tudorica, C. Bob (2016). Some Aspects Regarding the Importance
of a Sustainability Analysis in Designing a new Building.16 International Multidisciplinary Scientific
Geoconf., Albena,Vol.1, SGEM.
[5] J. Stark, K. Bollmannn (2018). Delayed Ettringite Formation in Concrete. Bauhaus -University
Weimar, Germany.
[6] L. Iures, C. Bob et. al. (2005). Shrinkage Control in Concrete. Bul. U.P. Timisoara, Vol.51 (65),
Fasc.1.
[7] Dan Sorin,Corneliu Bob, Cătălin Badea, Daniel Dan, Constantin Florescu, Liliana Cotoarba (2018).
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Used for Strengthening of Existing Reinforced concrete
Structures, Revista de material plastic, nr. 4, pp. 536-540.

Bioarchitecture – an Architect's Contribution to

a Healthy Environment

Boca Miruna-Cristina
University of Oradea, Universității Street, no 1, Oradea, Bihor County (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The relationship between man, architecture and nature is something that has been given since the
origins of civilizations, but this interaction, in the beginning harmonic, has been separated as advanced
technologies. During the past years, in construction there have been used a lot of materials that have a major
impact on the environment, but it is necessary to start using more bio-friendly materials. This article has the
purpose to look into bioarchitecture and the types of dwellings built different to the normal form people are used
to, such as straw or recyclable materials.
Keywords: bioarchitecture, sustainability, ecological, environment.

1 Introduction
Non-discriminatory extraction of natural resources has had various negative consequences on the
economy and the environment. Reserves of non-renewable resources such as mining and energy resources have
been exploited to exhaustion, and renewable resources are managed inadequately. The need to increase green
space in urban areas and to increase the energy efficiency of buildings has attracted the attention of
contemporary designers and architects in recent years. Over the last half century, the rapid pace of global
urbanization has created global problems in finding raw materials, and energy to produce buildings, waste
absorption from production, use and disposal of materials. For example, only cement production represents 8%
of total global emissions of human greenhouse gases (WRIs). At present, 40% of materials in the European
Union, 40% of waste generated and 40% of energy consumed are from the construction sector. This abuse,
causes serious problems and consequences for society that are reflected in the phenomenon of global warming,
drought, pollution, massive deforestation and the accumulation of waste, phenomena that have unfortunately
become part of our daily lives.

2 Bioarchitecture
Construction activities around the world consume about 3 billion tons of raw materials annually. From
extraction, to use and disposal, materials have become a major component of effects humans have on ecosystems
and on the climate of the earth, especially during the two centuries of the industrial revolution.
The need to address and try to solve the problems that affect the quality of life of today's inhabitants,
without compromising the possibility for future generations to have the resources to cope with them, is a
necessity that must mark the work of architects and engineers. It is a multifocal approach, involving
technological, political, social, economic, ecological and ethical aspects.
Architecture, urban planning and the construction sector have been important to the well-being of
mankind. However, much of our environmental problems are generated by human interventions, whose purpose,
too often, is to achieve certain goals, without addressing other possible consequences, unintentionally, as the
philosopher Karl Popper called them. (Acosta, 2009)
Bioarchitecture is a way to design constructions that are based on natural principles, using local
materials and resources available in the ecosystem in which they are built, such as earth, wood or vegetal fibers,
and which is inspired, recovered and improved by traditional techniques. There is no doubt that fear of calamities
such as landslides, earthquakes or other types of disasters are an incentive for this task. We need to
overcome”the emergency culture” in order to enter into the sustainability one, able to prevent these problems
from minimizing impact and contributing to the improvement and recovery of the environment.
Once understood, at least at the level of significance, what bioarchitecture is, we certainly wonder why
most of the spaces designed today are not designed to last for a lifetime;
a. Because indoor environment conditions are not healthy for human;
b. Because the construction itself has greatly altered the natural environment.

We certainly wonder why most of the spaces designed today are not designed to last a lifetime, although
people are designed to live in relation to natural space, we have adapted the environment so as to make it more
friendly and improve survival. If in the past the houses were built on the basis of traditional knowledge and using
the materials available in the area, these logical conditions have now become a whim of the owner, building
wooden houses that are sold as "green" because they are made of wood, not taking into account the fact that the
material was moved for thousands of kilometres on the road, which emanates more CO2 than the trees absorbed
during the growth.
In order to have a green building concept, there should be taken care of the following:
• Optimal use of energy or power;
• Water conservation;
• Solids and wastewater management, treatment and reuse;
• Energy-efficient transport systems;
• Effective planning of the building system, etc.
Building planning should minimize the use of building materials and optimize construction practices
through bioclimatic architectural practices, the use of minimum energy for equipment, lighting and air
conditioning, and ultimately to maximize the use of renewable sources energy. They should also make effective
use of waste and water management practices and provide comfortable and hygienic indoor working conditions.
It is developed through a design process that requires all architects, landscape designers and air conditioning,
electricity, sanitation and energy designers to work as a team to address all aspects of construction including
planning, design, construction and system operation. Thus, we increase the positive impact on the environment.

Fig 1. Criteria for choosing materials for building an ecological home

3 Types of Ecological Houses

The materials used to build an ecological home should be as natural as possible so as not to emit
radiation, gas or toxic particles. They must also be water resistant, steam permeable and after the use of these
materials, they would easily recover, recycled or reused in another application. The list is long: earth, stone,
mud, straw, clay, vegetable fibers, wood managed in a sustainable way and recycled, plates, glass, lime plasters,
lime mortar, mineral oil paints and natural wood pigments would be wax and oils, bamboo and even sandbags.
For insulation materials such as cork, clay, cellulose, vegetable fibers, rubber, hemp, wood, linen,
coconut, straw, wool or cotton are used with excellent results. The exterior and interior walls are treated with
lime, natural plaster or clay. Windows, doors and beams must be wood treated with natural substances and from
controlled forestry and forest certification or recycling.
Roads and coatings are made of muddy natural ceramics, such as marble, and not covered with resins or
pollutants; linoleum made from natural, renewable raw materials and production waste is reused to feed the
production process.
Looking for a home that minimizes environmental impact and contributes to creating sustainable
development that does not exhaust the planets` resources, but generates ones that are used to achieve a healthy
habitat, in perfect harmony with the environment, leads directly to the ideal design of the green house.
Bioarchitecture housing should be used to design and build the opportunities and benefits of the
environment, these strategies being determined by the following main parameters: dwelling orientation, position
of the sun, wind, maximum viewing quality.
Sustainable buildings have a lot of benefits that are beneficial for both its inhabitants, the natural
environment and the community, allowing us to classify the associated environmental, economic and social
benefits.
The main purpose of these buildings is to conserve the environment and reduce the consumption of
natural resources. When sustainability changes are applied in each phase of project development, the following
benefits may be:

• The reduction of emissions and the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity;

• Better air and water quality;
• Reducing waste and its sources;
• Conservation and restoration of natural resources;
• Higher temperature control.
From an economical point of view, if local materials are used, adequate insulation is installed and
energy consumption is reduced, the following benefits will be:
• The reduction of operational costs;
• Promoting the creation and expansion of markets for eco-friendly products and services;
• Improving occupant productivity;
• Optimization in the performance of the building's lifecycle;
• Increase property value.
Sustainable buildings contribute to a cleaner and healthier environment so that they also have positive
effects on society. In the long run, the benefits that people can perceive will be better health and more comfort,
better quality of life in general and higher productivity.
Although these projects are larger than traditional ones, they achieve high energy savings and
considerably reduce operating costs so that all initial efforts are offset in a few years.
There are different types of sustainable materials that can be used, such as straw material, stone, adobe,
earth, wood, bricks made out of natural and recyclable materials or recyclable materials that are shown in Table
1:

Table 1. Types of sustainable materials for construction

Type of
Examples/ Pictures About Characteristics/Benefits
material
Dwellings The construction of straw - high thermal
made out houses is a very simple insulation power (0.08-
of straw system. Less time is needed 0.13 W / m2K);
in construction, less - high sound insulation;
specialized work. For - wall respiration and
protecting the straw from the consistent health of
environment, it can be used internal environment
with wood and put over the - low environmental
straw a mixture of water, impact;
limestone and sand and put it - low fire risk - pressed
Fig. 2. A container being isolated with on the interior, to protect it. straw burns with
straw in order to make it inhabitable [4] It is one of the least smouldering fire and
expensive methods compared penetration of the bale
to other traditional methods takes place for a long
of construction. Straw is time;
sustainable from an ambiental -reduces the energy
and acoustic, having a good consumption that
result in case of an requires cooling and
earthquake and it is very heating the house, as it
cheap always maintains a
standard temperature.
[8]
Dwellings It is a material that requires Stone is absolutely
made with little maintenance, has a long natural and has many
stone life span and works very well features, such as
in compression. It is generally thermal and acoustic
combined with wooden insulation due to its
beams or other well-traction- large mass.
friendly material. At an
ecological level, although it is
not an unlimited or renewable
Fig 3. House of the XIXth Century, material.
source personal archive

Adobe Adobe involves a mixture of - is able to maintain a

clay and straw, drying is done constant degree of
by exposure to the sun. For humidity around the air;
masonry, a paste made by - accumulates moisture
blending the yellow earth until it is saturated (100
with water and, in some liters per m³) and gives
cases, a lime addition is used it when necessary;
as a binder. [2] - has good thermal
Fig 4. House of the XVIIIth Century, Adobe constructions are well inertia, absorbs heat
source personal archive behaved by seismic action when the environment
because the material is is hot and returns it
flexible and allows for when it cools;
displacements that do not - has good sound
structurally affect the absorption properties;
building, but also due to the - is a breathable
fact that in general the material that requires
structures of the adobe are low energy
arranged on a single level, consumption for it.
rarely encountering two
levels. [7]
Earth A house made of earth is The earth block is a
made with the help of the very stable and durable
wooden framework that is material and, contrary
gradually stuffed, beaten, to what it seems, is a
raised. The block of earth is type of construction
also one of the materials system that has been
considered good for building used in centuries for
an ecological home because it centuries and has
helps to regulate moisture proven its durability.
naturally. In addition, the earth
Fig 5. Earth blocks [11]
has a great capacity to
retain heat, so the walls
isolate quite well and if
the thickness is
sufficient, it can work
without isolation. [2]
Wood Wooden or traditional They are economical,
wooden houses are made environmentally
exclusively from horizontal friendly and provide a
or wooden prefabricated very healthy indoor
wooden panels or wood- climate.
based panels. These have
substantial advantages which
lie primarily in the fact that
the base material - wood - is a
natural, biodegradable
material. Thus, these houses
fit into the modern trend of
ecology.
Recyclable The construction revolution
bricks and begins with bricks and
materials building materials that can be
used for new buildings or for
renovation. Common bricks
can be replaced in green
buildings with other materials
ranging from straw and wood
to bricks that are not mainly
Fig 6. A container being isolated using made of lime but natural or
recyclable materials [4] recycled materials, including

hemp, recycled glass from

TVs and monitors. PVC can
contribute, through recycling,
to a wide range of products
used in the building industry,
such as outdoor building
materials, pavement screens,
door closers, or floor finishes.
Recycled polystyrene can be
used in combination with
steel to make permanent
Fig 7. A container being isolated using mouldings used to cast
recyclable materials [4] concrete. Recycled steel is
used to build structural
elements of buildings or to
obtain hardware fittings.
Recovered aluminium can be
used for window components
or as gutter material.
Recycled paper is used to
produce products such as:
gypsum cardboard walls or
cellulose insulation
manufacture.

4 Conclusions
The ecological building has a lot of shortcomings, but there are also concrete advantages to "going
green" when building. Green building models can help you save time and money, protect your health and reduce
the environmental impact. From improving indoor air quality to alleviating global climate change, green
buildings help people live in a more friendly and sustainable lifestyle.
Using environmentally friendly building materials in the right place can save time. Buying locally
available materials supports small businesses, keeps money in the local economy, reduces the carbon footprint of
the home by minimizing transport fuel and means that your materials will be available quickly and reliably.

REFERENCES
[1] Acosta, D, (2009). Arquitectura y construcción sostenibles: conceptos, problemas y estrategias,
DEARQ- Revista de Arquitectura, 4, pp. 14-23.
[2] Austin, G (1984). Adobe as a building material, New Mexico Geology 6(4), pp. 69-71.
[3] Bariola, J, Blondet, M, Torrealva, D, Vargas, J, (1986). Comportamiento dinámico de viviendas
de adobe (Dynamic behavior of adobe dwellings), Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería Civil,
Cajamarca, Perú.
[4] Boca, M, Convertini, G, Fontana, A, Marilivia, M, Nuzzo, D, Casanova, P, Di Silva, W, Lodato,
C, Nadal, E, Torres, H (2013). Manuale di Auto-Costruzione. Muro in Balle di Paglia e Pallet,
course Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Architettura, costruzione e citta’, Professor Simonetta
Pagliolico, Politecnico di Torino.
[5] Haghighat, F, Kim, J-J (2009). The Sustainable Built Environment - Volume 1, United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
[6] Krzeminska, A, Zareba, A, Dzikowska, A (2017). Bioarchitecture – a new vision of energy
sustainable cities, EDP Sciences 22, pp.1-7.
[7] Lippiatt, B.C (2007). Building for Environment and Economic Sustainability Software (BEES
4.0).
[8] Leal, J, Viciosa, M, Itxasa, G (2008). El retorno del 'hermano pobre' del ladrillo, online at
https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/04/24/suvivienda/1209054843.html, viewed at
04.02.2019.
[9] Strona, L (2015). Case Ecologiche di Paglia. Tutto quello che devi sapere, Books World.

[10] Strona, L (2014). Case Ecologiche di Legno. Tutto quello che devi sapere, Books World.
[11] Spiegel, R, Meadows, D (2010), Green Building Materials: A Guide to Product Selection and
Specification Third (3rd) Edition, Wiley.
[12] Silvestru, M, Păcurar, L (2017). Casa din pământ, Zeppelin (146), pp. 70-77.
[13] Rapporto dell’Osservatorio Recycle – Legambiente 100 MATERIALIPER UNA NUOVA
EDILIZIA
[14] http://claudiuciobanu.eu/tag/earthship/, viewed at 30.01.2019.
[15] https://casaecologicaintrevissirealitate.wordpress.com/2017/04/18/casa-ecologica-coordonate-
actuale-si-perspective/, viewed at 08.02.2019.

The Response of In-Line Connection of RHS

Sections Subjected to Bending and Shear

Both I.1, Nunes D.L.2, Ivan A.1, Vučićević D.3

1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics (ROMANIA)
2
Montejunto SRL (ROMANIA)
3
Elite Steel Construction doo (SERBIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The steel structures are the main solutions for large span buildings and their behaviour under
mechanical load is characterized not only by the bearing capacity but the deformation are a decisive limitation.
The main influence on the deflection of a structure is the rigidity of the connections. EN 1993-1-8 gives design
methods for the design of joints subject to predominantly static loading but the fabrication details of the joints
can determine the failure modes of the connection. For single layer domes, one of the options for the structural
elements is represented by the hollow sections which offer a good performance in stability checks. The
economical aspect of these structures concerns the welding process at height, which is avoided by bolted
connection. To improve the aesthetic aspect of the structure connected by bolts, in-line connection is preferred
but to reduce the global deformation a rigid response of the connection is required. In order to assess the
response and the succession of the failures of an in-line connection of Rectangular Hollow Section, experimental
tests were conducted in a setup that applies bending and shear force in the connection.
Keywords: in-line connection, experimental results, rigidity, ends plates.

1. INTRODUCTION
The response of a structural system subjected to loadings is highly dependent on the connection
between the parts of the structure. Ranging from pinned to rigid behaviour, the response of a joint was seldom
included in the initial design process. As the numerical programs develop a more intuitive approach on
considering the properties of a joint between linear elements, the structure can be analysed more accurately by
the designers.
Although the advances in numerical computation tend toward the unification of the joint and element
design, different software is usually used for the evaluation of a connection response than the structural
dedicated programs. Nevertheless, not all the practical situations are covered by the computer programs that
allows verification of a connection despite their complex database. Therefore, experimental tests are still needed
for more reliable results.
The design of a steel connection is performed according to EN 1993-1-8 [1] and the provided procedure
allows both strength and rigidity assessment. A manual design is sometimes problematic but the real challenge is
the choice of welding the parts especially when the simple fillet weld, are not suitable for joining the parts or
have to be precisely defined due to specific requirements as smooth weld, material orientation and lamination or
specific failure of the welding configuration. Particular effects of the welded layer thickness are presented in [2]
which, for critical welds, are to be avoided. Improvement on the thermal field for electric arc welding can be
performed by a CO2 shielding gas as presented in [3]. Function of the joint configuration, lamellar tearing of the
normal plate may appear [4], which represent another concern in the design process of a joint.
Another decisive factor for a joint selection is the aesthetical aspect. Of course, bulky connections lead
to high values for strength and rigidity but they are harder to be integrated in the global image of a construction.
In Brasov, AFI Europe Romania is developing the commercial centre AFI Brasov that wishes to incorporate
optimised design with attractiveness. A part of the structure of approximately 12 000 m2, will be covered by a
steel roof having a single layer curved reticulated structure. These demands imposed discrete connections and in
order to increase stability, RHS sections were the obvious choice for both stability and aesthetics. The reticulated
structures are usually erected by welding the elements on site at big heights. Therefore, the manpower and
welding professional requirements are immense for such area therefore, a more economical solution was

necessary. Together with one of the contractors, Elite Steel, it was agreed that a bolted connection between linear
elements would significantly reduce the manufacturing costs.
As the connections represent a major contributor to the structural analysis and response, intensive
studies are conducted to optimize the connections for extreme scenarios. Investigations on the effect of the
rigidity were performed in order to demonstrate the importance not only of the rigidity but also the ductility of
the connection since redistribution of the loads is desirable [5]. Moreover the response of a structure was
evaluated for four types of connections in order to assess the best choice to fulfil the design requirements [6]. A
comprehensive study on the behaviour of welded tubular steel is presented by Havula et al. [7] which showed the
full-strength fillet weld is not required in order to achieve a good ductility for the case of T-joints.
Tube splice connections are suited mostly for steel towers [8] where the internal forces are usually
reduced to axial force. Nevertheless such joints with Circular Hollow Section (CHS) or Rectangular Hollow
Section (RHS) can resist bending moment as presented in the studies performed by Liu et al. [9], [10]. Such
connections offer a good bearing capacity as well as high rigidity and ductility, the last two depending on the
geometrical parameters of the joint e.g. plate thickness, bolt edge width and flange edge width.
A bolted connection that is limited to the RHS section size can be obtained if a part at the end of the
tubular profile that will be joined is replaced by a profile which can transmit internal forces. In the current case
the joint is required to be able to transmit axial force, shear force and most important bending moment. After
being connected, the joint can be covered by a thin plate welded or screwed to the joint parts as presented in Fig.
1.

Fig. 1. Covered in-line connection [11]

Due to the generous dimensions of the RHS sections a double T profile can be created by welding, a
shape that allows a bolted connection through an end plate between flanges. The connection between the RHS
and the double T profile will be performed also by a plate with the same dimensions as the RHS section, i.e.
flush end-plate. Such connections are likely to have a lower rigidity to bending, due to the small lever arm
between the tensioned bolt and the compressed rotation center, compared to the extended end-plate
configuration.
Considering the previously presented aspects, i.e. particular configuration of the moment resisting
bolted connection, the critical welding caused by the RHS to similar end plate size and the lamellar potential
failure, a certain degree of uncertainty regarding the response of the in-line connection is induced. For a practical
assessment of the joint behaviour, experimental tests were performed.
The paper presents the experimental program and the obtained results for 2 sets of specimens which
considered the critical section to be the bolted connection and the welded connection, respectively. The tests
focused on the assessment of the response of the assembly subjected to bending moment and shear force,
monitoring the failure mechanism sequence. Also the faults in manufacturing are highlighted in order to be
prevented for the future.

2. Experimental tests
In order to determine the response of the joint, experimental tests offer the real behaviour when
structures are subjected to mechanical load, results that can be used for further numerical analysis.
The proposed assembly for the connection that intends to make possible the transfer of internal forces
from one element to another is depicted in Fig. 2. Starting from the end of the RHS element (Pt10), the assembly
consists of an end plate for the RHS element (Pt9), the double T profile with two flanges (Pt18) and a web (Pt16)
and the end plate for the bolted connection (8 x M24 Class 10.9). The dimensions of the parts are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. Geometry of the parts
Part Dimensions Material Part Dimensions Material
Pt10 RHS300*150*8 S275JR Pt16 PL15*160*270 S355JR
Pt8, Pt9 PL 20*150*300 S355JR Pt18 PL15*110*160 S355JR

The welding details and quality represent the main concerns in the failure mechanism of the proposed joint as the
connection eliminates any redundancy of the structure.

Fig. 2. Proposed configuration for connecting RHS elements

2.1. Experimental program

Two tests were performed on specimens that include the bolted connection which is of interest for its
bearing capacity and rigidity, referred as TP100 in Fig. 3, and two tests were performed in order to evaluate the
response of the weld that connects the end plate welded to the RHS element, referred as TP200 in Fig. 3. A plan
of the experimental program is presented in Fig. 4.
The specimens were fixed at one end to the rigid beam (testing bench) and were horizontally loaded at
the top end by a 500 kN MTS actuator, Fig. 4. The distance between the loading point and connections is 2740
which is the total height (3125 mm) without the connecting assemblies between the rigid beam and the
monitored connection.

a) b)
Fig. 3. Tested specimens a) TP100, b) TP200

Fig. 4. The experimental program and setup

The loading protocol was considered to be monotonic as the interested data refers to rigidity parameters,
force-displacement curve. As the input data for a joint in numerical analysis refers strictly to the rigidity of the
joint, the data was obtained by monitoring the assembly deformation and eliminating the rigidity of the beam.

Although high strength bolts of class 10.9 were used in the bolted connection, the pre-stress was induced only by
hand tightening.

2.2. Results
The qualitative results are presented first for the two sets of specimens followed by the quantitative
results presented in terms of Force vs Displacement.
2.2.1. Bolted connection
For both specimens, the failure mechanism was similar therefore only the images from specimen
TP100-1 are presented in
Fig. 5. The sequence of observed failures is: local buckling of the RHS element (although it is not in the
most stressed section), bending of the end plates in the bolted connection and welding failure between the end
plate and both parts that of the double T section i.e. the flange and the web.

a) b) c)

Fig. 5. Failure order of the joint a) local buckling of the compressed flange, b) bending of the end plate, c)
welding failure

The response of the specimens refers to the recorded force versus the displacement monitored by a wire
position transducer in the load application point,
Fig. 6 a). By multiplying with the lever arm and subtracting the displacement in the joint caused by the
fabrication tolerances, the moment- rotation curve of the assembly is given in
Fig. 6 b). The curves presented in
Fig. 6 are smoothed curves without any sign of failure for the local buckling and bending of the end
plate. The drop in the force values is assigned to the welding failure.
100 250

80 200
F [kN]

M [kNm]

60 150

40 100
TP100-1 TP100-1
20 TP100-2 50
TP100-2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 20 40 60 80 100
D [mm] θans [mrad]
a) b)

Fig. 6. Response of the bolted connection: a) Force-displacement, b) Moment-rotation

2.2.2. Welded connection

Due to the size limitation of the joint to the perimeter of the RHS dimensions, the response of the
welded joint between the RHS element and the end plate was of interest mainly due to the welding type. As
presented in Fig. 2, joining the endplate to the RHS element is performed by machining the elements normal to
the end plates in a 1/2Y and 1/2V welding with a 2 mm gap as presented in Fig. 2.

The propagation of the mechanism of failure for the case of welded connection starts with the local
buckling of the compressed wall of the RHS element. An initial micro fracture of the tensioned weld limited the
maximum force and finally the failure of the weld lead to the collapse of the joint between the RHS element and
the end plate.

a) b) c)

Fig. 7. Failure order of the joint a) local buckling of the compressed wall, b) micro fracture of the tensioned
weld, c) welding failure

The behaviour of the connection is represented in

Fig. 8 where the repeatability of the tests is observed along with the buckling of the compressed wall
(that decreases the rigidity of the connection), initiation of the welding fracture in the tensioned wall (small force
drop and constant capacity), and welding failure that leads to collapse of the joint.
80 250

200
60
M [kNm]
F [kN]

150
40
TP200-1 100
TP200-1
TP200-2
20 TP200-2
50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 20 40 60 80
D [mm] θ [mrad]
a) b)

Fig. 8. Response of the welded connection: a) Force-displacement, b) Moment-rotation

After performing the mechanical tests, investigations on the possible causes of the welding failure were
performed by cutting the RHS elements. From visual assessment special attention must be paid at the corners of
the RHS element, where a full strength weld was not reproduced. The non-uniform root of the weld highlights
the importance of using back-plates when welding without access to both sides. Of course, using back-plates for
tubular section is not simple but a solution is given in [12], where the interior dimensions are replicated by thin
plates inserted in the tube.

Fig. 9. Welding imperfection Fig. 10. Back plates for hollow sections [12]

3. Conclusions
Imposed conditions for design of structures lead to atypical solutions for joints. A connection that can
transfer bending moment, shear force and axial load was required to be designed such that it can fit in the
geometric profile of a rectangular hollow section. The solution is represented by an assembly of plates that form
a short beam with end plates allowing the bolted connection to be used for the structure. The bolted connection
reduces the manpower for welding of elements at big heights, thus, lowering the total costs and decreasing the
construction time. Due to the multiple connections i.e. end-plate for the RHS element, end-plate for the bolted
connections and the bolted connections, experimental tests were conducted in order to evaluate the performance
of the entire assembly.
The paper presents the importance of the experimental investigations in order to evaluate the response
of assemblies before applying them in practice, on site. In this way, the results can be further included in a
computer program that allows the definition of the joint properties to obtain a more realistic response for the
entire structure.
Special attention must concern when welding of hollow sections where access to the weld root is
limited. Also preheating reduces the risk of connections failure for the weld configurations prone to lamellar
tearing.

REFERENCES
[1] CEN (2005). “EN 1993-1-8 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-8: Design of joints”.
[2] D. Frunzaverde, C. V. Campian, V. Cojocaru, G. Marginean, M. Baran, and R. Ciubotariu (2010).
“Influence of welded layers thickness on the cavitation erosion resistance,” presented at the Sel.
Topics in Energy, Environ., Sustainable Dev. and Landscaping - 6th WSEAS Int. Conf. on Energy,
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Archit., LA’10, pp. 316–320.
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steel components in the CO2 environment,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 103, pp. 1164–1175, Jun.
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European standards in the field of welded steel constructions,” Revista de chimie, vol. 69, no. 6,
pp. 1352–1354.
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Low-Energy School Building – Effect of 2D vs.

3D Steady-State Simulation of Thermal Bridges

Brata S.1, Ene R.C.1, Dan D.1

1
Universitatea Politehnica din Timișoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The presence of thermal bridges in building envelopes influences the energy consumption, durability of
the envelope and the interior thermal ambiance. Although outer wall thermal insulation systems are an effective
measure for reducing the thermal bridge effect, the production of thermal insulation materials causes serious
impact on the environment. Through a 2D heat transfer calculation, the impact of several joints, that are not
included in the National Regulations, according to a low-energy building built in Salonta, Romania where
conducted under various design scenarios. In case of the low-energy buildings, the variation of the linear thermal
coefficient is rather low by variating the parameters of the building materials. The influence of the simulation
model i.e. 2D and 3D on the linear thermal coefficient in case of low energy buildings was determined and the
variation of the parameter observed.
Keywords: thermal bridges, low-energy school building, linear thermal coefficients, insulation system,
2D-3D heat transfer simulation.

1 INTRODUCTION
Thermal bridges (TH) as parts of the building envelope have a major effect on the thermal performance,
i.e. increased heat loss in the winter and heat gain in the summer; reduced interior surface temperature, thus,
increased risk of condensation and mold growth in the wintertime. Studies have shown that in some buildings up
to 50% of the elevation area consists of three-dimensional envelope structural details [1] and up to 30% of
heating energy can be lost through TH for well-insulated residential buildings adopting high performance
windows and highly insulated walls and roofs [2, 3].
The impact of TH is taken into account in the energy performance regulation of most European
countries by imposing a limit on the linear or point thermal transmittances of TH within the building envelop.
The European Standard EN ISO 10211[4] and EN ISO 14683 [5] prescribes a numerical methodology and TH
atlases in order to calculate the heat flow and surface temperatures through a TH.
In order to obtain general results concerning the influence of the TH on the energy demand of a
building, several studies have been conducted. In Greece, a study was conducted on a typical three level
apartment building [6]. The study shows that the building is affected to a great extent by TH. Even if the actual
construction presents high insulation levels, the heating need can be 30% higher than the one calculated without
taking into account the TH effects. Cappelletti et al. [7] have shown that the influence of TH on building energy
needs for space heating can reach 67% in a typical Italian climatic zone. The impact of TH on the heating
demand of different European Member States is usually as high as 30% [8]. Moreover, the higher level of the
building insulation level, the more TH play a relatively increasing role in the global heat losses and consequently
in the energy needs for space heating [9].
In Romania, the energy consumption for heating a building takes a big part in the total energy
consumption; therefore the task of energy efficiency in building becomes therefore significant. With the gradual
improvement in the energy conservation requirements, external thermal insulation has become a major form of
energy saving [10]. At present, the composite system based on a thermal insulation board is extensively adopted;
mainly two kinds of insulation materials (IM) are used: expandable polystyrene (EPS) and rock wool. Thermal
insulation material (EPS) has a low thermal conductivity coefficient, a reliable strength, toughness and a good
price-quality ratio. In recent year’s rock wool became adopted more and more due to its non-inflammable
performances and reliable efficiency against humidity and water damaging effect.
Although adding thermal insulation reduces the energy consumption of buildings in its operating stages,
the production of IM entails harmful emissions also. As one of the several environmental management

techniques, Life cycle assessment (LCA) addresses the environmental aspects and potential environmental
impacts (e.g. use of resources and the environmental consequences of harmful emissions) throughout a product's
life cycle [11].
Despite the significance of TH on building energy consumption, the Romanian Building Regulations
regarding the calculation of TH [12] comprises only a limited quantity of data that is necessary in order to
efficiently determine the effect of a large variety of TH that are to be encountered in the existing national
building sector, being focused on some general types of TH mostly identified through the existing stock of
buildings built between 1960-1990. The National Regulations is implemented according to the European
Standards EN ISO 12831 [13] regarding the methods for calculation of the heat design heat load, EN ISO 14683
[14] regarding the linear thermal transmittance of the TH.
The TH effect of the studied joints is determined, in this work, through the evaluation of the linear thermal
coefficient. Since this parameter is calculated under stationary conditions, it is generally applied for building
energy need assessment through quasi-steady state methods in the framework of energy performance technical
standards and regulations.

2 Low energy building of Salonta - Romania

2.1 General description

The theoretical investigations were carried out using the characteristics of a low-energy school building
(LESB) in Salonta, Romania. The building (Fig. 1) is one of the first public building built in Romania according
to the Passive House prescriptions, general concept and details. The architecture of the building was developed
to fit the local site requirements, being a central area with old classic buildings. The building has 4 levels and a
total area of 4000 m2 [15].

Fig. 1. Façades of the low energy building

The exterior closing walls consist out of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry (AAC) GBN25 insulated
by a system of rock wool panels 1200mm x 600mm x 150mm. The IM i.e. rock wool is a fibrous material
formed by spinning or drawing molten mineral or rock materials such as slag and ceramics. The properties of the
building materials (BM) are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Properties of the building materials [15]
Insulation
Material AAC GBN 25 Stone wool plaste r
adhe sive

Thermal conductivity [W/m 2 ·K] 0.125 0.037 0.8 0.45

wate r absorption rate [g/m 2 ·s 0.5 ](10 min) 110 300 260 3.1
he at capacity [J/kg·K] 1350 1030 1150 1150
Dry density [kg/m 3 ] 450 155 1500 1500
Compre ssion stre ngth 2 0.03 4.5 18
Share strength N/mm 2 0.15 - 1.5 5
Wate r vapor diffusion re sistance factor [-] 10 1 11 11
Gross Densi ty [kg/m 3 ] 450 150 1500 1400
Wate r vapor diffusion factor [-] 8 10 19 15.1

2.2 Characteristics of the studied thermal bridges

In order to evaluate the specific parameters of a specific type of insulation, three joints where selected
according to the details of a LESB where theoretically studied. Because the TH contained in the following work
are not comprised in the National Regulations, results of the present paper could be considered an attempt to
complete the National Catalogues regarding the calculation of TH. The distances between the cut-off planes and
the investigated TH where selected according to EN ISO 10211 [4].
In order to reduce the TH effect from the design phase of the building, the columns according to the joints
intermediate pillar (IMP1) and concave corner (CC1) were withdrawn by 50 mm from the exterior side of the
AAC masonry. The remaining gap is filled by an additional 50 mm thick local insulation stripe of rock wool
(Fig.2 middle and right).
In the case of the convex corner (CX1), the walls of the LESB related corner form, due to architectural
constraints, an angle of 94.8ᴼ. In order to enlarge the usefulness of the study, the corner was presumed to form an
angle of 90ᴼ. To ensure an additional thermal barrier against the thermal heat flow, the exterior surfaces of the
masonry are overlapping, i.e. between the upper right corner of the concrete column and the interior side of the
insulation layer is formed a space filled by AAC masonry (Fig. 2 left).
The given simulations are following beside a variation of the BM corresponding to the joints presented
in Fig. 2, the variation of the most common insulation panels used in Romania, i.e. Rockwool (λi = 0.0394
W/(m∙K)) and polystyrene (λi = 0.0442 W/(m∙K)).
The temperatures were selected in accordance with the National Regulation [4], whereas surface
resistances depend on the direction of the heat flow and on the purpose of the TH calculation. For surface
resistances for the calculation of the linear thermal transmittance, reference is made to the EN ISO 6946 [17].

Fig. 2. Studied joints (left - CX1, middle - IMP, right - CC1)

3. Thermal bridge analysis

The visualization of the heat flow distribution along with the values of the linear thermal transmittance
was generated and computed automatic by the software “Antherm”. The linear thermal transmittance of the
linear TH separating the two environments, Ψ, is computed by the software through equations 1-2:

Eq. 1

- Uj is the thermal transmittance of the 1-D component j that separates the considered environment;
- Lj is the length in the 2-D geometrical model over which the Uj value applies.
The thermal coupling coefficient (L2D) was determined automatic by the software under two-
dimensional condition according to equation (2).
q
L2 D  Eq. 2
( i   e )
- q is the heat flow per meter length;
- θi and θe are the internal and external air temperatures.
The LTC according to the LESB simulated in 2D geometric model were compared to the LTC simulated in a
3D geometric model in previous owned studies.
Table 2 contains the variation percentages of the LTC between the two insulation models i.e. Ψ2D and
Ψ3D corresponding to the 2D and 3D geometric model. The variation between the two LTC is represented in the
last column of the table in percentages. According to the studied TH, the difference between a 2D and a 3D

simulation model is comprised between 5.9-8.4%. In the case of the three studied TH, the 3D simulation
generates a reduced LTC in comparison to the 2D simulation under stationary conditions.
Table 2. Variation of the linear thermal coefficient according to the calculation model
model
dAAC λAAC di λi UW variation
thermal bridge Ψ2D Ψ3D
[cm] [W/m·K] [cm] [W/m·K] [W/m2∙K]
W/m∙K %
convex corner [CX1] 0.061 0.056 8.2
concave corner [CC1] 25 0.125 15 0.0394 0.163 -0.054 -0.049 8.4
intermediate pillar[IMP] 0.016 0.017 5.9

Tables 3-5 contain the theoretical results corresponding to three TH from the LESB that are not
contained in the National Regulations i.e. a convex and concave corner and an intermediate pillar. The
construction detail, temperature flow and an image of each studied joints is represented in the second line of tab
2-4. The linear thermal coefficient (LTC)(Ψ) and the minimum surface temperature (TSi.min) are determined by
ranging the thicknesses of the masonry (dAAC), insulation (di) column (b) and the thermal conductivity of the
masonry (λAAC), insulation (λi). The thermal transmittance of the exterior wall is denoted by UW.
By ranging the insulation thickness from 100 mm to 150 mm and 200 mm, the variation of the LTC is
comprised between 8.1-18.8 %. The variation of the LTC is even smaller if we consider a variation of the
insulation type by maintaining a constant thickness. In this case, the variations are comprised only between 1.8-
3.7 %.
Table 3. Linear thermal coefficients according to the CX1 thermal bridge
Convex corner [CX1]

Thermal
Dimension b=40 b=45 b=50
conductivity Uw
dAAC di λ AAC λi TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ
2
cm cm W/m·K W/m·K W/m ·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K
20 0.136 17.35 0.047 17.25 0.052 17.35 0.057
15 0.0394 0.163 16.75 0.056 16.65 0.061 16.75 0.065
10 0.191 15.85 0.057 15.73 0.062 15.83 0.065
25
20 0.138 17.33 0.048 17.23 0.052 17.33 0.055
15 0.0442 0.164 16.73 0.057 16.63 0.061 16.73 0.064
10 0.202 15.78 0.055 15.67 0.060 15.77 0.063
0.125
20 0.134 17.65 0.043 17.55 0.048 17.65 0.051
15 0.0394 0.164 17.05 0.052 16.95 0.057 17.05 0.060
10 0.207 15.95 0.053 15.85 0.057 15.95 0.061
30
20 0.147 17.62 0.044 17.52 0.049 17.62 0.052
15 0.0442 0.176 17.02 0.053 16.92 0.058 17.02 0.061
10 0.220 15.97 0.054 15.83 0.060 15.93 0.065

According to previous studies, the preliminary data state that the important parameter regarding the
influence on the LTC determination is the thickness of the insulation. The variation of the two studied insulation
i.e. λi = 0.0394 and λi = 0.0442 i.e. extruded polystyrene and rock wool is related to a mean variation of the LTC
comprised between 8-10%.
Meanwhile a variation of the insulation thickness i.e. an increase from 100 (mm) to 150 (mm) is
reflected in a similar decrease of the thermal insulation coefficient comprised between the same values (8-10%).

Table 4. Linear thermal coefficients according to the CV1 thermal bridge

Concave corner [CC1]

Dimension Thermal conductivity b=40 b=45 b=50

Uw
d AAC di λ AAC λi TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ
cm cm W/m·K W/m·K W/m2 ·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K
20 0.136 19.73 -0.057 19.71 -0.058 19.71 -0.059
15 0.0394 0.163 19.63 -0.053 19.61 -0.054 19.60 -0.055
10 0.191 19.43 -0.041 19.41 -0.042 19.41 -0.043
25
20 0.138 19.65 -0.052 19.63 -0.053 19.63 -0.054
15 0.0442 0.164 19.55 -0.048 19.53 -0.049 19.53 -0.050
10 0.202 19.25 -0.036 19.23 -0.037 19.23 -0.038
0.125
20 0.134 19.91 -0.072 19.89 -0.073 19.89 -0.074
15 0.0394 0.164 19.81 -0.068 19.79 -0.069 19.79 -0.070
10 0.207 19.61 -0.056 19.59 -0.057 19.59 -0.058
30
20 0.147 19.83 -0.067 19.81 -0.068 19.81 -0.069
15 0.0442 0.176 19.73 -0.063 19.71 -0.064 19.71 -0.065
10 0.220 19.43 -0.051 19.41 -0.052 19.41 -0.053

Table 5. Linear thermal coefficients according to the IMP1 thermal bridge

Intermediate pillar [IMP1]

AAC Insulation
Thermal conductivity b=40 b=45 b=50
thickness thickness Uw
d di λAAC λi TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ TSI min Ψ
2
cm cm W/m·K W/m·K W/m ·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K ᴼC W/m·K
20 0.136 18.34 0.012 18.24 0.017 18.14 0.022
15 0.0394 0.163 17.82 0.015 17.73 0.017 17.73 0.017
10 0.191 17.80 0.016 17.73 0.019 17.73 0.021
25 0.125
20 0.138 18.14 0.014 18.04 0.019 17.94 0.024
15 0.0442 0.164 17.81 0.016 17.74 0.018 17.74 0.020
10 0.202 17.81 0.019 17.72 0.021 17.72 0.023
20 0.134 18.54 0.009 18.44 0.014 18.34 0.019
15 0.0394 0.164 17.80 0.019 17.72 0.020 17.72 0.022
10 0.207 17.81 0.020 17.70 0.022 17.70 0.024
30 0.25
20 0.147 18.41 0.014 18.31 0.019 18.21 0.024
15 0.0442 0.176 17.79 0.020 17.71 0.022 17.71 0.024
10 0.220 17.80 0.021 17.68 0.023 17.68 0.025

4. CONCLUSIONS

The paper presents the theoretical study of three TH according to the details of the LESB built in Salonta –
Romania that are not comprised in the National Regulations.
Different results are studied considering a variation of the different BM and they’re thicknesses i.e.
insulation and AAC-masonry type. The results can be considered a starting point in the process of extending the
National Catalogues regarding the calculation of high efficient TH. The paper comprises also a correlation
between a 2D and a 3D calculation model of the LTH evaluating the variation percentage and the accuracy of the
simulations.

The LTC were simulated for the two geometric models using the software “Antherm“ and “Heat 3”.
Although the geometric complexity of the joints is relatively simple, the accuracy of the LTC varies between
5.9-8.4% by taking the two simulation models into account. It is thereby considered that these differences
increase considerably in the case of more complex joints. The modelling approach adopted and the simulation
tools used provide essential supports for evaluating these complex configurations. The presented results state
that, by changing only the insulation type there is rather a limited variation of LTC. Currently, the use of
polystyrene is more spread than rockwool at national level because of the price difference comprised between
15-20% considering the provider and location of the building site. In order to be able to take a well-driven
decision regarding the insulation type to use in a refurbishment of an existing building or in the construction of a
new one, a life cycle assessment procedure of the insulation alternatives should be undertaken in order to fully
understand the variation of the energy consumption and the environmental impact indicators.
Furthermore, because of the lack of information regarding life cycle energy consumption of different
insulation systems in Romania, additional studies are planned in order to improve the understanding of an LCA
applicable at national level.

5. Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNDI-
UEFSCDI, project number PN-PN-II-PT-PCCA-2011-3.2-1214-Contract 74/2012.

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About the Importance of the Construction and

Demolition Waste (CDW)

Chendes R. 1, Bob C.1, Iures L.1, Dan S.1, Tănasie C.2*

1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Construction Faculty (ROMANIA)
2
National Institute of Research & Development for Electrochemistry and Condensed Matter INCEMC
Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]* (corresponding author)

Abstract
The construction industry is one of the main sources of pollution, starting with the extraction of raw
materials and the demolition of existing buildings, providing huge amounts of CDW (construction and
demolition waste). This CDW can contain different types of materials, more or less dangerous for environment;
according to European statistics this waste amounts are declared by each country, by now, as there is not an
official institute known at European level for monitoring these quantities.
Demolishing old buildings, to make place for new ones, is a usual process in Europe and not only. The
square meter of land is getting more and more expensive, especially in big cities where is almost impossible to
build something new without demolish something that exist; the main waste material in demolition process is
represented by concrete.
Keywords: Construction and Demolition Waste, demolition, environment.

1 CDW amounts
The understanding of environmental concerns and priorities in EU waste legislation has evolved
significantly over the last period. The EU has reiterated its commitment to take over leadership in the field of
waste prevention and recycling.
The management policies aim to reduce the environmental and health impacts of waste and to improve
the resource efficiency. The long-term aim of these policies is to reduce the amount of waste generated and,
when waste generation is unavoidable, to promote it as a resource, for higher levels of recycling , reuse and the
safe disposal of waste.
The 6th Environmental Action Program (6thEAP: 2002-2012) provided an overarching strategic
direction for environment policy. Unsustainable trends still persist in the four priority areas identified in the 6th
EAP: - climate change; - nature and biodiversity; - environment and health and quality of life; and - natural
resources and wastes.
As a natural consequence of the established strategy, the achievement of the objectives set out in the 7th
Environmental Action Program (EAP7) requires the full commitment of the member states and relevant EU
institutions. [1]
In the current 7th Environmental Action Program (EAP7) there is a continuous promotion of recycling
with focus on turning waste into a resource also addressing a number of wider EU policies and programs,
including the Resource Efficiency Roadmap and the Raw Materials Initiative. [2]
Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is one of the largest by mass and most voluminous waste
streams generated.
Increasing the amount of waste, especially CDW, has led to major problems with its storage both
locally and globally. [3]
Eurostat estimates that in 2014 the total waste generated by economic and domestic waste for the 28
member states at that time was 2598 million tones, being the highest value since 2004 and CDW representing
33.5% [4].
Data provided by EUROSTAT regarding the estimated CDW / capita quantities for each EU member
state make it possible to calculate the so-called waste factor for each country, as can be seen in the table 1 [3].
These values highlight the differences between EU member states in the CDW sector, regarding the
waste factor representing the increase in the amount of waste compared to the reference currency (103t/106 €).

Table 1. CDW amount

Waste Factor Waste Factor
CDW CDW
EU member [103 t/106 € EU member [103 t/106 € extra
[tones/capita] [tones/capita]
extra value] value]
Austria 0.81 0.46 Letonia 0.04 0.118
Belgium 1.06 0.96 Lithuania 0.1 0.34
Bulgaria 0.39 4.53 Luxembourg 5.9 N/A
Cyprus 0.58 0.55 Malta 1.95 N/A
Czech Republic 1.44 4.04 Netherlands 1.47 1.26
Denmark 3.99 0.58 Norway 0.7 0.19
Estonia 1.12 4.14 Poland 0.11 0.41
Finland 3.99 3.24 Portugal 1.09 1.57
France 5.50 5.02 Romania N/A 0.02
Germany 2.33 2.40 Slovakia 0.26 1.05
Greece 0.37 0.34 Slovenia N/A 1.26
Hungary 0.43 1.63 Spain 0.74 0.53
Ireland 2.74 1.31 Sweden 1.14 1.03
Italy 0.8 0.78 UK 1.66 1.14
EU 27 countries Average 1.74 -

The analysis of published statistics shows that some countries (France, Luxembourg or Finland) declare
a significant increase (compared to the previous year) of the CDW’ amount generated compared to other
countries (Latvia, Bulgaria or Greece). This difference can come because both different data reporting and
economic factors (the amount of CDW generated being closely related to the number of new buildings).
Also, reporting amounts of CDW pour data in some countries may reflect the lack of control by the
authorities, thus adopting a minimum amount of EU member countries of 0.94t/inhabitant [5].

2 CDW content
Most of the CDW are generally inert waste and therefore are not as dangerous as hazardous waste or
municipal waste. CDW are generally mixed waste, and their type depends to a large extent on the operation that
led to their generation: construction or demolition; 35% of the world's solid waste is generated by building and
demolition processes [6] [7].
The demolition waste is of four types: stone (concrete, mortar, ceramics, aggregates and mixtures
thereof), materials other than stone (steel, iron, aluminum, copper, glass, wood, plastic etc.), hazardous waste
(asbestos, lead, zinc, batteries, oils, etc.) and others (organic materials).
The waste resulting from the construction of a building can be divided into five categories: excavated
soil (sand, clay, mud, etc. with traces of organic elements), packaging of building materials (wooden pallets,
plastic, cardboard, etc.) construction materials, hazardous waste (and packaging) and others (organic materials).
Numerous studies have focused on collecting data regarding the composition and amount of CDW
generated. The table below (table 2) sets out the ranges between the percentages of CDW-compliant materials in
the EU Member States, excluding Estonia and Finland, which reported in detail (materials and quantities).

Table 2. CDW composition at EU level

Material %-Min %-Max Million Tonnes - Min Million Tonnes - Max
Concrete 40,0% 84,0% 184 387
Brick 12,0% 40,0% 55 184
Other minerals 8,0% 54,0% 37 249
Asphalt 2,0% 9,0% 9 41
Wood 2,0% 4,0% 9 18
Metal 0,2% 4,0% 1 18
Gypsum 0,2% 0,4% 1 2
Plastic 0,1% 2,0% 0 9
Others 2,0% 36,0% 9 166

In addition to the reported amounts, there are also approximations of the amounts of materials in the
CDW composition. According to the European Concrete Platform, 60-70% of the CDW composition is concrete
[5].

3 Demolition process
If in the past demolition processes were carried out mainly with unskilled labor and rudimentary
technologies, in recent years, demolition processes have become an industry, major changes happening. In the
past, demolition processes were executed manually using mobile tools. At present it consists of a series of
processes carried by special equipment, for reasons related to the complexity of the structures, to the financial
part or to the protection and safety at work [8].
The total demolition techniques of a building are multiple, requiring preliminary decontamination. They
are also distinguished by the speed of execution, the CO2 emissions and the degree of control over the elements
of the structure [9].
Demolition by excavators is the main method used in Europe. This is done either by drawing parts of
the construction by means of the bucket, or by dissembling using hydraulic shears or by percussion.
Explosives are used on a small scale, especially in the case of buildings with very high heights without
crowding of other buildings around. A very rare situation is the use of robots because of the high risk of
demolition [10].

4 Recycling
Recycling is a complex process and involves both the collection of waste and its separation, its
processing and reintroduction into the market, making a major contribution to protecting the environment with
economic benefit through job creation. Protect areas for storage and avoid exploitation of non-renewable natural
resources [11].
The efficiency of recycling depends on the volume of material recovered or recycled, this volume being
able to include materials generated during the production process or at the end of a product's life.
The reuse and recycling process stages are [12]:
- Rank I recycling: Sorting and subsequently melting metal and glass.
- Rank II recycling: Concrete and ceramic materials (uncontaminated mineral materials) can be re-used
after prior sorting.
- Rank III recycling: use of non-contaminated materials such as wood or plastic as fuel for energy
generation.
For increasing the economical efficiency and conservation and the protection environment,, the
industrial wastes like fly ash, phosphor gypsum and silica fume can be reused to obtain new building materials
(pavement element) [13].
By using waste glasses as precursors for the glass based stoneware synthesis there are multiple
economic and environmental advantages. Glass based stoneware are suitable materials for toxic elements
immobilization based on the double barrier protection. The verification process starting from wastes is
economically advantageous only in the case of the manufacturing of new glass-based articles, like glass fibers,
glass ceramics, glass or glass-ceramic matrix composites, glass foams or glazes [14] [15] [16].
Concrete plays a double role in the development of a sustainable future, being the most frequently used
man-made construction material and having ( as concrete structures) a potential to obtain a very long life span.
Many studies investigate the beneficial properties of concrete during its service life, referring to the
environmental property of concrete to reabsorb a part of great amount of CO2 released at cement production,
which can change the public opinion that concrete structures are un-ecological and with great environmental
impacts [17] [18].
After the structures service life, recycled concrete may be used as support layer for roads foundation.
The advantages of using RCA for replacing the natural aggregates, at the fabrication of concrete are of economic
values and environmental issues [19].
Global demands on natural sand and gravel are growing beyond 50 bn tones per year and there is a very
real need to find alternative sources for construction [20].
In order to avoid the waste of potentially useful materials and the reducing of consumption of fresh raw
material, the researchers studied different class concrete properties by replacing various granulometric fractions
with recycled aggregates [21] [22].
For recycled concrete aggregates, there is a high demand for countries which lack natural aggregates
(e.g. the Netherlands) but less high for countries with large natural aggregates (e.g. Romania) [23].

5 Conclusions
a) The estimated CDW quantities for Romania are not presented by EUROSTAT and it represents an actual and
future responsibility of Romanian Authorities.
b) The authors of this paper had made some recent laboratory determinations for the use of demolition waste

(especially concrete) into new concrete elements.

c) From the laboratory determinations it was concluded that by recycling of 100% of natural aggregates by
concrete demolition, the Building Sustainability Index was 0,816 compared with natural aggregates.

REFERENCES:
[1] DECISION No 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November
2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, within the limits of
our planet’, Official Journal of the European Union, L354/28.12.2013, pp.171-200, https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32013D1386&from=EN
[2] Decision no 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2013
on a General Union Env. Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, within the limits of our planet’.
[3] Chendes R. (2017) – Experimental determinations regarding the recycling of buildings demolition
concrete. PhD Thesis, ISBN 978-606-35-0136-4.
[4] European Commission. Eurostat Waste statistics. [Interactiv] 2016,
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Waste_statistics .
[5] Bio Intelligence Service (2011). Study on the management of construction and demolition waste in
the EU.Paris: DG Environment .
[6] Franklin Associates.(1988) Characterization of Building Related Construction and Demolition
Debris in the United States. s.l. : US Environmental, EPA-530-R-98-010.
[7] Hendriks S. and Pietersen H. (2000). Sustainable Raw Materials: Construction and Demolition
Waste. Cachan Cedex. RILEM Publication.
[8] Hurley G, Hobbs J. (2003). CIB TG39 – UK Country Report on Deconstruction.
[9] Coelho A, de Brito J. (2011). Economic analysis of conventional versus selective demolition – A
case study. s.l. : Resources, Conservation and Recycling.
[10] Pacheco-Torgal F., Tam V. W. Y., Labrincha J. A., Ding Y. and de Brito J. (2013). Handbook of
recycled. s.l. : Woodhead Publishing Limited
[11] Florida Solar Energy Center. Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) recycling diagram. Florida :
State Library & Archives of Florida.
[12] Bio Intelligence Service.(2011). Study on the management of Construction and Demolition
Waste in the EU. Paris : European Commission (DG Environment).
[13] Badea C. (2014). Recycling of Some Industrial Waste to Produce New Building Materials,
WSEAS Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Environment, Ecosystems and
Development (EED 14), Brasov, Romania
[14] Vancea C., Jurca R.M., Gheju M., Moşoarcă G. (2018). Eco-friendly solution for wastes resulted
from the removal of Cr(VI) with FeO immobilization in glass based stoneware matrix . Romanian
Journal of Materials, 48 (3), pp.308-314
[15] Vancea C., Gheju M., Moşoarcă G. (2018). Inertization in vitreous matrix of exhausted reactive
mixtures resulted from the removal of Cr(VI) with Fe0 in continuous-flow system. Romanian
Journal of Materials, 47 (4), pp. 435 – 441
[16] Lazau I., Vancea C., Moşoarcă G. (2013). New vitreous matrix for the lead wastes
immobilization. Romanian Journal of Materials, 43 (2), pp.210-217
[17] Dencsak, T., Bob, C., Tanasie C., Balcu I. (2012). Environmental benefits of concrete structures,
Proceedings of the 12thInternational Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM,vol.V,pp369
[18] Bob, C., Dencsak T., Tănasie C., Balcu I. (2012). Contributions regarding the evaluation of the
ability of concrete to bind CO2 by carbonation. Romanian Journal of Materials 42(4), pp.370-380.
[19] Bob C., Chendes R. (2018). An efficient technology for construction recycling. "Global and
regional in environmental protection" Conference GLOREP Romania
[20] Kelly E., McMaster L. (2017). Building waste – construction materials from your waste,
Proceedings of International HISER Conference on Advances in Recycling and Management of
Construction and Demolition Waste. Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
[21] Chendes R., Iures L., Popa R., Bob C., Dan S., Tănasie C. (2018) Comparison between
recycled concrete aggregates and natural aggregates, density and water absorption, Modern
Technologies for the 3rd Millennium
[22] Chendeş R., Iures L., Bob C., Dan S., Badea C, Tănasie C. (2018). Experimental determination
of recycled aggregates concrete carbonation, Proceedings of the 24th International Symposium on
Analytical and Environmental Problems, Szeged, Hungary,
[23] Life cycle of buildings, demolition and recycling potential: A case study in Turin, Italy. A, Blengini
G. s.l. : Building and Environment. 44.

Drainage Arrangement of Checea Jimbolia,

Timis County. Rehabilitation of the CENEI’S
Drainage Pumping Station

Cojocinescu (Guran) Mihaela Ivona1, Man Teodor Eugen1, Pelea

George Narcis1, Ioana Alina Cretan1,
1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Hydrotechnical Engineering
Department, 1A Spiru Haret Street, 300022, Timisoara, Timis (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

This paper presents the arrangement of drainage pump Jimbolia Checea with the largest drainage pump
station of the arrangement, namely Cenei. Thanks to its pumping capacity, the station serves more ATU Cenei
sites. Climate changes, heavily rain drops from last years requires the rehabilitation of drainage pumping station
to remove excessive water from agricultural lands and to protect localities from flooding. In accordance with the
law, with the support of local farmers and with own resources, were performed improvements and maintenance
of the land reclamation facilities. This document presents the current status and the proposed rehabilitation for the
pumping station Cenei in order to improve its performances. This document highlights the improvement, repair
and maintenance advantages for the drainage infrastructure planning Checea Jimbolia.

Key words: drainage, rehabilitation, pumping station, environmental protection, floods.

1. INTRODUCTION

The arrangement of drainage pump Jimbolia Checea, presented in figure 1, is located in the Bega Veche
basin and has a gross surface of 54451 ha, of which the closed drainage is 684 ha, respectively 52560 ha of net
area, of which 660 ha of closed drainage, being put into operation in 1970. The arrangement falls in the Bega -
Veche river basin, cadastral code V - 1-21 and are divided into 8 Drainage Units: UD Cenei - Checea, UD Cenei,
UD Uihei - Carpinis, UD Clarii Vii, UD Grabaţi, UD Comloş and UD Iecea - Beregsău.
The network of drainage channels with a total length of 828507 m is functional but is partially covered
with aquatic, grassy and woody vegetation. The main activities that have been carried out in the last 25 years have
been maintenance works for the network channels – getting off the main and collector channels, cleaning out the
vegetation from the network channels(partially), maintenance of hydrotechnical constructions, exploitation
cantons and pumping stations.
The activities that have been carried out during the last years in this arrangement were maintenance
works - getting off the main and collecting channels, cleaning out the vegetation from the network of channels,
maintenance of hydrotechnical constructions, exploitation cantons and pumping stations.

Fig. 1. Situation plan for Checea Jimbolia [1, 2]

Excess water is discharged by pumping SP Cenei I, SP Cenei II and Bobda I, which are base stations in
the Bega Veche Canal and the pre-pumping stations: Jimbolia into CS 12; Push into CPE channel, Comlos into
channel CS 17.
The 59.5 km long drainage network was not maintained after 1989 due to the lack of related technology,
which is partly due to the clogging of the drains, which requires a capital repair.
The arrangement is functional due to the priority maintenance of the basic works involved in the operation
but which still requires repairs.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main pumping station in Checea Jimbolia is the pumping station SP Cenei, presented in figure 2,
consisting of pumping stations SP Cenei I, which is a drainage base pumping station, type SPB station consisting
of: 1 group consisting of 3 aggregate power, aggregate power 130 kW, pump type DH750, aggregate flow 1.5 mc
/ s and a group consisting of an aggregate, aggregate power 75 kW, pump type Brates 500, aggregate flow 0.66
mc / s, height 5.6 mCA pumped, the area served: 3000 ha and SP Cenei II, the destination of the station is drainage,
type SPB station consisting of: 1 group consisting of 3 aggregates, aggregate power 400 kW, type of pump DV 5-
47, aggregate flow 0.77 mc / s respectively 3 aggregates, aggregate power 75 kW, pump type DV 2-10, aggregate
flow 3.68 mc / s, pumping head 7 mCA, surface area: 43651 ha.

Fig. 2. Pumping station Cenei [Photo by Cojocinescu]

The field surveys and the topographical measurements revealed the advanced degree of clogging of the
drainage channels in the proportion of 20-40% and the occurrence of the aquatic vegetation on all the canals in the
landscape, thus it is necessary to carry out urgently the maintenance and repair works in the Jimbolia Checea
Drainage Facility from Timis County, both at the pumping stations and at the drainage channels.
The works proposed to be executed are presented in tabular form in table 1:

Table 1. Work proposed to be executed within the drainage facility Checea Jimbolia [2]

Landscape The object The work needs to be executed

Checea Jimbolia Pumping station Repair waterproofing
Cenei I
Pumping station Repairing aggregates
Cenei II DV5-47
Repairing aggregates
DV2-110
Drainage channels Channel CS8 unsilt

The Landscape of Checea-Jimbolia is made of two areas, respectively Area 4 with a surface of
28,638 ha and Area 5 with a surface of 25,813 ha
The hydro-technical scheme of the Checea-Jimbolia arrangement comprises two compartments:
• Compartment I of the Cenea with an area of 46692 ha divided into 7 drainage units:
- UD Cenei- Checea 4373 Ha
- UD Cenei 4474 Ha
- UD Uihei- Carpinis 14805 Ha
- UD Clarii Vii 3512 Ha

- UD Jimbolia 5918 Ha
- UD Grabat 7915 Ha
- UD Comlos 5695 Ha

- Compartment II Bobda with a surface of 7759 Ha :

• UD Iecea – Beregsau 7759 Ha

The Landscape is located as follows:

- into the Bega Veche basin
- on the right bank of the course from km 0 + 000 to km 23 + 785
- from an administrative point of view, the land is located in the framework of 10 communal territories
(including the city of Jimbolia).

The Checea Jimbolia perimeter is limited to:

- south of the Bega Veche Canal
- west of the border with Serbia
- North Aranca
- The eastern settlement of Vinga-Biled-Beregsau
The relief is characteristic of the meadow areas formed under the influence of the Bega Veche divagate
waters.
The specific of Checea Jimbolia perimeter are middle and heavy soils with ground water depth from
0.5m to 3m sulphatic aggressiveness in the entire area of the reefs from 2m to 4m.
The groundwater level is influenced by:
- local rainfall;
- groundwater flooding from higher areas;
- the water level in Bega Veche.

Rivers Bega Veche, the only natural drain, being a little deep, maintains the groundwater level at a
small depth.
The level of ground water that was captured in the fall and spring months is about 1m closer to the
surface.
Drainage arrangement Checea -Jimbolia has the following pumping stations, as shown in table 2:

Table 2. Pumping stations in Checea Jimbolia and their characteristics [1,2]

INSTALL
NO. NAME SURFACE TYPE POWER POWER INSTALL.
DEBIT
PUMP DRAIN PUMP <MC/S>
MOTOR <KW>
STATION <HA> <KW>
DESIGNING SYSTEM CHECEA JIMBOLIA - 1189
1 SP CENEI 1 3000 3 DH-750 5,16 130 535
1 BRATES 500
2 SP CENEI 2 43651 3 DV5-47 13,46 75 1500
3 DV2- 400
110
SP CENEI 46651 18,62 2035
3 SP BOBDA 7800 4 2,88 75 550
1 BRATES
500
4 SP [6370] 3 2,22 55 375
JIMBOLIA BRATES
500
1 BRATES 400
5 SP [7930] 3 3 90 375
GRABATI BRATES
600

1 BRATES 400
6 SP [2030] 2 1,14 40 132
COMLOS BRATES
400
1 BRATES 350 22
TOTAL 54451 27,86 3467

The functional scheme of Checea Jimbolia Arrangement is made of the supply-evacuation constructions,
connected with the pumping station that serves the whole Drainage System Checea - Jimbolia by evacuating the
internal waters to the emissary Bega Veche or in the accumulation of Cenei by pumping or gravitational. The
C.P.E. is the main collecting and discharge channel of excess water in the associated area; it has a total length of
35,705 km and is divided into 10 sections with constructive characteristics corresponding to the flows flowing
from 0.06 m3 / s to 16.36 m3 / s.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From previous assessments, as well as from the results of the present research, it is estimated that in order
to achieve a maximum efficiency functionality of Checea Jimbolia, investments are needed in the basic
infrastructure for drainage. Cenei pumping station reprezents the main pumping station with major importance for
the arrangement.
As a result of the rehabilitation activities, the operation of the entire arrangement is being improved in
terms of the removal of the excessive humidity, increasing the pumping station efficiency, increasing the overall
efficiency of the drainage system, the reduction of energy consumption, etc. [1,2,3,4].

4. CONCLUSION
Drainage design Jimbolia Checea is functional due to the priority maintenance of the basic works involved
in the operation but which require further repairs. Within the framework of the arrangement, there are deficiencies
due to the lack of maintenance of lower network channels, but also by applying of the working technology on the
agricultural lands, being excluded from these works periodic scarification.
The pumping station for drainage Cenei is one of the most important works of the arrangement, representing the
"heart" of the arrangement, its good functioning depending on the efficiency and functionality of the Jimbolia
Checea drainage.
It is worth noting that this year, after a long break, the financing of the maintenance and repair works and
the drainage have been restarted.
Maintenance and rehabilitation activities are still needed to obtain good farm output on farmland from its area,
which requires good collaboration between state institutions and local farmers so as to identify functional problems
and ways of fixing them, including the necessary funds for investments from own or budget financing sources.

REFERENCES
[1] MAN T.E. (2014). Drainage, Chapter VIII, vol I and II, Orizonturi universitare, Timisoara.
[2] NATIONAL LAND IMPROVEMENT AGENCY - LAND IMPROVEMENT TIMIS – LOWER MURES
BRANCH, Statistics on Checea Jimbolia arrangement – archive.
[3] MAN T.E., SABĂU N.C., CÎMPAN GABRIELA, BODOG MARINELA (2010). Hidroamelioraţii, Vol I,
II, reeditare, Ed.Aprilia Print, Timişoara.
[4] COJOCINESCU M. I., PELEA GEORGE NARCIS, MAN T. E. (2017). Current situation of land
improvement arrangements in Timis County, Romania, International Symposia Risk Factors For
Environment And Food Safety, November 10-11, Oradea, Romania Natural Resources and Sustainable
Development, eISSN 2601-5676, Print ISSN-L 2066-6276, Vol. 7, pp. 1-8.

The Development of the High Health Regime of

Buildings
Cristescu A.1, Man T.E.1, Beilicci R.1, Gombos D.2
1
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Hydrotechnical Engineering
Department, 1A Spiru Haret Street, 300022, Timisoara, Timis (ROMANIA)
2
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The following work/article contains a brief description of the buildings in the world, Romania and
Timisoara, the evolution of them throughout the years and a classification related to the height regime. Some
technical data of the most representative buildings will be presented. These achievements were and are possible
due to the hard work and ambition of the engineers and architects’ teams, who study and solve every technical
problem they have faced. The final product was imposing/tremendous, admired by the whole world, also being a
solid pride mark for the country in which it was realized.
The height regime of the buildings (Fig. 1) raised during the time because of the urban necessity of
development. Due to the advanced technologies used in fabrication of the construction materials, the using of
iron and steel for high rise buildings was possible, and most of them are made out of these materials. The
Northern-American continent was the leader of the sky-scrapers, but it has been exceeded by the Burj Khalifa,
Dubai, United Arab Emirates and by the Abraj Al-Bait Clock Tower, Mecca, Saudi Arabia. [1]

Fig. 1. Building height increase

Romania can be also proud of some of its imposing buildings, built in the capital city of Bucharest: Sky
Tower, IFMA Tower, and Tower Center.
The Metropolitan Cathedral is in the top of the tallest buildings in the country. After the Romanian
revolution in 1989, the construction market in Timisoara developed very quickly, mostly because of the private
investors. During this time period, two major projects are raising in Timisoara : Openville, the biggest office
project in the western part of the country and the multifunctional area of ISHO, where it will be erected
Riverside A, the tallest residential building in the city.

1. Definitions, shortly brief and general considerations

In the course of history, a lot of constructions were erected which resisted over the time and are pretty
impressive even nowadays through beauty and grandeur. The Pyramids of Egypt or the Kailasa Temple, India,

are just a few examples of constructions in which the dimensions and techniques used weren’t fully decipherable
until now.
Once the economic growth and the increasing density of the population happened, the land used for
construction works had to be very efficient. The presence of the high-rise buildings is the effect of this
development, especially in the urban areas. The architects were trying to come up with a solution for the
crowded areas, and the answer was the design of the multi-level buildings, together with the urbanistic plane
framing of the area and the socio-cultural context. [2]
The concept of a “tall building” was not clearly defined yet. In the Romanian legislation point of view,
a tall building is “a civil work (public) which has the last floor slab situated over 28m, related to the accessible
area of the fire-fighters vehicles, on at least two sides of the building”. A “very tall” building is “a civil
work(public) which has the last floor slab situated at 45m or more above the ground” (P118/1-1999, normative
privind siguranta la incendiu a constructiilor).
An important factor in a building characterization is the urban context, for example in a relatively small
city, a building seems to be tall and imposing, related to the surrounded constructions, but the same building will
not stand out in a city where the tall buildings are predominant. Also, the shape and proportions have an
important role in the classification of a building. The specialists say that the limits in which we can categorized a
building by being tall is if the height of the building not being lower than 50m. [3]
In this moment, the highest buildings are the sky-scrapers, which are divided in two categories,
supertall-over 300m height and mega tall-over 600m height. With its 830m height, the Burj Khalifa from Dubai
is the tallest building in the world.
Between the two World Wars (1918-1939) the idea of the modern residential building showed up. The
massive destructions caused by the bombs during the wars have let to the need of the efficient and quickly
reconstructions of the urban areas, so that the socio-economic life can come back to normal in a very short time.
The French Charles-Edouard Jeanneret is considered the father of the modern residential building. Being an
architect and urbanist, he studied the techniques that can be used for the high buildings, and in the year of 1947,
at the request of the officials from the city of Marseille from southern France, he designed the first residential
building with more than 10 floors. The residential building has 12 floors with 300 identical apartments; on the
ground-floor of the building was opened a polyclinic, a gym, educational institutions and commercial stores; on
the top of the building a garden terrace was made. The construction started in 1947 and was finished in 1952.
Also in the same period (between the two World Wars), the Americans started the erection of the tall
buildings, which were called sky-scrapers. A building is considered to be a sky-scraper if it has at least 30 floors
or at least 80m height and being usable from the ground-floor to the last floor. The rapid development of the
New York City has led to an accelerated rise of the land prices, especially in the central area; this fact led to the
need of building’s construction on the vertical direction. [4]
The science progresses made possible the development of the iron and steel production. This
technological revolution allowed the erection of the buildings in which the structure is made with more durable
materials like steel, iron and reinforced concrete. In the cases where the classical method is used, the masonry
has to be thicker with every floor, this fact involves the height limitations. Some new fabrication techniques
(Bessemer process) led to an industrial production of the steel, which replaced the iron, being lighter and
stronger. The using of metallic structures instead of masonry represented a radical transformation in construction
industry. [5]
The medium height of the first 100 buildings in the world increased between 2000 and 2010 from 297m
to 349m, today being almost 800m. A tall building involves huge costs and a huge amount of resources. The
most important thing in a building is its design, which has to solve all the architectural and structural problems,
the future building has to resist the wind, earth-quakes and fire. Also, the design of the building need to assure a
maximum efficiency, to fit harmoniously in the surrounding landscape and in the same time to be “pride mark”
for the area in which is situated. The high-rise buildings are a symbol of prosperity and socio-economic
development of an urban area, a “pride mark” for the people, and also being a touristic spot. [6]
In these high-rise buildings the movement becomes a problem to study, and the stairs are no longer a
viable solution. Together with the vertical development of the buildings, the elevators were introduced. The first
elevator was installed in Haughwout Department Store from New York City in 1857. Due to the big number of
levels a building has, the elevators represent one of the most important part from the building design, because
more floors means more people and the number of elevators needs to be corelated with the number of levels for
time saving. [7]
Besides structural stability, the architects must pay particular attention related to the comfort and
people’s safety. Some new fire-resistant materials solve this problem; nowadays the buildings are featured with
smart anti-fire systems which stop the fire propagation and limit the damages. Inside the Office buildings, the
comfort is realized through the interior design, with respect to ergonomic principles that will ensure increased
efficiency and a relaxed environment. Quiet areas with interior gardens will be built, situated on the opposite
side related to the position of the desks. [8]

In the buildings which have mixt functionality, being used as offices and apartments, the ground-floor
has a public role, making the connection between the people and the building. The apartments are possible to be
made until a specific level, because together with the height, the building becomes more and more sealed and
living becomes odd. [9]
Along with the appearance of these impressive gauge constructions, other technical components have
been developped : thermo-insulating glass, water pumps and air conditioning. Usually the facades are made out
of reflective glass, which protects the interior of the building by the action of the sun's rays and helps to integrate
the construction into the landscape, mirroring and amplifying the neighboring buildings, the sky and other
surrounding elements. [10]
The edifice, which is ranked first in the top of buildings built by the classical masonry method, is
Philadelphia's City Hall, the City Hall building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was designed by the Scottish
architect John Mc Arthur Jr and built between 1871 and 1901. The building has 167m height and is supported by
a solid granite foundation. By 1908, it was considered the tallest living building in the world and remained the
world's tallest masonry structure without any steel frame. [11]
Also in the context of the harmony of skyscrapers with the environment, the Japanese company
Sumitomoa, announced that they will build in the center of Tokyo the world’s highest building made almost
entirely of wood. The building will have 350m height and aims to start a large project that will lead to an
ecological city of high-rise buildings made of wood and to "transforming the city into a forest". It is a 70-story
tower block built of wood and steel, having 90% predominant material wood. The building project was carried
out in the Tsukuba Research Laboratory and is aimed at solving all the problems regarding seismic area’s
problems. The construction is provided with a tubular structure that will withstand strong earthquakes and winds.
It will have large balconies, a garden on the roof and open spaces. Inside there will be shops, offices, a hotel and
residential units. In the end, the edifice will become the tallest building in Japan and the world's tallest wooden
structure, shaking Brock Commons Tallwood House that has 60m height, being designed for students on the
campus of the British Columbia University from Vancouver.

2. The World’s tallest buildings [12]

1. Burj Khalifa (Dubai, United Arab Emirates) – 828m height
Table 1. Burj Khalifa, technical data
Height 828.00 m
Peak Height 830.00 m
Levels 162
Basements 2
Elevators 57
Built area 464.511 m²
Parking lots 3000
Apartments 900
Hotel rooms 144
Erection time 47 months
Investment cost 663.163.000 €
Beneficiary Emaar
Architect Skidmore Owings & Merrill
Structure Skidmore Owings & Merrill
Installations ETA M&E
General Contractor Samsung Engineering and Construction Arabtecn Besix
- hexagonal core supported by 3 counter-boards arranged at 120 ° formed
by the walls of the corridors
Structural system - the marginal pillars are trained by a 5 tie-belts system disposed adjacent
to the technical floors
- withdrawals are made "spiral" and increase wind resistance
- double reinforced concrete slabs with thicknesses between 225 mm and
Slabs
300 mm, with openings of about 9 m
-reinforced concrete tlab having a 3.7m thickness, seated on 194 drilled
Foundation
piles which have a 1.5m diameter and 43m length

In this moment it is considered the world’s tallest building (Table 1). Located in Dubai, high and
expensive construction champion, the tower was built in 15 stages between 2004-2009 and inauguration took

place on January 4, 2010. The cost amounted to a billion and a half dollars, which will cushion by renting space
at prices consistent with the investments. With a height of 828 meters, it surpasses over 200 meters the Abraj Al-
Bait Clock Tower (Mecca, Saudi Arabia), which has occupied the very first place in the world, until the
inauguration of Burj Khalifa. The building consists of offices and residential places; 163 floors host Armani
hotel, there is an observation deck on the 148th floor, and 156-159 floors are allocated to telecommunication
systems. The 24,348 windows are washed out by outside installations, as manual cleaning would take months.
[13]
A masterpiece of architectural talent, it is the most spectacular building up to today, both through design
and the technology used to build it. Burj Khalifa is a symbol, a way of promoting the city that will attract other
investments in the area. With the construction of the Burj Khalifa, a new category of buildings called super-
skyscrapers (super skyscrapers) was born. [14]
2. Shanghai Tower (Shanghai, China) – 632m height
Located in Shanghai's Pudong District, the building is an international financial and commercial center.
The construction started in 2008 and became fully operational in 2017. The 128 floors are occupied by offices,
hotel rooms, conference rooms and malls. The tower has a trapezoidal shape to the top and it is equipped with
an air control feature called variable air volume (VAV). Designed by the American architecture firm Gensler, it
owns the largest observation deck in the world. [15]
3. Abraj Al-Bait Clock Tower (Mecca, Saudi Arabia) – 601m height
The building has 120 floors, the top floor is a hotel and was inaugurated in 2012. It is famous because
of its location, Mecca being known worldwide as the birthplace of Muhammad. [16]
4. Ping An Finance Center (Shenzhen, China) – 599m height
The works started in 2010 and were completed in 2017. Due to some nonconformities, the execution
was stopped in 2013 and resumed after their solving. Initially, the project envisaged mounting a 60-meter
antenna on the building, wishing to surpass Shanghai Tower, but it was dropped because it was concluded that it
would obstruct air transport. The tower has 116 floors that host offices, hotels, a shopping center, a public high-
tech observer at the last floor owned by Ping An Life Insurance. [17]
5. Lotte World Tower (Seoul, South Korea) – 555m height
Preparations for lifting this tower lasted thirteen years. It was only in 2010 that the authorities gave their
final agreement to start the works, which ended in December 2016. The official opening in April 2017 was
celebrated with fireworks. The building consists of 123 floors and 6 underground floors. Situated near the Han
River, it has mixed functionality, with shops, offices, dwellings, a luxury hotel and an observation deck for the
public. The building has the shape of a convex cone, slightly curved and is embedded in Korean ceramic glass.
The roof was designed to withstand earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 9 on the Richter scale and wind up to
80 m/s. [18]
6. One World Trade Center (New York, United States) – 541m height
One World Trade Center is located on the site of the twin World Trade Center towers that was shot
down after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2011. The construction was built between 2006 and 2014 and
has 104 floors. The levels are occupied by the offices of different firms, and the 91- 104 floors are technical
floors that accommodate electrical and mechanical installations and equipment. [19]
7. Tianjin CTF Finance Center (Tianjin, China) – 530m height
Started in 2013, the tower is almost completed and is due to be inaugurated in 2020. It has 97 floors, 4
underground floors and 81 elevators. It will host offices, luxury apartments and a hotel. The building is designed
to minimize the surface exposed to wind, sun and humidity. [20]
8. Guangzhou Chow Tai Fook Finance Center (Guangzhou, China) – 530m height
Also known as the East Tower, it is part of the Guangzhou Twin Towers complex and was designed by
Wilkinson Eyre in London. It has 530m high, with 111 floors, having “K11 Art Mall”, 355 apartments, 251 hotel
rooms and 1705 underground parking spaces. There are 95 elevators and it is considered the fastest in the world
to travel. The building was inaugurated in October 2016 and is owned by Chow Tai Fook Enterprises. [21]
9. CITIC Tower (Beijing, China) – 528m height
The Tower is a super skyscraper structured in 108 floors. The design of the building is inspired by the
shape of an ancient Chinese wine vessel, which gave it the nickname China Zun. Started in 2011 and

finished in 2018, the tower has mixed functionality: 60 levels of office space, 20 levels of luxury apartments,
20 levels for a hotel, and a rooftop garden. [22]
10. Taipei 101 (Taipei, Taiwan) – 509m height
It is owned by Taipei Financial Center Corporation and is a symbol of Taiwan. As it emerges from the
name, the tower has 101 floors and it is an architectural blend of Asian tradition with technological
advancement. It has a mostly public destination; it also has a multi storey mall, restaurants and offices. [23]
The architect’s aspirations for vertical lifters are unstable. The competition and the ambition of
constructors, investors, lead to the emergence of new skyscrapers across the globe and the change of hierarchies.
Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province, China, wants to build the tallest building in the world that will measure
one kilometer of altitude and surpass the record held by Burj Khalifa. The tower will have a "twin brother"
smaller in height. The project is being carried out by an American company and will have to combine the
Chinese tradition with environmental attention so that finally a representative construction for Wuhan will be
created. The two buildings called Phoenix will be pink, having several hanging gardens and garbage recycling
boilers. On the outside surface systems for pollution absorption will be integrated. The towers will house the
world's highest kaleidoscope powered by a wind turbine.
In another corner of the world, a new building is “born”, which will be in the first place in the
competition for supremacy. It is the tower that rises in the Saudi city of Jeddah and will have a kilometer in
height; 170 meters more than rival Burj Khalifa. With an aerodynamic architecture on three sides covered by
32,000 glass panels, Jeddah Tower will have 252 floors and will host residential apartments, offices and hotel
rooms. The total investment will amount to 1.4 billion dollars and will be completed in 2020. The building is
intended to be a catalyst for investment in the area. Up to now, 26 floors have been completed.

3. Tallest buildings in Romania

In Romania, most of the tallest buildings were erected during the communist regime. The cult of
personality and megalomania led to the emergence of mammoth buildings. But at the same time, they
demonstrated the genius of the architects and engineers who contributed to their realization. [24]
After the revolution, new office buildings and cult places, some appreciated, others disputed, but each
of them impressed by design and dimensions.
The highest civil constructions in our country will be briefly presented in the following pages.
The Floreasca City Center Complex in Bucharest has the tallest building in Romania, Sky Tower. It
is designed for offices, with a height of 137 meters and 37 floors and was inaugurated in 2012. Construction
belongs to Raiffeisen Property International, which invested 100 million Euros for its construction. [25]
The Cathedral of Salvation of the Nation is one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world.
Located in Bucharest on a plot of land on Arsenal Hill, it is the second tallest building in Bucharest. The ground
area is 13,668.5 square meters, the height is 120 meters up to the base of the cross on the main tower and the
architectural style is neo byzantine. The construction started in 2010, finalized in 2018 and cost 110 million
Euros, 80% of which is supported by the state budget.
The next in terms of height is IFMA Tower, which measures 114m, being also located in Bucharest
and dates back to the Communist period; it was put into use in 1988. The elevator test tower is the highest
industrial construction in Europe. The building descends 22m into the ground and thanks to the compact concrete
structure it is the most resistant earthquake construction in Romania. It was built according to Nicolae
Ceausescu's directives, to test the elevators that will be installed in the People's House. [26]
Bucharest Tower Center is a 106.3m office building located in Victoriei Square, ranked third in the
hierarchy of the tallest buildings in Romania. The building has 26 floors, cost 56 million dollars and was
designed by Westfourth Architecture. It was inaugurated in 2007.
"Casa Spantei Complex", known today as the House of the Free Press, was built during the
communist period between 1952 and 1957 after the project of Lomonosov University in Moscow, modified with
elements of Romanian art. It has a height of 104m and for a long time it has been a representative symbol of
Bucharest.
The administrative palace in Satu Mare is a construction of a brutal architectural style built
between 1972 and 1984; it was designed by the architect Nicolae Porumbescu, from Iasi. It has a total height of
97m; it consists of a main tower and three large small ones, being a symbol building: The secondary towers
represent the three ethnic groups in Satu Mare: the Romanians, the Germans and the Hungarians, while the main
tower is the connecting bridge between them.
The residential complex Asmita Gardens, Bucharest consists of seven tower blocks with
commercial spaces, relaxation spaces, apartments and cost 120 million euros. The towers heights are between 66

and 92 meters, ranging from 17 to 25 levels. The highest block is T3, on the top floor being the apartment
located at the highest height in Romania, which costs around 372,000 euros. Year of Inauguration: 2009.
BRD Tower located in Bucharest Victory Square, it was put in use in 2004 and has a height of 87
meters spread over 19 floors. The basement runs on three levels with parking spaces. The project belongs to the
French group VINCI and the total costs amounted up to 68 million dollars. Until the finishing of the Bucharest
Tower Center in 2007, BRD Tower was the tallest office building in Bucharest.
The Metropolitan Cathedral of Timisoara belongs to the Banat Metropolitan Church and it is the
largest religious building after the Cathedral of Salvation of the Nation, being a representative symbol of the city
of Timisoara. It was built between 1936 and 1941, it has a total height of 90.5 meters and it is declared an art
monument. The unique architectural style that combines Romanian religious tradition with Moldavian and
Byzantine architecture is the work of the architect Ioan Traianescu. The cathedral has 11 turrets (towers), the
highest being at the height of 83.7 meters, seven bells with a total weight of 8,000 kg made of material from the
Sumatra and Borneo islands, a length of 63 m and a width of 32 m. Due to the muddy soil and the dimensions of
the construction, the foundation works required special technical solutions; the foundation is made up of a huge
reinforced concrete slab that is supported by over 1,000 reinforced concrete piles embedded up to 20 m deep into
the soil.
The Parliament Palace or the People's Palace, as it was originally called, is the largest
administrative building for civilian use in the world. With a surface area of 330,000 square meters and a ground
floor area of 66,000 square meters, it is the second in the world after the Pentagon and the first in Europe.
According to the World Record Academy, it is the world's heaviest and most expensive building. The
dimensions of the building are 270m x 240m, at the surface it has 86m height distributed on 9 levels and
underground drops up to 92m, also distributed on 9 levels and the architectural style is realistic socialist. For the
realization of the project a contest was organized over several years which were won by a young architect, Anca
Petrescu. She was named the chief architect and coordinated a team of 700 architects. The building started in the
1980’s. The building was put into use in 1997, but it is not completed until today. Over time, a number of
changes have been made, especially underground, changes that have nothing to do with the original plan. The
final cost was estimated at 3 billion Euros.
Bucharest Financial Plaza has 18 floors, three underground levels used as parking and a height of
83 meters. French contractor Bouyques dealt with construction works that ran from 1994 to 1997 and cost a total
of 30 million Euros. With its exterior made of glass and granite, it is the first impressive office building in the
capital city.

4. Building’s evolution in Timisoara [27]

Situated at the crossroads of the commercial and military roads, Castrum (Citadel) Temesiense (1212)
was the main reason of the battles between the Turks and the Austrians. Timisoara has developed an urbanism
plan since eighteenth century around the fortified core. The first Urban Plan was drawn up by the architect Ybl
in 1895; the fortress becomes the center of the city, linked through wide avenues of Iosefin and Fabric districts,
and through a circular ring around the Citadel. The street tram specific to Timisoara has a radial-ring structure.
Based on the data from the architect Ybl, the city's technical service developed a new Urban Plan in 1913, which
tracks the street tram between Cetate and the suburban neighborhoods of Mehala, Iosefin and Fabric.
The first topographic elevations with modern methods were made for the Cetate and Iosefin districts
between 1901 and 1903 and for the Mehala district in 1911. Between 1942 and 1946, the topographic elevations
were renewed for all neighborhoods.
Between 1960 and 1989 the first high-rise buildings appeared in the form of assemblies located in areas
with few constructions. The urban structure has been created over time as a result of the city's development. The
central point in the city was the fortress around which the other districts were formed.
Today, Timisoara, a growing European city, which is following the trend of vertical expansion of large
urban centers, in response to the problems generated by the increased influx of people. The architecture of the
city is a combination of the glorious historical buildings, with the new assemblies that rise because of the
private investors and bringing a lot of modernity to the places.
The Metropolitan Cathedral is currently the tallest building in Timisoara, measuring 90.5 m. Until the
building of the Salvation Cathedral in Bucharest, it was the highest Orthodox Church in Romania.
The next building in terms of height is also a religious one, the Millennium Church. It was built between
1896 and 1901 and it is the creation of the Hungarian architect Lajos János Mihály Ybl. It has two towers of 65
meters, a 45 meter dome and a total height of 65.7 meters. The architectural style is neo roman. The construction
was sanctified in 1901. [28]
Fructus Plaza is a mixed-function building that has offices, commercial spaces and apartments. Particular
attention was paid to thermal and sound insulation. The building is 50 meters high, 14 floors, 102 parking places

located in the two underground floors and five elevators. Costs amounted up to 25 million euros and were
inaugurated in 2012.
The following constructions, in terms of height, are part of the Openville Timisoara ensemble. Openville
(Fig. 2) is the largest office project in the west part of the country and it will include buildings that will host
shops, conference rooms, leisure venues, offices, also including the current Iulius Mall. Office buildings are
reunited under the United Business Center (UBC) brand. The entire project is supported by Iulius and Atterbury
Europe and represents an estimated investment of more than 220 million Euros. [29]

Fig. 2. The Openvill layout

United Business Center 2 is part of Openville Timisoara and it is the first construction completed in
early 2017. It has a height of 60 meters, developed on 12 levels and is the most modern office building in
Timisoara. The design impresses by its size and design: the facades are entirely glass, which leads to the
maximum utilization of natural light. Latest generation technical features were used, aiming at optimizing the
operation and saving resources. In this sense, the Building Management System was implemented, which
monitors the mechanical and electrical equipment - ventilation, lighting, energy systems, fire and security
systems. For employees who use bicycle transport, there are baths with showers and safety bicycle racks. All this
in order to encourage environmental care and at the same time to decongest infernal traffic at rush hours.
United Business Center 1 is the second building completed in 2017, enrolling in the architectural and
technical parameters that characterize the entire complex. The construction was built with respect to the
principles of green buildings and will, having the benefit of LEED certification. The triangular shape gives it
uniqueness and highlights it in the complex's landscape.
Currently, the construction works for the upgrading of the United Business Center 0 will become the
tallest building in Romania. With the 155 meters high it is intended to be the most modern building in our
country. The semi-basement (demisol) and the ground floor will host shops and restaurants; the first floor will be
allocated to the conference halls and in the rest of the building will be carried out business offices. The spaces
are generous, bright, with no inner columns, equipped with ultramodern technologies and energy-efficient
solutions. The unequal facade of glass will provide a spectacular view of the city. The impressive building
dimensions and marshalling structure of the area required the consolidation of the land with over 280 piles.
United Business Center 0 will be finalized later this year.
ISHO Timisoara is a complex project in progress, which proposes a two-part development with completion
in 2020:
• Office building consisting of three-stage office building, a multi-level parking lot and a hotel under the
Radisson Blu brand
• Residential area, called ISHO Living consisting of 6 blocks.

Deployed on a 5-hectare area between Take Ionescu Boulevard and Bega’s shore, situated in the place
of the former ILSA textiles factory, the complex ( Fig. 3 ) will comprise 1200 one-to-four-bedroom apartments
in the residential area, the world's top international hotel in Timisoara and ultra-modern offices, having 50,000
square meters of leasable office space. At the same time there will be a variety of related functions: commercial
spaces, restaurants, cafes, kindergarten, medical services, recreation areas (park, swimming pool and gym) and a
cultural space for events and exhibitions. [30]

Fig. 3. The ISHO layout

The residential complex will consist of six blocks with the following height regimes:
- two blocks: S + P + 6 floors
- two blocks: S + P + 15 floors
- two blocks: S + P + 20 floors.

The whole complex is conceived as a unitary one, after finishing of the buildings foreseen in the first
stage, at least two more blocks will be raised.
ISHO Riverside A is the highest residential building in Timisoara. Competition in terms of height
comes from Openville's United Business Center 0 office building, which at the time of completion will be the
only building higher than ISHO Riverside A in Timisoara.
General Data:
(1)

(2)

Taking into account that the complex is situated in the proximity of the Bega River and the groundwater
level is high, finding a foundation solution for this building has required increased attention. The final solution
adopted for the Riverside A building was the direct foundation with a concrete slab having a thickness of 80 cm,
corresponding to the basement structure (without superstructure) and the indirect foundation on the piles through
the 150 cm concrete slab corresponding to the structure S + P + 20E. The piles have a diameter of 108 cm. The
geotechnical study revealed the need for the execution of 34 piles with a test pile.
During the execution of the piles (Fig. 4), the sumps were left in operation:

Fig. 4. Drilling pillars

Since there is a considerable difference between the level of the natural ground (elevation 0) and the
working depth, special measures were taken before starting the digging and the execution of the piles so that
there is no risk of the banks spreading. Considering this, works were carried out to support the bank by some
retaining walls (berlineza), especially on the perimeter of the site, near the roads and pedestrian traffic (towards
Bega), respectively the protection of the slope with the foil in the areas where there were no neighboring
buildings and the surface of the land made this solution/intervention possible.
After the execution of the piles, equalizing concrete was poured, then a Voltex waterproofing
membrana being applied on the foundation and also on the vertical direction.
The current physical state for the resistance structure is as follows:
• the slab above the 9th floor is poured (the 9th floor is completely finished);

• vertical elements on the 10th floor are 70% completed (concrete), the remaining 30% are reinforced
but not framed yet.
Hotel Continental is one of the city's most representative buildings. Completed in 1971, it is the work of
architect Gheorghe Garleanu and it was wanted to be an urban landmark of the area. The building has a height of
59 meters, height regime S + p + M + 12 + Er and the architectural style is purist modernist.
In 1975, an extension of the hotel took place, including a terrace and a courtyard used for supplying
the hotel, because later, due to the need of space, the terrace was closed. In the early 2000s, the building
underwent extensive rehabilitation processes involving substantial changes to the interior design.

5. Conclusions
The construction of high-rise buildings has increased exponentially in the last decades. The technical
and construction issues for lifting these mega-structures have forced architects to discover innovative solutions
that solve all the problems that arise in a project of such scale.
Following the American continent, which was the pioneer of skyscrapers, Asia and the Gulf have been
the first to lift these buildings due to the investments available in the area.
The way in which high-rise buildings are designed and built today has changed significantly; it’s
primarily concerned with their impact on the city, the neighbors and the attraction of investment in the area.
Specialists aim to maximize the efficiency of this type of construction so that they are both economically and
functionally sustainable.
The highest 3 buildings in the world at this time are:
 Burj Khalifa, Dubai, United Arab Emirates - 828 meters (2010)
 Shanghai Tower (Shanghai, China) - 632 meters (2015)
 Abraj Al-Bait Clock Tower, Mecca, Saudi Arabia - 601 meters (2012)
The highest 3 buildings in Europe at this time are:
 Lakhta Center, St. Petersburg Petersburg, Russia - 462 meters (2018)
 Mercury City Tower Moscow, Russia - 338.8 meters (2013)
 Shard of Glass, London, United Kingdom - 309.6 meters (2013)
The highest 3 buildings in Romania at this moment are:
 Sky Tower, Bucharest - 137 meters (2012)
 The Cathedral of Salvation, Bucharest - 120 meters (2018)
 IFMA Tower, Bucharest - 114 meters (1988)
The highest 3 buildings in Timisoara at this moment are:
 Metropolitan Cathedral - 90.5 meters (1941)
 Millennium Church - 65.7 meters (1901)
 Fructus Plaza - 50 meters (2012)
Innovative technologies and materials are the result of scientific research undertaken worldwide,
accelerating the dynamics of high-rise buildings. This is why all hierarchies will change together with the
finishing of the construction that is currently rising both to us and to the entire world.
In our country, increasing population density in urban areas has led to the need for vertical
development. With the economic development, architects from major cities were forced to find solutions, at least
partially, regarding the problem of agglomeration that negatively affects everyday activities. A key role in this
direction is the private investment that is the engine of the development of this sector and brings huge benefits to
the whole economy.

REFERENCES
[1] Lynn Beadle (2001). Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. CRC Press.
[2] The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2016). "Skyscraper". Encyclopædia
Britannica.Retrieved 25 October.
[3] Data Standards: skyscraper (ESN 24419), Emporis Standards, accessed on line 15 February
2019.
[4] Marshall, Colin (2 April 2015). "The world's first skyscraper: a history of cities in 50 buildings,
day 9". The Guardian.
[5] Adam, Robert. "How to Build Skyscrapers". City Journal. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
[6] Whitman, Elizabeth. "Skyscraper Day 2015: 10 Facts, Photos Celebrating Ridiculously Tall
Buildings around the World". International Business Times. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
[7] Alfred Swenson & Pao-Chi Chang (2008). "Building construction: High-rise construction since
1945". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
[8] "Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers". Archived from the original on 5 June 2007. Retrieved 14
December 2018.
[9] "Home Insurance Building". HISTORY.com.
[10] "How Skyscrapers Work: Making it Functional". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
[11] Gregory S. Aldrete (2004). "Daily Life in the Roman City: Rome, Pompeii and Ostia".
[12] Top 10 world's tallest steel buildings". Constructionweekonline.com. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
[13] Stephen Bayley (5 January 2010). "Burj Dubai: The new pinnacle of vanity". The Daily
Telegraph. Retrieved 23 Ianuary 2019.
[14] "Which World City Has The Most Skyscrapers?". The Urban Developer. 11 March 2016.
Retrieved 1 February 2019.
[15] "Shanghai Tower – The Skyscraper Centre". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. 2015.
Retrieved 7 F Abraj Al Bait Towers, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
[16] "Makkah Royal Clock Tower - The Skyscraper Center". skyscrapercenter.com. February 2015.
[17] "Ping An Finance Center". CTBUH. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
[18] "Lotte World Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
[19] Brennan, Morgan (April 30, 2012). "1 World Trade Center Officially New York's New Tallest
Building". Forbes. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
[20] "Tianjin CTF Finance Centre". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
[21] "IFC Guangzhou / Wilkinson Eyre Architects" 09 Apr 2013. ArchDaily. Accessed 5 Oct 2018.
[22] Chinese article on CITIC Tower's unique geometrical appearance Archived September 29,
2007, at the Wayback Machine.
[23] Pitigoi, Victor. " Taipei-101" . ziare.com. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
[24] Top 10 cele mai inalte cladiri din Romania. media.imopedia.ro.
[25] „Despre Sky Tower”. Sky Tower.
[26] „Liftul spre cer al lui Ceaușescu”. Gândul. 9 decembrie 2008.
[27] „Top 3 cele mai înalte clădiri din Timiș! Sunt și de două-trei ori cât un bloc de 10 etaje, iar una
figurează pe locul opt al unui clasament mondial! Află-le povestea”. Opinia Timișoarei. 7 mai
2016.
[28] „Biserica Millennium, bijuteria din cartierul Fabric”. Digi 24. 19 decembrie 2017.
[29] „Compania Iulius începe, în ansamblul mixt Openville Timișoara, lucrările la cea mai înaltă
clădire de birouri din România”. Openville. 27 aprilie 2018.
[30] Neferu, Andreea.“Isho din Timisoara”. newmoney.ro. Retrieved 9 July 2018.

Analysis of Floods and their Relation to

Wetland Ecosystems
Cucuteanu A.¹, Hrăniciuc T.A.1, Giurma-Handley R.1, Cercel P.1,
Dănilă A.1
1
Technical University Gheorghe Asachi of Iași, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Enviromental Engimeering (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Floods are complex and dynamic ecological systems and two important components of these systems,
hydrology and vegetation are closely linked. The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the influence of changes
in vegetation structure on the extent of floods in the meadow. The study area was the Lower Biebrza basin, a
fairly undisturbed peat bog, located in northeastern Poland. The extent of the floods and the average depth of the
floods were determined by GIS analysis. Various land use scenarios such as grazing or mowing, tree cleaning
and cutting have been analyzed. The obtained results show that the variation of the flood level is closely related
to the vegetation structure of the floodplain, and the applied approach allows a quantitative analysis of a flooded
area size.

Keywords: GIS, average, flood extension, water depth, vegetation.

1. Introduction
The paper presents the application of the unstable hydrodynamic model for the calculation of the hydro-
ecological characteristics of floods in the Basin of the Biebrza de Jos River in northeastern Poland.

The digital elevation model (DEM) was used to determine the flood rate. The model was calibrated
using flood level measurements and checked the intensity comparison to calculate a flood with satellite images.
Consequently, the flood characteristics of the plantations in the hydrographic area have been calculated for the
vegetation season (April to July) in daily time series. Then, their relationships with certain groups of generalized
vegetation were analyzed.

The hydrodynamic model coupled with GIS has been applied to calculate the flood characteristics of the
Lower Biebrza River Basin. The Lower Biebrza Basin (about 300 km2) covers the southern part of the Biebrza
River Valley (northeast of Poland). The phenomenon of floods occurs regularly there after the spring thaw and is
noted as an important factor influencing the development of fluvial ecosystems.

The main issue discussed in this paper is the evaluation of a calculation tool for quantifiable flood
characteristics that can be used to explain trends and other changes in floods and their influence on riparian
ecosystems. A properly calibrated hydrodynamic model appears to be the most appropriate tool for calculating
these types of features for the entire flood plain.

2. Materials and methods

Unsteady flow in natural rivers is usually treated as a one-dimensional flow in practice and is based on
St Venant equations. St Venant equations consist of the dynamic equation and the continuity equation. When
water discharge and water level are dependent variables, these equations are written respectively as:

(1a)

(1b)
where:

Q = discharge [m3/s]; h = water level [m]; x = distance [m]; t = time [s]; A = cross area of flow [m2]; B = width
of water surface [m]; K = conveyance factor [m3/s]; g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2]; q = lateral inflow
[m3/s/m]; = momentum correction factor.

The conveyance factor K is expressed as:

(2)
where:

R = hydraulic radius [m]; = average dimensionless friction factor.

This model can used as a simplified description of flow resistance expressed by the spatially
differentiated the Darcy-Weisbach relationship with the introduction of a water mass and momentum exchange
process between the main channel and the floodplains and parts of a cross-section covered with vegetation and
those with no vegetation.[5]
Field monitoring in the Lower Biebrza Basin proves that during flood periods, the river valley consists
of parts which mainly act as storage for flood water and of active flow areas.[2] The 1D model is capable of
describing flood conditions using the appropriate geometry of cross-sections, which are limited to the flow
active zones. In the model developed, the particular areas for each cross-section were identified according to a
vegetation map and topography determined with the Digital Elevation Model (DEM).[5] The DEM of the Lower
Basin was elaborated with ArcGIS as a raster representation of the floodplain morphology and validated with a
survey.[1]
In the following figure we can see the cross-sections on the digital elevation model.(Fig.1.)

Fig.1. The cross-sections localization in the Lower Biebrza Basin

The water level values calculated with the numerical model of flood-flow for cross-sections were next
used to determine the digital model of the floodwater table in the valley. Then, inundation extent maps and
water depth maps were calculated for whole area of the valley by overlaying the DEM and water table layers.

This procedure, flood simulations with the hydrodynamic model and GIS analysis for determinations of
inundation extent, was repeated for each day of the vegetation season (April-July). Based on calculated daily
inundation maps, the flood statistics were calculated as follows:
 long-term annual mean inundation extent map; long-term annual maximum mean inundation
extent map; long-term annual mean flood frequency map.
Finally, the spatial relation between the flood statistic maps and the vegetation maps was analyzed in
ArcGIS using Cross-Tabulation and Zonal Statistic functions. [3]

3. Case study

The Valley of the Lower Biebrza has a characteristic, zonal pattern of plant communities, which
entirely reflects hydrological conditions dominating in the study area.
The analyzed swamp is located in the lower basin Biebrza, a marginal valley, where the floodplain
meadow (21 000 ha) is a predominant morphological structure, covered by moss of marsh vegetation, ranging
from bark, marsh and reed to shallow bushes, alder forest, forest of coniferous marsh and peat. The most
valuable ecosystems are not only the natural areas of the peatlands, but also the large semi-meadow open areas,
which are the result of an extensive use of agriculture. [5]
Habitat-dependent habitats in the Biebrza marsh are undergoing a steady underground flood or flood in
water, which is regularly produced and reinforces annually these representative water ecosystems. Changes in
water conditions and the discontinuation of extensive agriculture determine the transformation of meadows and
pastures into high plant vegetation, reed and ultimately the succession of shrubs and forests on non-forest
ecosystems that can be seen in some places in the valley of the Biebrza. [4]
In the next figure (Fig.2.) you can see the research area for making this article.

Fig.2. Research Area

4. Results
The above described developed hydro-dynamic model of river flow was ap-plied for calculation
of annual floods in the Lower Biebrza River Basin.
Table 1 presents the results of calculations with the model, mean water depth from 0.18 m to 0.44 m
and ﬂood volume from 650 329 mln to 1 679 406 mln .This explains the magnitude of the typical extent
of inundation.

Table 1. Typical presentation of flood rate analysis

Time Area (ha) Average depth (m) Volume (mln )

23 April 339,34 0,40 1.357.351
7 Mai 379,96 0,44 1.679.406
20 Mai 359,30 0,42 1.501.874
3 June 302,79 0,36 1.098.536
15 June 237,31 0,32 755.603
28 June 137,73 0,26 351.215
11 Julie 572,63 0,20 1.168.155
16 Julie 531,06 0,20 1.067.436
22 Julie 363,31 0,18 650.329

Results show relatively wide variability of calculated maximum flood parameters for respective
dates (fig. 3). As you can see in the map of April 23, the volume of the river is getting bigger and floods an
important area of vegetation, following the melting of snow (fig. 4). The flood statistical maps were compared
by overlying them on a map of the plant communities (fig. 4). The map was generalized into river flood
frequency dependent zones.

Fig. 3. Flood Map Fig. 4. The vegetation map of April 23rd

The following table (Table 2.) shows data indicating the percentage of vegetation type affected by the flood.

Tabel 2. Date of vegetation during April 23rd

Flood 23 April
Area Average
Vegetation Area [ha] %
vegetation[ha] depth [m]
Strains on
667,5
tusc 6,68
shrubs 34,87 0,35
grass 215,44 2,15
forest 231,44 2,31
open water 97,75 0,98
grassland 3393,37 460,31 4,60 0,4
rush 568,25 5,68
grass and
38,25
rumors 0,38
reed 379,75 3,79
loose and
689,44
reed 6,89

5. Conclusion
Water is one of the most important conditions that determine the status of wet ecosystems, while floods
determine the living conditions of ecosystems. The modeling work done for the Biebrza Valley shows that there
are strong relationships between flood frequency maps and different water dependency classes.

The analysis of the flood and plant communities together shows a satisfactory spatial relationship
between water areas and vegetation types. As such, it can be concluded that a properly calibrated hydrodynamic
model of river flow into the river and meadow was positively tested as a suitable tool for calculating the flood
characteristics.

The quality of the results calculated with the model of frequency, flood duration, and water depth are
strongly dependent on the quality of water level calculations and the quality of the DEM.
The hydrodynamic model is an appropriate tool for assessment of various agricultural practices with
regard to the effective management to protect the unique wetland site of the Biebrza National Park.

REFERENCES
[1] Chormański J. (2003). Methodology for the flood extent determination in the Lower Biebrza
Basin. Ph.D. thesis, Warsaw Agricultural University, Warsaw, pp 186.
[2] Chormański J., Mirosław-Świątek D. (2006). Monitoring of the spring flood in the Lower Biebrza
Basin, Polish J. Environ. Stud., vol.15, No. 5D, Part I: 122-126.
[3] Chormański J., Mirosław-Świątek D., Okruszko T. (2004). Remote Sensing limitation in flood
modeling verification in wetlands. In Eds. Kubrak J., Okruszko T., Ignar S., “Model application for
wetlands hydrology and hydraulics”. Warsaw Agricultural Press, Warsaw, p.51-72.
[4] Jarosław Chormański, Dorota Mirosław-Świątek, Robert Michałowski (2009) “A hydrodynamic
model coupled with GIS for flood characteristics analysis in the Biebrza riparian wetland“. Department
of Hydraulic Engineering and Environmental Restoration Warsaw Agricultural University ul.
Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland.

[5] Dorota Miroslaw-Swiatek (2012)“Unsteady 1D Flow Model of Natural Rivers with Vegetated
Floodplain – An Application to Analysis of Influence of Land Use on Flood Wave Propagation in the
Lower Biebrza Basin “. Warsaw University of Live Sciences - SGGW Poland.

Generation of Flood Hazard Maps for Jijia River

Dănilă A.1, Giurma-Handley R.1, Hrăniciuc T.A.1, Cercel P.1,

Cucuteanu A.1

1
Technical University Gheorghe Asachi of Iasi, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Enviromental Engineering (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Nowadays, when speaking about the flood management, flooding is one of the main concerns, in the
urban areas, where flood consequences might be critical. In order to decrease the negative consequences, the
flood assessment and management need to be done. Therefore, the European Commission put into force the
European Directive 2007/60/EC. According to Directive flood risk and hazard maps should be designed.
The present study was carried out to develop a river model and to generate flood hazard map and risk
map of a river sector for Jijia which traverses Dorohoi town using InfoWorks ICM software modelling through
detailed parameterization of river channel. Necessary data were collected and transferred into the required
modelling procedures. The results indicated that the model was able to simulate the flood depth to a reasonable
agreement and generate the flood maps. This scenario would potentially magnify the impact and magnitude of
future flash flood events in this region. The tasks involved hydrological modelling, hydrodynamic modelling,
ground model and generation of flood risk map.
Keywords: flood plain simulation, flood hazard map, 2D hydraulic modelling.

1. Introduction
Flooding is a natural part of a river's cycles which affects many regions around the world. It is an
inevitable natural phenomenon occurring in all streams and natural drainage systems from time to time which
not only produces damages to the natural resources and environment but also causes victims, destabilizes the
economy and health. Human activity has aggregated the natural flood occurrences by walling off rivers and
straightening their courses. Nowadays, floods are disasters, causing tremendous property loss each year. [1]
A flood study is an essential tool for both urban and non-urban land use planning and policy
development. A well-informed and implemented study can identify, quantify and communicate to decision
makers and stakeholders the risk of flooding to people, property and infrastructure. The main purposes of a flood
study are to provide sufficient information so effective and appropriate planning decisions can be made in terms
of land zoning for future development, identification of appropriate flood protection or warning mechanisms and
to raise awareness within the community of the potential socio-economic and environmental risks associated
with flooding. [2]
In this research, 5 km of Jijia River, was selected, reproduced and analyzed. The main objective of this
study was to develop this river model in order to generate the flood hazard map for the management of the future
flood in the basin. It was presented the results of 1D-2D dimensional hydraulic modelling of the inundation area
of Jijia River in Dorohoi. Remotely sensed data were used to derive a digital elevation model and to assign
surface-roughness parameters. Also it was used a ICM system to host the hydraulic model; to calculate the
steady water-surface elevation; to visualize the flooded area; and to assess flood hazards. The results of this
research could be used for flood mitigation planning purposes, regarding to the historical flood threatens in the
study area.

2. Study area
The case study has been made on a 5 km sector of Jijia River. The Jijia hydrographic basin is located in
the north-eastern part of Romania, being part of the Moldavian Plain. From the hydrographic point of view, the

Jijia basin area is part of the Prut River basin, the Jijia River being a tributary of its right. From the
administrative and territorial point of view, the study area corresponds to the Dorohoi County (fig, 1).The
catchment is irregular in shape. The region is mainly a mix of 76.9% of urban, industrial and commercial area
whereas the other 23.1% are the forestry, agriculture and water bodies.

Fig. 1. The location of the Jijia River on the territory of Romania

3. Methodology
The software Infoworks ICM by Innovyze was adopted to assess flood hazard in this research. As
hydrodynamic modelling software this program includes full solution modelling of open channels, floodplains,
embankments and hydraulic structures. Using both event based and conceptual hydrological methods, the
rainfall-runoff simulation is also available using geographical plan views, sectional view, long sections,
spreadsheet and time varying graphical data in full interactive views of data. Full flood mapping capability is
provided based on a sophisticated flood-interpolation model overlaid onto an imported ground model. [3]
The required data to carry out the present study in setting up this model includes the river spatial and
geometrical data, hydraulics and hydrological data. For the development of the model used in this study, the
digital geometric data in Shape format file was imported into InfoWorks ICM. The spatial locations of the river
and their properties were obtained from the digital map and DEM using GIS techniques.
The cross-section profiles of Jijia basin were obtained from the Department of Design and Construction
of Hydro. There are 9 river cross-section profiles study and they are judged to be representative of the channel
shape and form. Figure 2 shows the layout of the model and the location of the cross-sections along Jijia.

Fig. 2. Aerial photo of Dorohoi crossed by part of the Jijia, with the location of the sections

Channels have been modelled as 1D river reaches where bathymetry data is available with the
remaining wetland area modelled using a 2D mesh.
Bank lines were created along the left and right banks of the Jijia for the areas represented using 1D
channels. These generally represent the line of the highest ground between the channel and the floodplain, except
where small channels run through the banks into the 1D reaches where a low point is represented. The bank line

levels are used by the model to define the interaction between the 1D channel and 2D floodplain. Bank lines are
assigned a discharge coefficient and modular limit (drowning ratio), with initial values of 1.00 and 0.90
respectively used throughout the model.
A global Manning’s n roughness of 0.055 was used for river. Tidal areas may in general be expected to
exhibit lower roughness than fluvial reaches due to the finer sediments in the channels.
A coarse mesh element size of 23950000m2 is applied on the floodplain. This capture the detail of
small channels and other floodplain features such as banks; it allows fast simulation of long time series events
whilst maintaining the volume of tidal flows onto the floodplain. The mesh size decreases significantly in the
area of the channels, so that individual bank features are captured in the 2D mesh.
Flow-time boundary was applied on Jijia and Buhai as the upstream inflow hydrographs. For flood ICM
simulation, based on the LiDAR-type elevation raster, an .asc file for the Jijia River meadow was generated. The
flood simulation was performed for three levels of insurance, these being: 1%, 2% and 5%.

4. Results

The hydraulic model realized with InfoWorks ICM can produce both 1D and 2D results.
The 1D results are in the form of discharge, velocity and water level time series for each section
included in the model (fig. 4). Maximum values associated with these outputs are also available.
The high water level along Jijia River can be shown in longitudinal section illustrated in Figure 3. This
figure gives the overview of the water level for the complete section of the river. At any section that the water
level is higher than the bank level, flood will occur.

Fig. 3. Long section view of Jijia River Fig. 4. Example of 1D results of a cross section

The river model can output 2D results, such as flood level, depth, velocity and hazard at regular
intervals throughout a simulation. The maximum values associated with these outputs have been produced as 2D
grids of 2m resolution. These 2D grids have been processed into flood maps.
It should be noted that flood hazard is automatically calculated by the hydraulic model as a function of
depth and velocity (with a debris factor included), following the DEFRA methodology.
To assess the hydrological risk and vulnerability of the Jijia, several floodplains were generated with
theoretical assurance of 5% (20 years), 2% (50 years) and 1% (100 years). These simulations were designed to
analyze potentially flooded areas they generate.
Hazard maps related to flow depths, velocities and the combination of both flow parameters were
generated. For the current scenarios these maps were elaborated obtaining the results shown in the figure 5,
6,7,8,9, and 10. It is possible to observe that the depth of the water in most of the areas reach 0.6 m.
Figure 5 shows the extent of flooding for 20 year return period across the river Jijia. The simulation was
run on 5 hours, with a flow of Q5%=100.5 m3/s for Jijia River and a flow of Q5%= 94.5 m3/s for the Buhai
tributary. The total flood area generated by a 5% assurance flow reaches a value of32.82 ha. The maximum flood
level, associated with 5% probability of occurrence, reaches a value of 4.46 m in the narrow areas of Jijia. In the
sinking areas of the small bed, the floodplain area widens, but the level of flood water is lower.

Fig.5. The flood contours map with probability of 5%

The figure 6 illustrates the calculated flood extent by the study model. The duration of the simulations is
5 hours, with a flow rate of Q2%=165.5 m3/s for Jijia River and a flow rate of Q2%= 135.5 m3/s for the Buhai
tributary. The flooded area is 32.82haand the maximum flood level is 4.63 m.

Fig. 6. The flood contours map with probability of 2%

For simulation of flood with the probability of producing a 1 to 100 year frequency flow, the flow rate
was 220.5 m3/s for Jijia River and a flow rate of Q1%= 170.5 m3/s for the Buhai tributary. The flooded area is
37.46 ha and the maximum flood level is 5.11 m. There is a noticeable difference between the simulations.

Fig. 7. The flood contours map with the probability of 1%

Fig 8. The flood risk map with the probability of occurrence of 1 in 20 years

Fig 9. The flood risk map with the probability of occurrence of 1 in 50 years

Fig 10. The flood risk map with the probability of occurrence of 1 in 100 years

The flood hazard maps are important in terms of developing the flood risk map. For this, two basic
hydraulic parameters (depth, velocity) are extracted to calculate the flood risk. From the multiplication of this 2
hydraulic parameters h x v (water depth x water velocity) result the qualitative flood risk. Depending on the
value of the multiplication of these 2 parameters, the flood risk can be low, medium or high. In the figures 8,9
and 10 the flood risk maps are illustrated. The maximum reached value for the risk associated with a flood that
appears once in 20 years is 5.44, for the flood that appears once in 50 years is 5.74 and for the flood that appears
once in 100 years is 6.21.

5. Conclusions
The accurate evaluation of the flood hazard in an urban environment is an important challenge in terms
of risk prevention, on the one hand to better identify the possible high-speed danger zones that could endanger
human lives during events of high magnitude, and second to be able to define the most appropriate rules taking
the risk into account in urban planning.
In this study, InfoWorks ICM software has been used in order to create a coupled 1D/2D model and to
estimate the flood plains along a sector of the river Jijia that cross Dorohoi town with 100 year, 50 year and 20
year demonstration frequency and floodplains. At the beginning all geographical data are set in GIS, later all
prepared data are imported to InfoWorks ICM. The 1D/2D coupled model presented in this paper covers 5 km of

waterway and 23 km2 urbanized areas, for a calculation time of about 5 hours. Although in this work the ICM
model was used to study in more detail the area surrounding the town of Dorohoi, these tools may be applied to
the study of flood situations in other locations within the river Prut basin and nationwide. The implemented
model showed to be efficient for the simulation of flood events and could be used as a base model for the
implementation of a flow forecast system at this river basin to support early warning and water management
decisions during flood events. The vulnerable areas were identified.
The suggestions for future studies are formulated below:
1. According to Innovyze (2017) [4] InfoWorks ICM has the ICM Risk Master tool with the option to
estimate the economic impact of floods relative to an estimated annual damage (EAD) value. Hence, it is
recommended to use ICM Risk Master for further analysis and projects similar this study case.
2. According to (DEFRA, 2010; Jha et al., 2012) [5] the cost-benefit analysis as well as key figure
methods are becoming a standard tool for the flood management and help to estimate the most beneficial
mitigation measures. To make cost-benefit or key figure analysis of suggested measures seems to be reasonable
in this project as well and can be recommended for projects similar to this study.

REFERENCES
[1] Mohsen Salarpour, NorhanAbd. Rahman and Zulkifli Yusop (2011). Simulation of Flood Extent
Mapping by InfoWorks RS-Case study for Tropical Catchment, Journal od Software Engineering,
Vol. 5 (4): pp. 127-135.
[2] Hrăniciuc Tomi-Alexandrel (2011). Cercetări privind amenajarea complexă a bazinelor hidrografice
pentru protecția împotriva inundațiilor, Teză de doctorat, Universitatea Tehnica “Gh. Asachi”, Iași
[3] Salarpour, Mohsen, Rahman, Norhan Abd, & Yusop, Zulkifli (2011). Simulation of flood extent
mapping by InfoWorks RS-case study for tropical catchment, J. Software Eng, 5, pp. 127-135.
[4] http://archive.innovyze.com/products/icm_riskmaster
[5] Guidelines to Defra / DECC’s GHG Conversion Factors for Company Reporting: Methodology
Paper for Emission Factors, 2012.

Polynomial Distribution of the Local Pressure

Drop in the Case of Wind Turbine

Dubău C.1, Cătaș A.2, Iambor L.2, Borşa E.2

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea
(ROMANIA)
2
University of Oradea, Faculty of Science, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, 1,
University St., 410087 Oradea (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Optimizing the construction solution of the wind turbine blade, we need to obtain those aerodynamic
outlines that achieve a desired functional feature for a certain application. Optimum performance is built through
iterations “geometry-performance” in order to maximize the energy extracted from the wind for exploitation.
The present developed methodology consists on certain mathematical model regarding the maximization energy
issue. In order to find the so called “desirability curve” we propose a certain mathematical distribution applied to
local pressure drop function of the turbine.
Keywords: Optimization process, local pressure drop, wind turbines.

1 Introduction
In the last years a major interest in renewable energy resources has been observed. Many researchers
have had to deal with optimizations process in wind turbine field (see [2], [7], [11]). We also recall the papers
[12], [14].
Between various types of wind turbines the rapid axial horizontal wind turbines are the most
development ones. Many studies are also elaborated taking in consideration the turbines with vertical axes. Such
a study was presented by the first author in a recent paper [4]. Similar studies can be consulted (see [8], [9],
[10]). For the horizontal turbine H2500 we can consult the paper [5]. In this context we also recall the paper [1].
The terms wind energy or wind power describes the process by which the wind is used to generate
mechanical power or electricity. The energy conversion process that turns wind power into electric power goes
through three major conversion steps which will be labeled here as the aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical
conversion. At each step, some energy is lost and the final electric power is less than the total wind power we
started with.
The performance of the wind turbine can be investigated through mathematical models and also verified
by experimental measurements. The achieving of aerodynamic performances, kinematics and energy curves of
the aeolian turbines depend on the choice of certain geometry. In developing of turbine blade geometry are used
improved contours (airfoil) chosen and positioned so that obtained performances for certain site-specific
conditions, to be optimal.

2 Material and method

The physical wind turbine model is a theoretical concept that allows analysis of the amount of energy
that can be extracted from the kinetic of the moving air mass using the classic model.
The classic model of computation, by constant static pressure hypothesis in the whole control volume,
neglects the interaction with surrounding field. This model offers an accepted approximation with real
phenomena only at big values of the speed coefficient in the turbine plane ( kvT  0.5 ).
The blading designing starts from the power evaluation which can be exploitation by the turbine at a
given wind speed. There is obviously necessary a maximization of this power. In the wind turbine literature this
evaluation is currently done using the Betz model. In order to determine the Betz criterion in the turbine power
equation we can also explore the variational method, as we can see in [13].

Turbine geometry optimization consists in selecting those forms that maximizing the exchange of
energy in certain given conditions (wind speed, engine revs). In the process of the optimization an important role
plays the shape of the rotor blades. The aerodynamic optimization of the blade is a very important stage. Many
researchers have to do with this issue. An optimization model rotor blade of horizontal axis is described in the
paper [6]. Also it is interesting to recall the paper [3] where a greedy algorithm used to solve the wind turbine
positioning optimization problem is presented.
The optimization of the turbine designed for an aeroelectrical power station has as a final goal the
maximization of the energy extracts from wind, for exploitation in the specific conditions of a certain
emplacement. This is translated in achievement of an operating curve of a turbine having an allure which ensures
the maximization of the energy. The achievement of such objective generic called „desideratum curves” or goal
function consists in many steps, by successive corrections, starting with an initial geometry.
In order to obtain an appropriate initial geometry we have to take a few steps based on previous
experiences accumulated in the field of wind energy and also based on the designer’s ingenuity. During this
analysis an important role also belongs to the evaluation of the pallet load distribution depending on the radius
blade. This paper provides a mathematical simulation on the computer of this distribution based on the model
proposed in the work [5]. By means of a mathematical model one obtains a certain analytical configuration of
this distribution.
For the first step we establish two operating points of the operating curves, namely the optimal working
point (0) and installation point (1). To the operating point is associated the nominal speed:  N  k  1 . At each
of these points one calculates geometry. The value of the coefficient CP max , after Betz model, is limitated at the
value CP max  0.592 corresponding to the absorbed power respectively CP max  0.8  0.592  0.47
corresponding to the power at the shaft turbine. From the power relation written at the installation point as:

 13  D 2
P1  CP1   
2 4
one obtains

8 P1
D 
CP1  13

3 Results and discussions

We proceed to investigate the established model and operating applications. In this section a computing
method is explained.
In this sequence the input data are:
 axial speed of the turbine –  Tu ;
 maxim power coefficient – CPmax corresponding to the optimal operating point;
 mass density of the working fluid (air) –  ;
 turbine speed – n .

For this model the speed evaluation is computed according to relation below:
   1  k a  a
 Tu  N a   N    k T  N ; k a  ,
2  2   N

where:
 a is the axial component of the current velocity in the output section of the rotor.
According to the proposed model k a was estimated around the value of 0.9, hence
k T  0.95 and k Tu  0.95  N . This value is accepted as constant for the entire pallet.
k Tu  f ( r )  ct.

With these data, in the present sequence, one determines the distribution of the tangential deviation of
the current expressed by the quantity  t , depending on radius r. In order to establish this distribution we start
from the fundamental equation of turbo machinery.
p ( r )
 t (r )  local
  u (r )
where:
plocal  f (r ) represent load distribution blade depending on radius.

Hydraulic turbines are usually built with constant drops along the radius. In this case the hub radius is
limited to relatively high values due to the limitation of the current deviation to the profiles in the small radius
area. In the case of wind turbines due to large dimensions and non-intrusion, there are features that require a
different treatment of the load distribution. The relative radius of the hub results from constructive
r 
considerations much less than conventional hydraulic machines, namely  b  0.2  . This requires a low load on
R 
the sections in this area to avoid the use of very deviant profiles. Due to the finite dimension, the blade ends
must be carefully treated to reduce aerodynamic secondary movements generated by aerodynamic noise. Some
researchers use ellipse load distributions with null loads at the two ends of the palette. The novelty in this sense,
lies in introduction a polynomial distribution applied to the local pressure drop of the turbine.
Further, we will develop this mathematical method. The analytical expression of the theoretical turbine
power is
Pt  Q  ptg
where: ptg represent the theoretical total pressure drop of the turbine (global drop). This refers to the finite
span.
R  rh
Span 
lm
where: R – radius of turbine, rb – radius of the first section (hub), lm – the average chord of the component
profiles of the blade. In order to check the infinite span profile catalog must be corrected the total pressure drop
ptg   k Span  ptg .

The influence coefficient was approximated by the extension of the usually relations at the wing with
finite span.
ptg  l
 1  0.175  m  k span .
ptg R  rh

For the local values, in special conditions of the infinite span, in a-dimensional shape the next
expression polynomial was used y  a  bx  cx 2  dx e
 pt local r  pt local
y , x .y
ptg  R ptg 

Those five constants which appear in the distribution function can be determinate from certain
conditions, taking into consideration the integral power and the imposed local values at the ends of the blades.
In these conditions remain two degrees of freedom through which the load curve allure can be adjusted.
The summation condition can be written as follow:
R
Qptg    ptlocal  dQ .
rh

Thus, we deduce:
R
 pt local dQ
I 
rh ptg  Q
with Q   R  axT and dQ  2 r  axT  dr . One obtains:
2

1
1
 y  x  dx  2
xb

Respectively:
1
 cx3  dx
e 1
 ax  bx dx  0.5 .
2

xb

After integration we obtain:

x2 x3 x4 x  e  2
a b c d  0.5 .
2 3 4 e2

The limit imposed conditions are:

r  R; x  1; y  0
r
r  rb ; x  b ; y  yb .
R
Other two complementary conditions, for the first approximation, can be b=0, e=4.
Thus, we have determined the polynomial constants. Choosing other values of the last two constants
can be change the curve allure.
Finally, we can plot the distribution  pt local  f (r ) which is represented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Distribution of the local pressure drop of the turbine

.
From the relation of the global power of the turbine we can deduce the main data for aerodynamic
computation, posted in the next table (Table 1). For our data in the table below, we choose R  20m .

Table 1. The main values for aerodynamic computation

Regime Optimum level Installation level
Pt [kW ] 340 671
Q [m3 / s ] 9853 13176
 pt  global [ Pa ] 34.5 50.93

 pt  global  [ Pa ] 40.5 59.59

Scavenging area 1206 1206

Using the local pressure drop and a dimensional distribution y  a  bx  cx 2  dx e established above,
we have taken into consideration the next four distributions:
y1  0.022  2.879 x  2.87 x 4
y2  0.339  2.276 x  2.621x 4
y3  0.693  1.539 x  2.231x 4
y4  1

Thus, one modifies successively the loading at the hub with related consequences. The last distribution
is the uniform one. Using Maple commands we have constructed the curves allure which can be viewed in the
Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Comparative analysis of a certain local pressure drop distributions

4 Conclusions
The above formula dedicated to calculus of the local pressure drop distribution, in that specific
polynomial form, allows a better understanding of the optimization process of energy performance of the wind
turbines. They are also permitted a good management of the control and automation.
As it was presented in the above study, were compared and analyzed the influence of the various form
of local pressure drop in the case of a wind turbine. The presented data demonstrate the effect which occurs at a
certain changes in the case of four polynomial distributions. From established relations it can be predicted the
local pressure drop distribution.
The optimization process of the construction of wind turbines is a continuing concern for researchers
and manufacturers in the wind power field, having as finally purposes, solutions capable of performing a
maximize economic efficiency of these aggregates. In order to fulfill this desirable objective it should be identify
certain way to improve the energy recovery, minimizing costs for technical solutions, high reliabilities and good
maintainability.

REFERENCES
[1] Bej, A. (2003). Wind Turbines, Timişoara Polytechnic Press, ISBN 973-625-098-9, Timişoara,
Romania.
[2] Benini, E. and Toffolo, A. (2002). Optimal design of horizontal‐axis wind turbines using blade
element theory and evolutionary computation. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering: Transactions
of the Asme 124(4): p. 357–363.
[3] Chen, K., Song, M. X., He, Z. Y. and Zhanga, X. (2013). Wind turbine positioning optimization of
wind farm using greedy algorithm, Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy 5, 023128.
[4] Dubău, C. (2009). Comparative study regarding the energy of turbines with vertical and horizontal
axis. Annals of DAAAM International Vienna & Proceedings, pp. 1819.
[5] Dubău, C. (2007). The Utilization of Micro-Wind Assemblies within Complex Systems. Timişoara
Polytechnic Press, ISBN 978-973-625-408-6, Timişoara (In Romanian, Ph. D. thesis).

[6] Eke, G.B. Onyewudiala, J.I. (2010). Optimization of Wind Turbine Blades Using Genetic Algorithm,
Global Journal of Researches in Engineering, Vol. 10, Issue 7.
[7] Giguere, P. and Selig, M.S. (2000). Blade geometry optimization for the design of wind turbine
rotors. Proceedings of AIAA/ASME Wind Energy Symposium, Reno, NV.
[8] Gyulai, F. (2000). Contributions on horizontal axis wind turbine theory. Proceedings of the 5th
International Conference on Hydraulic Machinery and Hydrodynamic, Oct. 2000, Timişoara,
Romania.
[9] Gyulai, F., Bej, A. (2000). State of Wind Turbines in the End of 20th Century and Proposals for
Romanian Options. Scientific Bulletin of the Polytechnic University of Timişoara, Romania, Tom
45(59), ISSN 1224-6077.
[10] Gyulai, F., Bej, A., Hentea, T. (2000). Contribution to aerodynamic optimization of horizontal axis
wind turbines for mountain sites. ENERGEX’2000, Proceedings of the 8th International Energy
Forum and the Conference of the International Energy Foundation, Las Vegas, USA.
[11] Jureczko, M., Pawlak, M. and Mezyk, A. (2005). Optimization of wind turbine blades. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 167(2–3): p. 463–471.
[12] Morthorst, P.E. (2009). Wind energy - The facts. Volume 2. Costs & Prices. EWEA. Tong, W.
(2010). Wind power generation and wind turbine design. Southampton: WIT Press. ISBN: 978 1
84564 205 1.
[13] Ochieng R. M., Ochieng R.O. (2016). Analysis of the Betz criterion in wind turbine power
modelling by use of “Variational principle (Method)” in the power equation, International Journal of
Energy, Environment and Economics, Volume 23, Number 2.
[14] Xudong, W., et al. (2009). Shape optimization of wind turbine blades. Wind energy, 12, pp. 781-
803. DOI: 10.1002/we.335.

Analysis of the Linear Thermal Coefficients

According to Multiple Insulation Systems

Ene R.C.1, Brata S.1, Dan D.1

1
Universitatea Politehnica din Timișoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
According to the European Directive 2010/31/EU on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD
recast), the Member States are accountable of supporting activities for the construction of nearly zero energy
buildings with a very high energy performance. In order to achieve the new EU directive objectives, designers,
have to use innovative building components and to comply with the construction details which mostly affect
building envelope heat losses. In order to minimize the energy losses, it is therefore necessary to use a proper
design of the building, i.e. the building elements composing the envelope should assume minimal transmission
losses under consideration of all THs. The present work contains a theoretical comparative study between two
insulation systems. The first insulation system composed by rook wool designed according to the passive house
prescriptions and the second one refers to a similar system made by stone wool panels but with several air
chambers. The first system was implemented in Salonta, Romania in order to assure the insulation of a low
energy high school building. In order to evaluate the differences between the two systems taking into account the
TH effect, the thermal heat flow between the separated environments were computed using the software “Heat
3”. Furthermore, the differences between the two insulation systems were emphasized by determining the linear
thermal coefficient according to ENISO.
Keywords: linear thermal coefficients, TH, thermal insulating façade system, insulating air chambers.

1. INTRODUCTION
With the entry into force of European Directive 2010/31 on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD
recast) [1], each Member State is required to draw up national plans to increase the number of energy efficient
buildings. Moreover, starting from the European Directives, the national legislation encloses requirements,
recommendations and constraints regarding the maximum energy consumption of existing and new buildings,
minimum thermal insulation levels, regulations regarding the inspection of heating and cooling systems, and
requirements regarding the validation of the buildings energy consumptions [2][3].
In order to achieve these objectives, the designers are required on one hand to use high efficient
materials and equipment, while on the other hand to integrate innovative envelope components and to pay great
attention to construction details.
Genuinely, the more addition of an insulation layer only reduces the one-dimensional heat flow, but
does not significantly decrease the multi-dimensional one, if no attention has been paid to the heat flow through
related THs (TH) [4]. Although it is not possible to obtain general results concerning the weight of a TH on the
energy demand of a building, several studies have been presented numerical results for different cases. A study
was conducted in Greece on a typical three level apartment building with an open ground-floor space, with a flat
roof and façades composed of two brick layers with interposed insulation [5]. The study shows that the double
brick wall construction widely used in Greece is affected to a great extent by TH. Even if the actual construction
presents high insulation levels, the heating need can be 30% higher than the one calculated without taking into
account the TH effects. Cappelletti et al. [6] have shown that the weight of TH on building energy needs for
space heating can reach 67% for a building with a double brick wall (U = 0,15 W/(m2∙K)) in a typical Italian
climatic zone.
The impact of TH on the energy quality of a building has also been developed in a study carried out in
the Czech Republic. Here, the case study was a residential building with brick walls and wooden frame windows.
From the same study it is emphasized that the relative impact of the TH on the annual energy demand varies
from 7%, for typical houses of the seventies to 28%, for modern high-efficient buildings. The impact of TH on
the heating demand of different European Member States is usually as high as 30% [7]. Moreover, the higher

level of the building insulation level, the more TH play a relatively increasing role in the global heat losses and
consequently in the energy needs for space heating.
A study on the effects of TH in a Mediterranean climate has been carried out on two building types (terraced
houses and semi-detached houses) and three envelope configurations [8]. The results show that correcting TH is
an effective way of reducing the primary energy heating demand (25% for terraced houses, 17.5% for semi-
detached house), but only a slight improvement – about 3.5% – can be achieved in the cooling performance of
the building. The overall annual energy savings is about 8.5%.
Thus, in order to minimize the energy losses caused by TH, it is necessary not only to design the structural
nodes properly, but also to identify the proper insulating system, in order to make it possible to appreciate the
benefits induced by a correct design.
The thermal bridging effect is determined, in this work, only by means of the linear thermal transmittance, due
to the reduced influence of the punctiform TH. Since this parameter is calculated under stationary conditions, it
is generally applied for building energy need assessment through quasi-steady state methods in the framework of
energy performance technical standards and regulations.
The heat exchange through TH can be calculated using different methodologies specified in the technical
standards [9],[10]. The current European Legislation, presents both simplified and detailed methods to determine
the additional thermal losses caused by TH under steady-state conditions.
The National Technical Specifications [11][12], for existing buildings, consider a percentage decrease of the
thermal resistance of a building envelope element, while European Standard EN 12831 [13] introduces a
corrected thermal transmittance of building element, taking into account linear TH through an increase of the
thermal transmittance of the element. EN ISO 14683[14] standard is mentioned by both legislations as the main
reference for the calculation of heat transfer through TH in all the remaining cases and in the absence of specific
data.
The standard specifies that it can be used only if no details are available on the particular TH or in the case in
which an approximate value of the linear thermal coefficient (Ψ) is appropriate to the required accuracy.
In case of the numerical calculations, EN ISO 14683 refers to EN ISO 10211 [15]. The document establishes
the specifications for a geometric model of two- and three-dimensional TH. EN ISO 14683 indicates the
following accuracy of the calculation methods:
-numerical calculations according EN ISO 10211 (+/- 5%)
-TH catalogues (+/-20%)
-manual calculation (+/-20%)
In order to determine the consequences of a new insulation system [16] regarding the additional heat losses
caused by a TH, several of the most relevant THs contained in a high efficient building where theoretically
studied and compared to the same building elements, under the assumption that the junctions are insulated by the
new insulation system.

1.1 High school building of Salonta. General description

The theoretical investigations were carried out using the characteristics of a low energy building (LEB) in
Salonta, Romania. The building (Fig. 1) is one of the first public building built in Romania according to the
Passive House (PH) prescriptions, general concept and details. The architecture of the building was developed to
fit the local site requirements, being a central area with old classic buildings. The building has 4 levels and a
total area of 4000 m2.

Fig. 1. The façade of the high school building [16]

The exterior closing walls consist out of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry (AAC) GBN25 insulated
by a system of rock wool panels 1200mm x 600mm x 150mm. The insulation material i.e. rock wool is a fibrous
material formed by spinning or drawing molten mineral or rock materials such as slag and ceramics. Beside the
good thermal performances stone wool has inherent drying potential and is vapor repellent.

The air chambers are separated by rock wool stripes in order to reduce the heat transfer caused by the
convection currents [17]. The length and width of the rock wool panel (Fig. 2) have standard dimensions, i.e.
1250 mm x 600 mm. The total thickness of the insulation panel was increased by 140 mm from 100 mm to 240
mm by adding the 7 additional air chambers. Each air chamber has a thickness of 20 mm.
The edges of the panel consist of a continuous stripe of rock wool (25 mm wide) in order to assure a
stiff area for the mechanical fixing system composed of polypropylene dowels and polyamide anchors. Using the
geometrical data and thermal properties of the panel a theoretical study was performed to analyze the general
behavior of the system and make comparisons with the traditional solution used on the new LEB in Salonta [16].

Fig. 2. Rock wool panels with parallel air chambers [16]

1.2 The insulating façade system with parallel air chambers

In order to evaluate the impact of the thermal performance of the high efficient building, a new
insulation system based on parallel air chambers contained in stone wool panels has been proposed to be studied.
The proposed insulation system consists of a rock wool panel with a regular mesh of air chambers embedded
into the panel. The main purpose of the new system was to maintain the approximate amount of building
materials (stone wool) but in the same time to increase the insulation performances of the wall.

2 Characteristics of the studied thermal bridges

As the goal of the present work is to model the part of the whole building that includes THs, the cut-off
planes must be selected so that the impact of the TH is the same as if the entire building was to be directly
calculated. EN ISO 10211 [10] defines minimum distances between the cut-off planes and the investigated TH.
These distances depend on the particular detail investigated. Generally speaking, a distance of 1 meter from the
TH is required, but for the studied THs, a distance of 1,2 meter for horizontal building elements and 0,8 meter
for vertical elements was selected in order to replicate the model in “Heat 3”.
In order to reduce the TH effect from the design phase of the building, the columns were withdrawn by
50 mm from the exterior side of the AAC masonry. The remaining gap is filled by an additional 50 mm thick
local insulation stripe of rock wool.
The application of a local thermal insulation leads to other behavior problems in time. The local
insulation layer represents an additional obstruction for the heat flows and for the capillary migration of water.
Because of the heat flow variation in comparison to the rest of the façade, the external plastering is exposed to
the thermal shocks and humidity variations different than the rest of the façade causing additional tension forces.
In order to prevent surface cracks of the exterior plastering caused by the tension forces, a fiberglass plaster
mesh was embedded in the exterior plaster layer. Due to the insignificant thermal resistance, the fiberglass
plaster mesh was neglected in designing the model for a computational calculation [18].
In the case of the convex corner, the walls of the high school buildings related corner form an angle of
94.8ᴼ. In order to enlarge the usefulness of the study, the corner was presumed to form a angle of 90ᴼ.
A novelty for the National Regulation [11] regarding THs is the foundation beam under the ground slab.
The reinforced concrete structure of the building is supported by a beam-grid base foundation i.e. a system of
isolated foundations which supports a system of reinforced concrete beams which in turn support the walls [19].

Fig. 3. Additional rock wool insulation stripe

In an earlier study it was observed that in multi-story buildings, a major leakage sources in the
exterior walls are found to be windows and windows frames besides the balcony doors and vertical shafts
[20] [21].
The Passive House Standards recommend to fix the window frames around the middle point of the
exterior insulation layer on an exterior wooden framework, in order to reduce the heat flow at the horizontal
window edges. In the case of the existing high school building, due to the multitude of glazed spaces, the
designers have disregarded the additional wooden framework and accepted to fix the window to the masonry
layer on the exterior third of the AAC with.
In case of the TH between the building elements and ground, a depth of 7,0 meters measured from the
foundation depth was used in accordance with the National Regulations.
Because the software is limited to a number of 100000 cells, the 7 air chambers having a thickness of 20
mm where modeled as one material layer having a conductivity of 0.13 W/(m·K) and a thickness of 140 mm.
The temperatures were selected in accordance with the National Regulation [12], whereas surface
resistances depend on the direction of the heat flow and on the purpose of the TH calculation. For surface
resistances for the calculation of the linear thermal transmittance, reference is made to the EN ISO 6946 [22].
The temperature for the unheated attic space was computed with the software Allenergy [23] and set to 5 ᴼC.

Fig. 3 Positioning of the studied THs

2.1 Determination of the linear thermal coefficients

The building details where submitted to a three-dimensional steady state heat transfer calculation with
the software “HEAT 3”. The software provided by a Swedish company [24] is validated against the European
standards [10] and used by multiple universities and research institutes along the world.
The thermal flow (Φ) caused by the temperature variation between the different environments adjoining
the THs was determined first according to the temperatures provided by the national regulation. The linear
transmittance coefficient was determined according to eq. 1 [11].
 B
  Eq. 1
 R
where: Ψ-linear thermal transmittance W/(m · K); Φ-heat flow between different environments;
 -temperature variation between environments; B-interior dimension of the TH (m);

R- thermal resistance ( m  K )/W

The heat flows in case of both insulation systems, are presented in table 1. In line with the considered
TH, the determined heat flows and the thermal resistances of the adjoining building element of the envelope are
presented comparative for both insulating systems. The linear thermal coefficients are presented in the third
column of each section. The last column of table 1 contains the heat flows variation between the insulating
systems.
Table 1. Variation of the TH effect

existing insulation system new system with air chambers

the rma l
heat flow
th e rma l re s is ta nc e
thermal bridge thermal thermal re s is ta nc e of variation
o f a d join in g b u ildin g Ψexisting a djo ining Ψnew system
flux e lme n ts flux bu ild ing e lme nts

2 2
W m ·K/W W/m·K W m ·K/W W/m·K (%)
c onve x c orne r 20.481 0.099 18.203 0.108 12.51
c onc a ve c orn e r 11.941 -0.079 9.709 -0.097 22.99
inte rme dia te pilla r 17.297 6.096/6.096 0.017 13.924 7.04/7.04 -0.057 24.22
win dow fra me horizonta l e dge s 27.237 0.376 24.212 0.351 12.49
window fra me ve rtic a l e dge s 20.064 0.171 18.041 0.174 11.21
a ttic 16.63 5.967/6.599 0.073 13.405 7.04/7.762 0.058 24.06
fou nda tion b e a m - gro und s la b 0.486 5.967/6.413 -0.084 - - - -
e xte rior wa ll - groun d s la b 10.322 5.967/6.413 0.0225 10.144 7.04/6.413 0.021 1.75

Considering the symmetry of the first three studied joints, there has been determined only one linear
thermal coefficient for each TH, even though in a more precise manner, we should have considered two even
linear thermal coefficients. According to the preliminary results, the new insulation system based on several air
chambers is between 2.62-13.08% more efficient than the existing insulation system if we consider the
determined variation of the heat flow adjoining the studied THs. The leading variation is visible in case of the
attic (24.06%). Here, the insulation thickness is the biggest (25 cm) and the difference between the insulation
panels is more evident.
In case of the slab over ground level, the insulation system based on air chambers was not employed
because, so far, no compression stress test where carried out on the new system. Because the insulation
corresponding to the ground slab is designed to sustain considerable bigger compression forces, the insulation
with parallel air chambers was implemented only on the exterior wall surface. Because of this, the variation
between the insulation systems is the smallest in case of the TH corresponding to the exterior wall – ground slab
junction, reaching only 1.75%. Therefore, in case of the thermal constituted between the foundation beam and
ground slab no heat flow was determined for the new insulation system because the only the thermal insulation
of the ground slab is allocated to this junction.

3 CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a theoretical study regarding the influence of a proposed insulation system based on
several parallel air chambers applied on several THs. The results where compared to the theoretical values
obtained for the heat flows of a traditional existing insulation system applied on a LEB. The basic results show a
positive influence of the new insulation system on the linear thermal coefficient with an improvement comprised
between 1.75-24.06% depending of the studied TH type. The efficiency is most visible where the thicknesses of
the insulation layers are bigger.
In order to evaluate the influence of the new insulation system on the heat flows adjoining the THs, the
heat flows between the interior and exterior environments where determined using the software “Heat 3”. The
comparation of the two insulation systems was carried out by determining the linear thermal transmittances (Ψ)
according to eq. 1.
A material adjustment of a junction generally determines a change in the most Ψ value influencing
design variables. Since a variation of the linear thermal transmittance affects the energy need of a building, the
performed analysis has allowed estimating the influence of the new insulations on the linear thermal coefficient.

Furthermore, more studies are required in order to comprehensively understand the improvements of the
insulation layer based on air chambers. Hereafter, an environmental impact of the composing life cycle stages of
the new system is intended to be studied in comparison with the existing insulation system.

4. Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNDI-
UEFSCDI, project number PN-PN-II-PT-PCCA-2011-3.2-1214-Contract 74/2012.

REFERENCES
[1] European Commission. Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council.
[2] LEGEA Nr. 372/2005 regarding the energy performance of buildings.
[3] LEGEA Nr. 10/1995 regarding the aspectations in the building industry republished in M.0
765/2016.
[4] Alfonso Capozzoli, Alice Gorrino, Vincenzo Corrado (2013). A building THs sensitivity analysis.
Applied Energy, pp. 229-243.
[5] Theodosiou TG, Papadopoulos AM (2008). The impact of THs on the energy demand of
buildings with double brick wall constructions. Energy Build 40:2083–9.
[6] Cappelletti F, Corrado V, Gasparella A, Gorrino A (2010). Detailed assessment of THs in highly
insulated buildings. Clima 2010, 10th Rehva World Congress ‘‘Sustainable Energy Use in
Buildings’’, Antalya, 9–12 May.
[7] Citterio M, Cocco M, Erhorn-Kluttig H (2008). THs in the EBPD context: overview on MS
approaches in regulations. ASIEPI information paper, pp. 64.
[8] Evola G, Margani G, Marletta L. (2011) Energy and cost evaluation of TH correction in
Mediterranean climate. Energy Build 43:2385–93.
[9] EN ISO 14683 (2007). THs in building construction – linear thermal transmittance – simplified
methods and default values.
[10] EN ISO 10211 (2007). THs in building construction – heat flows and surface temperatures –
detailed calculations.
[11] Ordinul 1590/24.08.1212. Anexa K. TH catalogue.
[12] Mc001. Metodologie de calcul al performanței eneretice a clădirilor (2006).
[13] EN 12831 (2003). Heating systems in buildings – method for calculation of the design heat load.
[14] EN ISO 14683 (2007). THs in building construction – linear thermal transmittance – simplified
methods and default values.
[15] EN ISO 10211 (2007). THs in building construction – heat flows and surface temperatures –
detailed calculations.
[16] Ene R, Brata S., Dan D. (2018). The insulating facade system with parallel air chambers.,
Glorep Conference Proceeeding. pp 32.
[17] Mohammad S. Al-Homoud (2005). Performance Characteristics and Practical Applications
Common Building Thermal Insulation Materials. Building and Environment 40(3), pp. 353-366.
[18] European, 5th Promotional Handbook part of SEC’s actions as coordinator of BALKAN OPETin
the framework of the European Union’s OPET Network (2002).
[19] I. Boros, T. Nagy-Gyorgy, D. Dan. (2010). Energy Efficient School Building Concept and
Constructive Solutions. 16th "Building Services, Mechanical and Building Industry Days”
International Conference.
[20] Sherman, M.H.; Chan, R. (2004) Building Airtightness: Research and Practice; Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory: Berkeley, CA, USA.
[21] I Kildsgaard, A Jarnehammar, A Widheden, M Wall (2013). Energy and environmental
performance of multi-story apartment buildings built in timber construction using passive house
principles. Buildings 3(1), pp258-277.
[22] EN ISO 6946/2007 Building components and building elements - Thermal resistance and
thermal transmitance – Calculation (2002)
[23] Galați, AllEnergy software. IPCT București & Algorithm+.
[24] www.buildingphysics.com- ground heat and heat transfer sotware provider.

Strengthening of RC Flat Slabs Against

Punching Shear - State-of-the-art Report and
Preliminary Aspects of Research Program

Floruț S. C.1, Popescu D. A.1, Stoian V.1, Nagy-György T.1, Todea V.1,
Teodorescu A.1
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University Timisoara, 2nd T. Lalescu, 300223 Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The paper addresses an issue of high importance in today’s world of constructions, the punching shear
capacity of RC flat slabs. The development and general specifications of the system are presented as well as the
main data related to a proposed experimental program which is being carried out at the Politehnica University
Timisoara. Moreover, viable solutions for strengthening deficient RC flat slabs against punching shear failure are
discussed, as the research program mentioned before aims to introduce a new technique for this issue.
Keywords: RC flat slabs, punching shear, strengthening, ultra-high-performance mortars.

1 Introduction
The theme of the current paper addresses an issue with high applicability in nowadays civil engineering
industry, as systems that use Reinforced Concrete (RC) flat slabs in residential and office buildings are being
extensively applied. Using RC flat slabs as horizontal structural component provides a series of advantages
mostly for real estate developers and clients, but also leads to a series of structural issues, especially when
considered for structures located in seismic areas. In Romania, the use of RC flat slabs has developed in a rather
sinuous manner, with high applicability prior to 1989, a somehow dramatic drop in the period immediately
following 1989 and a very promising comeback in the recent years. The main advantages of this system refer to
high execution speed and an increased autonomy in terms of partitioning the interior space. The main
disadvantage that partially hold the expansion of the system is represented by the seismic character of Romanian
territory and the perspective of brittle failure of the flat slabs under seismic loads. In Western Europe and non-
seismic areas of the United States of America, the system is applied with a much higher incidence for mid- and
high-rise buildings with residential and office destination, at the same time representing the most efficient and
cheap solution for regular reinforced concrete floor systems [1].
The issue of flat slabs with deficit in structural bearing capacity, mainly against punching, may
frequently appear because of poor structural design (including unfortunate choices for location of ducts or other
openings) and/or execution or due to changes in use/functionality over the years (changes which usually lead to
higher load demands and thus higher stresses). Consequently, high interest should be paid to finding and
implementing viable strengthening solutions, in order to overcome these deficiencies of the system [2].

2 Development of beamless RC slabs

2.1 Incipient stage

RC flat slabs are plates which are supported directly by columns and walls. The system was used for the
first time at the beginning of the twentieth century, with independent research and development on the topic in
both Europe and the United States of America. Engineers G.M. Hill and C.A.P. Turner are regarded as the
pioneers which have greatly contributed to the development of the system, as between 1899 and 1901 a series of
flat slabs had been executed based on the provisions and recommendations issued by Hill while between 1905
and 1909 the system was further developed by being implemented by Turned in a series of project coordinated
by him. In Europe, the first specialist to use the system in a similar approach was Maillart, who led a series of

experimental programs between 1900 and 1908 in order to gain further knowledge of the system. Following the
completion of research and the intercessions to patent the system in 1909, in 1910 the first storage building
having implemented this system was constructed in Zurich. Russian engineer A.F. Lolelit has also designed a
series of slabs resting directly on columns, also significantly contributing to the development of the system.
Details of all these incipient solutions are presented in Fig. 1. The similarity between all the solutions applied in
the emerging phase of the system lies in the fact that all slabs had large areas of drop-panels at the junction
between the plate/slab and the columns. Although tensioned reinforcement was designed using different
approaches and led to varying reinforcement ratios, none of these systems considered specific shear (punching
shear) reinforcement [3], [4].

Fig.1. Beamless slabs of a) Turner - 1909, b) Maillart - 1912, c) Loleit - 1915 [3], [4]

2.2 Theoretical and constructional development

The first theoretical analysis evaluating the forces and stresses that develop in beamless slabs was
performed by Westergaard and Slater and was published in 1921. Finite differences method was used as the
authors considered various loading cases and various contributions of the stiffness of columns and drop panels.
The first set of coded recommendations for the design of flat slabs were given in the US ACI Code for the design
of reinforced-concrete structures that was published in 1925 [5].
Researchers Kinnunen and Nylander are considered to have set foundations for the evaluation of
punching shear effects. The results of their research, published in 1960, considerably affected the knowledge and
understanding available at that time with regard to punching action modelling, which subsequently resulted in
further development of punching models. Regardless of the fact that their theory was developed for the slabs not
specifically reinforced against punching, it served as the basis to numerous researchers who were developing
behaviour models for slabs reinforced against punching action [3].
Until the 1970s, inclined bars and stirrups were the most frequent forms of reinforcement against
punching. The system which is now in regular use for reinforcement against punching was first introduced in
1970s by a German researcher. It comprises of a set of vertical bars with anchoring heads aligned along a single
metal strip [6].
Probably one of the most advanced and up-to-date theoretical approach in the design of flat slabs
against punching is the one based on critical shear crack theory [7], [8], [9], [10]. This was also implemented in
the 2010 published Model Code issued by fib (Fédération Internationale du béton). According to this theory, the
punching shear strength of slabs depends on the slab inclination (rotation) due to load, and the slab stiffness
defined through bending strength [3].

3 General data on flat slabs and punching shear related issues

Regarding their constructional details, RC flat slabs usually fall into one of the following four
categories: 1) Simple flat slabs, 2) Flat slab with drop panels, 3) Flat slab with column heads and 4) Flat slab
with both drop panels and column heads. The general configuration of “Simple flat slabs” and “Flat slab with
both drop panels and column heads” is identifiable in Fig. 2.

Fig.2. Simple flat slabs - left; Flat slab with both drop panels and column heads - right [11]

Resting the slab directly on the vertical structural elements (columns and walls) leads to the need of
transferring relatively high loads onto a rather small concrete area. The governing element which prevails the
design of this load transfer system is thus the slab-column connection, as the high stress concentration in this
area could lead to punching shear failure. Although punching shear term denotes both failure in the area where
concentrated loads are applied and failure at the support, the latter area is usually the critical one [3]. Obviously,
for a plate/slab of a given thickness, the system which is most susceptible to high stress concentration in concrete
and punching shear failure is the “Simple flat slab” one, as the supporting area for the slab is the smallest
possible, no increase in thickness and resting area/perimeter being available.
The punching failure mechanism is characterised by a brittle and sudden failure, followed by a sudden
drop of the load-carrying capacity, without ample signs or warnings prior to structural collapse. The failure is
trigged by cracks which appear inside the slab in the vicinity of the supporting area (vertical structural
element/column) and then develop and propagate towards the extremities of the slab at angles usually varying
between 20 and 45 degrees, leading to a punching failure of the joint. Moreover, this failure mechanism
increases the sensibility of such specimens to imposed deformations and allows for very limited stress
redistribution.
In most cases, the local failure of a joint may cause the failure of the adjacent joints, triggering a
progressive collapse of parts or even the entire building. Even if punching shear failure does not occur, flat slabs
do not represent a very efficient structural system for energy dissipation, which is a highly important structural
property, especially for seismic performance [12]. Thus, this type of failure has to be avoided, the design
requiring extremely careful approach. This has to be avoided even further when addressing flat slabs in seismic
areas with the subsequent requirements in lateral deformation capacity of the slab-column connection.
Overcoming punching shear failure of a slab-column connection is usually done by one of these five
solutions: 1) increase the thickness of the slab, 2) increase the supporting area for the slab i.e. increase in cross-
section of vertical elements/columns, 3) introduce drop panels, 4) use higher-strength concrete and 5) provide
additional shear reinforcement inside the slab, around the supporting area. While the first four solutions
mentioned before result in an increase in punching strength, the only solution that also leads to increased
ductility is the fifth one [12].
The most important parameters which determine the punching shear capacity of a slab-column
connection are: compressive and tensile strength of concrete, reinforcement ratios and configuration of
reinforcement, cross-sectional shape and dimensions of the supports (columns), effective depth of the slab and
configuration and dimensions of openings inside the critical punching perimeter. The failure of a slab-column
area under punching shear stresses is graphically illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. Failure of a simple RC flat slab under punching shear failure; left - [3], right - [13]

4 Strengthening of deficient RC flat-slabs against punching

The issue of flat slabs with deficit in structural bearing capacity, mainly against punching, may
frequently appear as a consequence of poor structural design (including unfortunate choices for location of
ducts/plumbing openings) and/or execution or due to changes in use/functionality over the years (changes which
usually lead to higher load demands and thus higher stresses). Also, some flat slabs might need to be
strengthened due to more severe core provisions and demands.
Existing solutions for strengthening of such deficient RC flat slabs in punching fall mainly into one of
the following four categories: 1) changing of the configuration of the slab-column connection, 2) post-installing
transversal reinforcement, 3) increasing the capacity of the slab in the tensioned area and 4) increasing the
effective depth of the RC slab [11]. However, not considering the solutions that completely transform the
structural system, most approaches follow the same procedure that consists in applying a post-installed system
that would partially reproduce the specific punching shear reinforcement that should have been installed before
casting the concrete or that have been under-evaluated.
The usually applicable solutions can be identified in Fig. 4. These solutions consider the increase of
cross-sectional area of vertical elements (and thus of supporting area for the slabs) in the case of “(a)” and “(b)”,
mounting of post-installed vertical or inclined reinforcement “(e)” and “(f)”, mounting new reinforcement and

casting a new layer of concrete connected to the existing one “(c)” or gluing new flexural reinforcement made of
steel of even Fibre Reinforced Polymers FRPs “(d)”. Each of these techniques clearly leads to some advantages
and disadvantages, the main drawback referring to cumbersome and demanding site execution.

Fig.4. Usually applicable solutions for strengthening of deficient flat slabs against punching failure [13]

Some recent research have been studying some approaches with more applicability and reduced
workmanship such as that proposed by Fernandez Ruiz, Muttoni and Kunz to use inclined shear reinforcement
installed within existing slabs by drilling holes only from the soffit of the slab and by bonding it with high-
performance epoxy adhesive [13], or that proposed by Topuzi, Polak and Narasimhan to use post-installed steel
bolts and flexible washers [14] or by Barros et al. to use a combined solution based on Carbon-Fibre-Reinforced-
Polymer (CFRP) for increasing flexural capacity and CFRP reinforcements as embedded-through-section for
increasing the punching shear capacity [15].

5 Experimental program
The aim of the proposed experimental and theoretical research is to identify the behaviour and
performance of RC flat slabs strengthened/retrofitted by using a new technique. The authors’ proposal represents
an alternative solution to those already available, being based on using Ultra-High-Performance-Fibre-
Reinforced-Cementitious-Mortars (UHPFRCM) applied as a thin layer of overcast material. The solution is
based on the idea that once the new high tensile strength material is applied, a similar effect to those of
reinforced concrete overcasting (see solution “c” in Fig. 4) can be achieved, without the need of thoroughly
connecting new reinforcement with the existing concrete. In this way, the interventions would be a lot less
demanding in terms of labour. Another strengthening/retrofitting solution considers the use of post-installed
vertical steel reinforcement embedded in section using high strength epoxy resins. Finally, the two solutions will
be combined, applying both on same specimens.
The experimental program consists in testing twelve reinforced concrete slabs up to failure. The
elements are large scale ones, having dimensions of 2200x2200x200 mm. On both sides of the slabs, the
specimens have one 400x400x400 mm block, simulating the existence of the resting columns. The specimens are
split into four groups, in each group existing three identical specimens. The first group will consist of three
specimens with no specific punching shear reinforcement. On the three specimens in the second group the
strengthening solution using UHPFRCM will be applied. On the three specimens in the third group the
strengthening solution using post-installed vertical steel reinforcement embedded in section using high strength
epoxy resins will be applied while on the three specimens in the fourth group the two strengthening solutions
presented previously will be combined. The specific details can be observed in Fig. 5 while the general
configuration and reinforcement of all slabs can be observed in Fig. 6.
Due to limitations of the testing laboratory, it was decided to test the specimens as simply supported
along the edges and loaded gravitationally, the bottom side becoming the tensioned one (as opposed to such
slabs in regular structures). The test setup will consist of a 1 m high discontinuous peripheral wall made of brick
masonry and reinforced concrete beams, a rigid loading frame and a hydraulic jack. The load will be applied
onto the top short column and will be distributed over the entire 400x400mm surface of the respective column
through a spatial steel assembly. The load will be applied in controlled increments of 5 kN until full failure will
be reached. All specimens will be tested in undamaged stage (i.e. no specimen will be preliminary loaded up to a
specific value and afterwards strengthened, but all strengthening systems will be applied on specimens prior to
any tests). In order to properly investigate and observe the cracks’ distribution and propagation at the inferior
side and to mount all displacement transducers, the slabs will have to be mounted at a certain height above the
floor of the laboratory. A series of supporting elements were created from reinforced concrete beams and brick
masonry. The test setup can be observed in Fig. 6.

Fig.5. Typical arrangement of the specimens in the four groups

Fig.6. Reinforcement details of all specimens and test set-up

6 Preliminary results
A series of numerical models using general available Finite Element Method (FEM) software were
performed. Using AxisVM and ATENA software, linear and nonlinear analyses were performed for slabs in as-
built condition (i.e. no strengthening system applied). The models revealed the necessity of a strengthening
solution, proving the fact that the behaviour and performance of the flat slab becomes is highly deficient without
specific punching shear reinforcement. The numerical analyses performed in this preliminary stage have also led
to a judicial design, detailing and dimensioning of the experimental specimens. The nonlinear analyses
performed in AxisVM show the internal forces redistribution after the stiffness drops following damaged areas.
Prior to reaching a value of 50% of the maximum load, the distribution of bending moments is similar to that
obtained by performing a linear analysis. As the load increases and reaches 75% of the maximum load the
bending moment is redistributed towards the marginal areas of the slab, as the central area of the slab shows
important stiffness degradation. The load-displacement diagram obtained by performing the preliminary
nonlinear analysis shows that the slab will reach a maximum vertical displacement of 25 mm (L/80) before
collapse, at a vertical load of 600 kN.

7 Conclusions
Considering the characteristics of the experimental program and the proposed solutions for
strengthening, the research program can be considered quite innovative. The program is an extensive one, as 12
specimens will be tested and it covers a gap in the world-wide knowledge of strengthening deficient RC flat
slabs against punching shear, also introducing a new technique which seems promising. By performing this
number of tests, comparative results are aimed to be obtained, in the attempt of establishing the advantages and
disadvantages of each propose strengthening technique.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partially supported by research grant GNaC2018 - ARUT, no. 1353/01.02.2019,
financed by Politehnica University of Timisoara.

REFERENCES
[1] An Engineers Guide to: Economical Concrete Floor Systems, IS063, PCA Association.
[2] Meisami M.H., Mostofinejad D., Nakamura H. (2013). Punching shear strengthening of two-way
flat slabs using CFRP rods, Comp. Struct. Vol. 99, Mai, pp. 112-122.
[3] Bartolac M., Damjanovic D., Duvnjak I. (2015). Punching strength of flat slabs with and without
shear reinforcement, GRAĐEVINAR 67, 8, pp. 771-786.
[4] Kierdorf A. (2006). Early Mushroom Slab Construction in Switzerland, Russia and the U.S.A. –
A Study in Parallel Technological Development, Proceedings of the Second International
Congress on Construction History, pp. 1793–1807.
[5] Furst A., Marti D. (1997). Robert Maillart’s Design Approach for Flat Slabs, Journal of Structural
Engineering, 123, 8, pp. 1102–1110.
[6] Kunz J., Fernández Ruiz M., Muttoni A. (2008). Enhanced safety with post-installed punching
shear reinforcement, Walraven, J.C., Stoelhorst, D. (Eds.), Tailor Made Concrete Structures -
New Solutions for Our Society, Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 679–684.
[7] Muttoni A., Schwartz J. (1991). Behaviour of beams and punching in slabs without shear
reinforcement, IABSE Colloquium, Zurich, pp. 703–708.
[8] Muttoni A. (2008). Punching shear strength of reinforced concrete slabs without transverse
reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, 105, 4, pp.440–450.
[9] Fernández Ruiz M., Muttoni A. (2009). Applications of critical shear crack theory to punching of
reinforced concrete slabs with transverse reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, 106, 4, pp.485–
494.
[10] Lips, S., Fernández Ruiz, M., Muttoni, A. (2012). Experimental Investigation on Punching
Strength and Deformation Capacity of Shear-Reinforced Slabs, ACI Structural Journal, 109, pp.
889–900.
[11] Popescu D. (2018). Masteral Thesis - Politehnica University Timisoara.
[12] Feld, J., Carper, K. L. (1997). Construction Failure, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, pp. 528.
[13] Fernandez Ruiz M., Muttoni A., Kunz J. (2011). Strengthening of Flat Slabs against Punching
Shear Using Post-Installed Shear Reinforcement, AICI Structural Journal.
[14] Topuzi D., Polak A.M., Narasimhan S. (2017). A New Technique for the Seismic Retrofit of
Slab-Column Connections, ACI Structural Journal, 114-S119, pp. 1471–1481.
[15] Barros J.A.O. et.al. (2017). Simultaneous flexural and punching strengthening of RC slabs
according to a new hybrid technique using U-shape CFRP laminates, Comp. Struct. Vol. 159,
Ian., pp. 600-614.

Experimental Investigation on Glulam Beams

Strengthened with CFRP Plates

Furdui I.1, Diaconu D.1, Todut C.1, Fekete-Nagy L.1, Pescari S.1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University of Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Prefabrication is an important factor for reducing wood elements characteristics fluctuation, especially
glulam (glued laminated timber) fabrication. In order to remove wood defects, glulam has been developed over
time by gluing in successive layers, with connection joints shifting, of wooden planks from which defects have
been eliminated and / or corrected. Some advantages of glulam are: it can be easily shaped in different forms and
sections, special aesthetic appearance, low self-weight and high resistance, easy and quick assemblage on site,
good thermal insulation, resistance to corrosive environments, good resistance to fire as long as there is no direct
and constant flame etc.
FRP strengthening systems for timber structural elements has a large use, especially in old buildings
restoration. Because glulam gains more and more ground in front of traditional timber (solid timber) due to its
superior qualities, many constructions use glulam timber. Therefore, in the near future these elements may need
consolidations.
The current paper presents an experimental study on large scale GLULAM beams subjected to flexure,
originally tested to failure, then strengthened and tested again. Before applying the strengthening solutions, all
the cracks were injected under pressure with epoxy resin. Solutions adopted for strengthening is based on carbon
fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) sheets or plates, with and without anchoring systems. The study is aimed to
bring information on crack injection influence on the elements resistance and elasticity.
In conclusion, the main purpose of the experimental investigation is to evaluate the rehabilitation of the
specimens that have suffered degradation and to find solutions for increasing the load bearing capacity of some
elements or the load-bearing capacity of the corresponding cross section reduction.
Keywords: glulam, experiment, timber, strengthening, CFRP, beams etc.

1 Introduction
For over 40 years specific rehabilitation and strengthening problems of GLULAM elements were
studied and the solutions adopted have involved the use of traditional materials like steel and/or timber. Only
recently FRPs were considered for flexural strengthening of GLULAM elements and a series of technological
solutions, theoretical models and guidelines have been developed. The use of composite materials to consolidate
timber structures in general and especially GLULAM is a technique that requires further experimental studies for
larger scale application. Similar experimental researches are available in the literature [1], [2], [3], [4]. Failure
behaviour and repair of delaminated glulam beams was investigated by Ferreira et al. [5]. Brunetti et al. [6]
studied the production feasibility and performance of carbon fibre reinforced glulam beams manufactured with
polyurethane adhesive. Experimental and analytical investigation on CFRP strengthened glulam laminated
timber beams: Full-scale experiments were performed by Vahedian et al. [7]. Important results on strength and
stiffness of glulam beams reinforced with glass and basalt fibres were obtained by Thorhallsson et al. [8].
The experimental program target, conducted at the Department of Civil Engineering from the
Politehnica University of Timisoara, was to develop viable strengthening systems for GLULAM beams and to
study their behavior under loads. Since the program is not yet completed, this paper presents only a preliminary
report.

2 Testing procedure
The testing procedure of the investigated GLULAM beams is shown in Fig. 1. The setup is a four points
loading system and it is widely used by researchers worldwide. The monotonic loading is applied by increasing
the vertical force, simultaneously in two points, in constant steps of 10 kN. The force is induced by two actuators
fixed on rigid steel frames, 2160 mm distance one from another and equally distanced from the middle. The total
length of the beams was 6840 mm, leading to an effective span of 6480 mm. The beams cross section has a
rectangular shape of 160x360 mm and the beams height of 360 mm was imposed by testing stand gauge. Beams
dimensions were chosen in compliance with Romanian standard SR EN 408/2011, according to which the total
length is 18 times the height. After the original tests, the cracks were injected, strengthened using different
solutions and loaded again. Strengthening systems were designed in order to restore the initial beam capacity.

Fig. 1. Test setup and beam characteristics (mm, cm, m)

3 Experimental elements. Strengthening solutions

At this stage of research program, the authors tested a number of 4 elements and their characteristics are
presented in Table 1. After failure, the beams were strengthened using CFRP lamellas in different solutions and
tested again up to failure. Strengthening solutions involved two different anchoring systems: first with externally
bonded lamella anchored with CFRP wrap in 2 points at the ends and second with near surface mounted
reinforcement system (NSMRS).
Table 1. Elements characteristics

Element WxHxL Timber Crack

Strengthening system
notation [mm] quality injection

GL 6 - Unstrengthened

GL 6c 159 x 360 x 6840 GL24h No 1,4x50mm C-FRP Lamella anchored in 2 points with two
layers of 0,166x400 mm C-FRP wrap at the ends

GL 7 - Unstrengthened

159 x 360 x 6840 GL24h

GL 7c Yes 1,4x50mm C-FRP Lamella anchored in 2 points with two
layers of 0,166x400 mm C-FRP wrap at the ends

GL 8 - Unstrengthened
158 x 359 x 6840 GL24h
GL 8c No three 1,4x16mm C-FRP Lamellas in NSMR system

GL 9 - Unstrengthened
158 x 360 x 6840 GL24h
GL 9c Yes three 1,4x16mm C-FRP Lamellas in NSMR system

3.1 The element GL 6c

In this case, the cracks were not injected and the strengthening method involves a CFRP lamella having
a cross section of 1.4x50 mm, bonded onto timber beam by epoxy resin. For a better anchoring, two layers of
0,166x400x450...650 mm C-FRP wrap was used on each. For strengthening the beam, the following
technological stages were considered: timber surface grinding; cleaning the dust and all other residues by
vacuuming or/and using compressed air; primer applying; epoxy resin applying on the timber surface for
lamella; epoxy resin applying on the lamella; lay up the lamella applying pressure with the roller; epoxy resin
applying on the timber surface for wrap anchorages; layup first layer of wrap applying pressure with the roller;
layup second layer of wrap applying pressure with the roller (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The element GL 6c strengthening steps

3.2 The element GL 7c

In this case, the cracks were injected and the strengthening method involves a CFRP lamella with a
cross section of 1.4x50 mm, bonded onto timber beam by epoxy resin. For a better anchoring, two layers of
0,166x400x450...650 mm C-FRP wrap was used on each. Technological stages of injection are: grout the cracks
along them with epoxy resin; drilling of 10 mm diameter bores along cracks, at least 100 mm deep and
150…200mm between them, for attaching injection packers; fix the packers for injection; epoxy resin injection
under pressure. For strengthening, the steps are the same as the element 6c.

3.3 The element GL 8c

In this case, the cracks were not injected and the strengthening method involves 3 CFRP lamellas with a
cross section of 1.4x16 mm, bonded on timber beam by epoxy resin in NSMR system (Fig. 3). NSMRS
technological stages were considered: cutting of 3 grooves on timber surface, a depth of 18 mm and 6 mm width;
cleaning the dust and all other residues by vacuuming or/and using compressed air; primer applying; filling the
grooves with epoxy resin, only half of their depth; introduce the lamellas into the grooves and centre them;
supplementing with epoxy resin if necessary and level the surface

Fig. 3. The element GL 8c strengthened in NSMR system

3.4 The element GL 9c

In this case, the cracks were injected and the strengthening method involves 3 CFRP lamellas with a
cross section of 1.4x16 mm, bonded on timber beam by epoxy resin in NSMR system. Technological stages of
injection are the same as the element GL 7c and technological stages of strengthening are the same as the
element GL 8c.

4 ELEMENTS TEST
All GLULAM beams (unstrengthened and strengthened) were loaded in two cycles:
- first loading cycle was up to 15 kN, representing 0,32…0,40% from ultimate load-bearing capacity of
unstrengthened beams, respectively 0,25…0,31% from ultimate load-bearing capacity of strengthened beams;
- second loading cycle was up to failure.

4.1 The element GL 6c

The failure of the unstrengthened element was powerful with an important deterioration in the beam
tension zone. The strengthened GLULAM beam failure started with the debonding of the CFRP lamella on the
entire length between the anchorages, followed by sliding from anchorages (Fig. 4). The GL 6 beam reached an
ultimate displacement of 63,10 mm at 40,15 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity. The GL 6c beam reached an
ultimate displacement of 85,97 mm at 57,04 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity.

Fig. 4. Failure modes: unstrengthened beam GL 6 and strengthened beam GL 6c

4.2 The element GL 7c

The failure of the unstrengthened element was a powerful one with an important deterioration in the
beam tension zone. The strengthened GLULAM beam failure started with the debonding of the CFRP lamella on
the entire length between the anchorages, followed by sliding from anchorages (Fig. 5). The GL 7 beam reached
an ultimate displacement of 64,77 mm at 39,05 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity. The GL 7c beam reached an
ultimate displacement of 67,09 mm at 37,08 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity.

Fig. 5. Failure modes: unstrengthened beam GL 7 and strengthened beam GL 7c

4.3 The element GL 8c

The failure of the unstrengthened element was powerful with deterioration in the beam tension zone.
The strengthened GLULAM beam failure was after unstrengthened beam cracks pattern (Fig. 6). The GL 8 beam
reached an ultimate displacement of 87,95 mm at 55,45 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity. The GL 8c beam
reached an ultimate displacement of 101,16 mm at 65,61 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity.

Fig. 6. Failure modes: unstrengthened beam GL 8 and strengthened beam GL 8c

4.4 The element GL 9c

The failure of the unstrengthened element was powerful with deterioration in the beam tension zone.
The strengthened GLULAM beam failure was after unstrengthened beam cracks pattern (Fig. 7). The GL 9 beam
reached an ultimate displacement of 106,26 mm at 120,00 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity. The GL 9c beam
reached an ultimate displacement of 95,21 mm at 48,30 kN ultimate load-bearing capacity.

Fig. 7. Failure modes of strengthened beam GL 9c

5 Conclusions
The aim of the experimental testing was to repair elements that suffered degradation and/or to increase
the elements load bearing capacity. The experimental results are shown in the form of load-displacement
diagrams, for each element being drawn two diagrams, one for unstrengthened case and one for strengthened
case.
Analyzing load-displacement curves (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9) we can conclude that: some strengthened
elements present a slightly higher initial stiffness than the reference beams (unstrengthened case), but were
characterized by a poorer ductility; majority of the strengthening solutions exceeded unstrengthened beam load
bearing capacity; injection of cracks lead to deflections decrease; failure occurs in large area without succumbing
to compression in appearance but the upper longitudinal cracks appeared in tabs is far above the initial ones.
Unstrengthened beam GL 9 had an unusual behaviour probably because of high material and fabrication quality
and the failure was powerful with important deterioration.
In conclusion, strengthening efficiency is directly proportional to the beam damage level.

Fig. 8. Load-displacement curves for GL 6 and GL 7

Fig. 9. Load-displacement curves for GL 8 and GL 9

REFERENCES
[1] A. Borri, M. Corradi, E. Speranzini (2001), Trevi in legno rinforzate con barre e con tessuti in
fibra di carbonio, L’Edilizia, editrice De Lettera, 8-9, ano XV,48-56, Milano, Italy.
[2] M. Romani, H.J.Blass (2001) Design model for FRP reinforced Glulam beams, Meeting Thirty-
Four, Venice, Italy.
[3] A. Borri, M. Corradi, A. Grazini (2003), FRP reinforcement of wood elements under bending
loads, Structural Faults and Repair Conference, London, UK.
[4] N. Trung (2010) Multi reinforcement du bois lamellee colle, L’Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussees, Paris.
[5] E. R. Thorhallsson, G. I. Hinrikssona, J. T. Snæbjörnsson. (2017). Strength and stiffness of
glulam beams reinforced with glass and basalt fibres. Composites Part B: Engineering, Volume
115, 15 April 2017, Pages 300-307.
[6] J. G. Ferreira, H. Cruz, R. Silva. (2017). Failure behaviour and repair of delaminated glulam
beams. Construction and Building Materials, Volume 154, 15 November 2017, Pages 384-398.
[7] M. Brunetti, I. P. Christovasilis, M. Micheloni, M. Nocetti, B. Pizzo. (2019). Production feasibility
and performance of carbon fibre reinforced glulam beams manufactured with polyurethane
adhesive. Composites Part B: Engineering, Volume 156, 1 January 2019, Pages 212-219.
[8] A. Vahedian, R. Shrestha, K. Crews. (2019). Experimental and analytical investigation on CFRP
strengthened glulam laminated timber beams: Full-scale experiments. Composites Part B:
Engineering, Volume 164, 1 May 2019, Pages 377-389.
[9] Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Existing Structures – Timber Structures, National Research Council – Advisory
Committee on Technical Recommendations for Construction, Rome – CNR June 2007.

Comparison of Two Solutions for

Strengthening the Reinforced Concrete Deep
Transfer Beams

Gergely V.1, Campian C.1, Pop M.1, Chira N.2

1
Structural Department, Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj, 400027 (ROMANIA)
2
Department of Structural Mechanics Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Cluj, 400027 (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] , [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract

In this paper, the behavior of deep beams retrofitted with FRP sheets and layers is presented and
analyzed. In order to understand the behavior of these beams, an advanced nonlinear finite element model is
used. The nonlinear analyses were performed based on the Modified Compression Field Theory which is a
smeared rotating crack approach implemented in program VecTor2. The finite element models were compared to
the test results in order to validate the models and to further understand the behavior of the test specimens. After
having a validated model, that one was used to perform parametrical studies to investigate the effect of FRP
sheets and UHPFRC layers on the behavior of true-scale deep beams. The variables investigated in a systematic
manner included the aspect ratio of the member, the layout of the FRP sheets, the thickness and fiber content of
the UHPFRC layers. The results were used to compare the effectiveness of the two retrofitting techniques.
The work presented this paper is based on a master thesis, made in co-tutelage between Technical
University of Cluj, Faculty of Civil Engineering ,Romania with the University of Liege, Faculty of Applied
Sciences, Belgium,
Keywords: Deep concrete beams, FRP, nonlinear model, parametric studies.

1. Introduction

In the last century the use of transfer beams rose considerably. Its application extends from high-rise
buildings to bridges in every form and from every type of material. Because some structures having transfer
beams are past their serviceability time, and degradations have appeared, their retrofit is essential for continuous
exploitation.
In order to understand the behavior of transfer beams, one has to define their purpose and the main forces acting
within them. Transfer beams are beams which transmit loads from upper structure to widely spaced lower
supporting elements such as columns or walls. Due to the fact that these beams are used in lower parts of the
building for architectural purposes or for shopping areas, their size has to be big enough to support the whole
upper structure. In some cases these transfer beams can reach up to 2-3 floors height.
Because of their small shear-span-to-depth ratios (a/d<2.5), the main failure loads are not flexural ones,
as in the case of slender beams, but shear failures. Their behavior is best modeled through the strut-and-tie
approach.
In the case of bridges, cap beams create the connection between the deck and the columns. Thus their main role
is to concentrate the distributed forces into point ones. Their span can vary from 25 to 150m, depending on the
traffic on the bridge, the environmental conditions, etc.
They are usually made of reinforced concrete. Retrofitting bridge girders and cap beams can be of great
importance due to their essential role in the infrastructure of a country. Many were built more than 60 years ago,
thus several have serious degradations. In this work, their retrofit using Fiber-Reinforced Polymer sheets and
Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete layers will be analyzed and compared.

Fig.1. Deep cap beams in Dunn Memorial Bridge stub end

2. Modeling of deep beams strengthened with FRP sheets

In order to study the behavior of deep beams strengthened with FRP sheets, several articles concerning
the topic were reviewed and test data were collected. One major criteria was to find experimental studies, which
focused on deep beams that is beams with shear-span-to-depth ratios a/d smaller or equal to 2. This way a proper
shear failure could develop in the samples prior to flexural failure. Another criteria was to find tests, which had
samples large enough for the size of them not the affect the outcome of the results. An experimental study was
selected [2].
In this experimental program the main focus was on the behavior of different CFRP configurations
applied to short beams, which were designed to fail in shear. For this cause the beams were reinforced only with
longitudinal bars, adding no shear reinforcement. The same type of CFRP sheets were used for all the test
specimens (there were to groups, A and B, where group A had CFRP sheets over the whole height of the beam,
while group B was covered only half of the height). Each beam was tested under a symmetrical three-point
loading and the deflection was measured at mid-span and at supports. The geometrical properties are presented
in Figure 2.

Fig.2. Test setup of beams retrofitted with UHPFRC [2]

Figure 3 shows the finite element model (FEM) of beam C-3 built in program VecTor2. As one can see,
the beam is defined as a simply supported one, having a pin support on the left side and a roller on the right. The
load was applied as displacements uniformly distributed on the top steel plate in order to capture the post-peak
behavior of the beam. Steel plates (material C) were placed in both support and load points.

Fig.3. Finite element model [2]

The test specimens from the two distinct groups showed different behavior which was captured with
different accuracy by the finite element models. Group A, where the FRP sheets was applied on the whole height
of the beam, showed better agreement between experiment and prediction results.

3. Modelling of deep beams strengthened with UHPFRC sheets

Another experimental program was taken from the literature to investigate the effect of UHPFRC
strengthening on full scale reinforced concrete beams [3].

Fig .4. Geometry of specimens and strengthening scheme [3]

One beam with reinforcement was used as reference, while the other two were retrofitted with 40mm
thick UHPFRC layers on bottom and side faces. In order to create adequate bond strength between reinforced
concrete and strengthening material, the beams were sandblasted prior to application of UHPFRC jackets. The
jackets were applied directly to the beams, without vibration. Curing of test specimens was carried out at
ambient temperature and humidity.
Also, as in the first case, a finite element model was made, also built in program VecTor2.
It can be observed that in the FEM the critical crack is located in the middle of the beam, while in the in
the experiment it was located near the left load point. This can happen due to material imperfections or
localization of stresses in the reinforcement. Nevertheless several similarities can also be noticed, such as the
multiple vertical cracks between the two loading points, or the existence of cracks at 45° between loading plates
and supports. One can identify the horizontal cracks at the level of longitudinal reinforcements, which indicate
shear failure.

Fig.5. Comparison of crack patterns at failure load between FE model and experiment

4. Parametric Study
In order to study the effect of FRP and UHPFRC retrofit on deep beams, a parametric study was carried
out. Two parameters were studied in the case of FRP retrofit, namely span-to-depth ratio and FRP wrap
configuration. For UHPFRC three variables were defined, namely span to-depth ratio, fiber volume ratio and
layer thickness.
Figure 6 shows the geometrical properties of the beams from the parametric study. As one can see,
some parameters are defined as variable. For these the values are as follows: shear span a= 1900mm, 3800mm or
5700mm; L= 4800mm, 8600mm or 12400mm; and n*FRP wrap which represents the number of FRP wraps on a
beam. This varies from beam to beam, having configurations of width/spacing of 100mm/100mm,
100mm/200mm, 100mm/300mm or fully wrapped for each span-to-depth ratio case.

Fig.6. Geometrical parameters of beams retrofitted with FRP wraps

4.1. UHPFRC retrofitted beam

Figure 7 shows the geometrical properties of beams from the parametric study. As one can see, some
parameters are defined as variable. For these the values are as follows: shear span a= 1900mm, 3800mm or
5700mm, L= 4800mm, 8600mm or 12400mm,UHPFRC layer thickness UHPFRC= 50mm or 100mm; A final
parameter, namely the fiber volume ratio has the given values Vf= 1, 2 or 3%.

Fig .7. Geometrical parameters of beams retrofitted with UHPFRC layers

5. Finite element models for retrofitted beams

In Figure 8 one can see the finite element model of beam FRPB-2-pw-100-200 built in program
VecTor2 as Figure 9 shows the finite element model of beam UHPFRCB-2-100-1 built in the same program.

The first one has a span-to-depth ratio equal to two, and is wrapped with FRP strips of 100mm width
with spacing of 200mm between them. The experimental specimens were modeled as half-beams, thus
compilation time was greatly reduced. One roller was positioned at the end of the beam, while several others
were installed in the place where the middle of the beam is in reality. Thus the whole system acts like a simple
supported beam, and continuity of beam in the middle is not compromised. Several displacements of 100 mm
were placed on the loading plate at the top of the beam in order to capture the post-peak behavior of the beam.
Steel plates were placed over the support and under the load to prevent concrete crushing.

Fig .8. Finite element model of beam FRPB-2 Fig .9. Finite element model of beam UHPFRCB-2

6. Results
Best retrofit methods from both FRP and UHPFRC are taken and compared.
Nevertheless what can be noticed is a loss of ductility of beams, as retrofit methods are applied. All
retrofitted specimens reach failure load at less deflection than the control specimen. Same remarks can be made
about FRP whole wrap retrofit and 50mm thick UHPFRC jacket retrofit as before, with the difference being the
not so effective increase of strength with respect to control beam. As mentioned before, this is caused by
longitudinal reinforcement yielding prior to full exploitation of FRP and UHPFRC retrofits.
Figure 10 shows the load-deflection curves of FRP and UHPFRC retrofit for deep beams (a/d=1). For this
analysis the best retrofit methods from both FRP and UHPFRC are taken and compared. As mentioned before,
both retrofit methods increase stiffness of beams up to failure load. It is very important to notice how FRP whole
wrap retrofit and 50mm thick UHPFRC jacket retrofit have almost identical curves prior to load failure.

Fig.10. Load-deflection curves of FRP and UHPFRC Fig. 11. Load-deflection curves of FRP and
Retrofit for deep beams (a/d=1) UHPFRC retrofit for medium beams (a/d=2)

In Figure 11 the load-deflection curves of FRP and UHPFRC retrofit for medium beams (a/d=2) are
presented. As before, best retrofit methods from both FRP and UHPFRC are taken and compared. In case of
beams with a/d=2 the same remarks can be said as before. Nevertheless what can be noticed is a loss of ductility
of beams, as retrofit methods are applied. All retrofitted specimens reach failure load at less deflection than the
control specimen. Same remarks can be made about FRP whole wrap retrofit and 50mm thick UHPFRC jacket
retrofit as before, with the difference being the not so effective increase of strength with respect to control beam.
As mentioned before, this is caused by longitudinal reinforcement yielding prior to full exploitation of FRP and
UHPFRC retrofits.

This shows that on one hand for the presented parametric study UHPFRC retrofitting does not cause loss of
ductility of element, and on second hand FRP retrofit can be as effective as UHPFRC if applied on whole surface
of the beam. As it can be seen, 100mm thick UHPFRC jacket retrofit has the greatest impact on both stiffness
and load capacity of beams. Neither in this case can a loss of ductility be observed.
Lastly, in figure 12 the load-deflection curves of FRP and UHPFRC retrofit for slender beams (a/d=3) are
shown. All remarks made at medium beams are true in case of slender beams also.

Fig. 12. Load-deflection curves of FRP and UHPFRC retrofit for slender beams (a/d=3)

When comparing FRP retrofit with UHPFRC retrofit for deep beams, one must consider several variables.
Besides strength enhancement criteria there is the financial influence, the environmental conditions etc.
Important to note that every retrofitting case differs from one another and has to be treated in a separate manner.

7. Conclusions
Based on these investigations, the following main conclusions were reached: - The finite element model
based on the Modified Compression Field Theory captures well the complete behavior of FRP-retrofitted deep
beams tested in the structural laboratory. Exceptions to this observation were beams in which the FRP sheets
were not applied to the entire depth of the section and exhibited early deboning. - It was shown that early
deboning can be estimated reasonably well by imposing a limit on the strains in FRP sheets.
The nonlinear analyses were terminated when the strain reached the limit value recommended in
American design code ACI 440.2R-08. - As UHPFRC-retrofitted test specimens did not exhibit delamination of
the UHPFRC layers, the nonlinear finite element model captured well the behavior of all studied deep beams.
This included agreement in terms of load-deflection response, crack patterns and failure modes. It was however
noted the models produced slightly higher stiffness that observed. The parametric study demonstrated that both
FRP and UHPFRC retrofitting strategies have beneficial effect on the shear strengths of deep beams. Strength
increase of up to 30% in case of FRP-retrofitting strategy was observed, while for UHPFRC-retrofitting strategy
the value was 53%. A favorable effect in terms of ductility was observed when the UHPFRC layers changed the
failure mode from shear to flexural.
As a final conclusion, we can summarize the advanteges of FRP versus UHPFRC:
FRP retrofit advantages:
FRP sheets are much lighter than UHPFRC jacketing. Thus the structure is not loaded with considerable extra
weight
- FRP retrofit layer is much thinner than UHPFRC layer
- Fiber efficiency can be maximized for FRP retrofit whereas in UHPFRC layers fiber orientation is random,
even though both retrofit material have high costs, FRP retrofitting cost less than UHPFRC retrofitting
UHPFRC retrofit advantages:
- UHPFRC layers work well in both tension and compression, whereas FRP sheets work only in tension
- Unlike FRP sheets, UHPFRC jackets withstand high temperatures, thus not needing protection against fire.
- UHPFRC retrofit withstands hars environmental conditions such as salty water or even chemical degradation
(chlorine).
- UHPFRC retrofitted structure is very durable and has longer service life than FRP retrofitted one.
- UHPFRC retrofit can be applied with great success to rough surfaces also, unlike FRP sheets.
- If applied correctly, debonding cannot occur for UHPFRC layers, unlike FRP ones.

REFERENCES

[1] Gergely, V. (2017). Finite Element Modelling of Different Strengthening Strategies for Reinforced
Concrete Deep Beams , Disertation thesis , Universite de Liege , Faculty of Applied Scinces.
[2] Bukhari, I.A., Vollum, R., Ahmad, S., Sagaseta, J., (2013). Shear Strengthening of Short Span
Reinforced Concrete Beams with CFRP Sheets”, Arab J Sci Eng.
[3] Martinola, G., Meda, A., Plizzari, G.A., Rinaldi, Z., (2010). Strengthening and repair of RC beams
with fiber reinforced concrete, Journal: Cement & Concrete Composites.
[4] ACI Committee 440, (2008). Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI.
[5] Da Silva. W.R.L., Svec, O., Thrane, L.N., Pade, C., ( 2017). Effect of fibre orientation on the
tensile strength of ultra-high performance steel fibre-reinforced self-compacting concrete, AFGC-
ACI-fib-RILEM Int. Symposium on Ultra-High-Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete,
Montpellier, France.
[6] Wong, P., Trommels, H., Vecchio, F. J., (2013). “VecTor2 and FormWorks Manual”.
[7] European Committee for Standardization: EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2, (2004). Design of Concrete
Structures - Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings", CEN, Brussels.
[8] Horia Constantinescu, Oana Gherman, Camelia Negrutiu, Ioan Pavel Sosa (2014). Mechanical
Properties of Hardened High Strength Concrete, 8th International Conference Interdisciplinary in
Engineering, Tirgu-Mures, Romania.
[9] Szabolcs A., Puskás A., Kollo G., (2017). Influence of the Maintenance Work and Support
Conditions on the Optimization Process of Railway Concrete Sleepers, 10th International
Conference Interdisciplinary in Engineering, Tirgu-Mures, Romania.
[10] Yu, R., Spiesz, P., J. H. Brouwers, H., 2015, “Development of Ultra-High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC): Towards an efficient utilization of binders and fibres.”
Construction and Building Materials. 79. 273-282.
[11] Zani, G., Colombo, M., di Prisco, M., 2017, “Size effect of HPFRCC in uniaxial tension”, AFGC-
ACI-fib-RILEM Int. Symposium on Ultra-High-Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete,
Montpellier, France

Improvement through Complex Measures of

Upper and Middle Areas from Crisul Negru
Hydrographical Basin
Gligor E.1, Dume D.2, Gomboș D.1, Andrișca S.2
1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture, Constructions Department
(ROMANIA)
2
Crisuri Water Basin Administration, no. 35, Ion Bogdan Street, Oradea (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The overall objective for flood defense is to reduce the risk of natural disasters with negative impacts on
human lives, on material assets and socio-economic objectives in the areas when they occur. The priorities in this
field are to protect persons, reduce damages, protect the infrastructure, homes and socio-economic objectives,
increase the quality of life, but not least the economic and social development of potentially affected areas and
improve the quality of the environment and living standards.

Key words: floods, erosion, flash floods, hydrographical basin, non-structural measures.

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Presentation of the geographical context and current situation
Flood risk management plans for rivers basins should focus on prevention, protection and preparedness [4]. In the
Flood Risk Management Plan for Crisul Negru basin were identified areas with significant flood potential, the most
vulnerable being the upper Crisul Negru river basin, including its tributaries, downstream of Poiana and Valea Rosia, the
right tributary of the Crisul Negru river downstream of Rosia village. These sites are situated in the mountains area of the
Crisul Negru river basin, the subbasins of its tributaries, Soimus, Briheni and Tarcaita (Fig.1 Crisul Negru
hydrographical basin )being characterized by massive steep slopes with high relief energy, these characteristics favoring
the production of floods with low time growth and relatively high flows[1].

Fig. 1. Crisul Negru hydrographical basin

The torrential nature of the watercourses has led to the development of shore erosion and the deepening
of the thalweg, phenomena favoured by the structure of the land made up of sands, gravel and boulders,
embedded in the clay mass and rock intercalations, sometimes occurring at the surface in the thalweg or river
sides. The banks of the rivers are predominantly eroded, favouring their spillage and flooding of roads and
buildings from adjacent areas.

1.2 Identification of flood cells

In order to identify the critical points, the flood cells were determined for the three rivers by the existing
hydrological simulations with synthetic flood hydrographs as inputs corresponding to the maximum flow rate
with a 1% probability of exceedance. Flood cell analysis has sought to find some integrated solutions,
predominantly non-structural, so that this sector of the basin and the localities located here to be removed from
the floods effect. At the same time, basin or sub-basin analysis has followed that the technical solutions will be
proposed to have a positive impact as large as possible not just locally [2]. From the hydraulic modelling resulted
6 flood cells for the Soimus valley (Fig. 2), 8 floating cells for the Tarcaita valley (fig. 3) and 9 flood cells for
the Briheni valley (Fig. 4).

Fig. 2. Flood cells for Soimus valley with 1% excedentary flow probability
(Source: Crisuri Water Basin Administration)

Fig. 3 Flood cells for Tracaita valley with 1% excedentary flow probability
(Source: Crisuri Water Basin Administration)

Fig. 4. Flood cells for Briheni valley with 1% excedentary flow probability
(source: Crisuri Water Basin Administration)

2 MODELLING REZULTS AND THEYR ANALISYS

2.1 Spatial levelling
The flow modelling for this three analyzed valleys (Soimus, Tarcaita and Briheni) was made starting from
the existing situation and analyzing a series of scenarios for identifying the optimal solution. In the modelling
process, the impact of proposed solutions on different spatial scales, such as local impact (e.g. flooding cells) and
influence within the basin to which they belong, was pursued. Thus, for each valley there were at least 4
different simulations, such as simulation in the existing regime and simulation of three variants of
hydrographical improvements.
Version 0 - no solutions are proposed, this version corresponds to the current situation;
Version 1 - it is proposed only the realization of a non-permanent reservoirs (on Soimus immediately
upstream of the Lazuri locality, on Briheni upstream of the Briheni village, and Tarcaita, immediately upstream
of the Tarcaita village), that whould retained the most part the water volume, corresponding to the maximum
flow with 1% excedentary flow probability.
Version 2 - only projects of control and recalibration of the river bed of Soimus, Briheni, Tarcaita are
proposed in the urban settlements of the villages nearby.
Version 3 - it is proposed to create a non-permanent reservoir on Tarcaita to reduce the flow and the
volume of flood waves, as well as control and recalibration of the river bed in case of Soimus and Briheni.
Due to the existing morphological conditions, it was chosen to supplement the landscaping control
projects for Briheni and Tarcaita rivers. Thus, for Briheni river, an additional option was considered, and for the
Tarcaita two additional variants were studied (version 4, 5 and 6).
Version 4 (only for Briheni river) – it was proposed to carry out non-permanent reservoirs located on the
two major tributaries of Briheni river, namely Boului and Crisul Varatec, and their effect was studied in
conjunction with the proposed accumulation on the Briheni river in version 1.
Version 5 (Tarcaita river) – analyzed only for Tarcaita river and in which it was proposed to achieve a
non-permanent reservoir (polder) upstream of the Tarcaia village (downstream of the Tarcaita river) together
with riverbad recalibration upstream and downstream of the polder.
Version 6 (Tarcaita river) – also, analyzed only for Tarcaita, a new site for nonpermanent reservoir
different from first version already proposed, along with regularization and recalibration of the river banks [2].

2.2 Modelling results

To reduce the likelihood of flooding in this sector, a solution is proposed for integrated measures with
impact on the left tributaries of the Crisul Negru River, namely Briheni and Tarcaita, also for right side it’s
tributary river, Soimus. According to Government Decision 846/2010, the flood defenses of the localities must
be achieved at least for the values corresponding to the maximum flow with the annual probability of exceedance
of 1%. For this reason, analysis at local level was made for the results obtained from the hydraulic simulations
related to Q1%. The most technically and economically advantageous variant for the Soimus valley was the
realization of the specific flood defense hydrotechnical projects in the Lazuri village (Fig. 5).
The adjustment works of the Soimuş river bed proposed are to reprofile the drainage section
corresponding to a trapezoidal section with a base width of 8 m and batter slope of 1: 1.5.

Fig. 5. Proposed flood defense hydrotechical solutions in Lazuri village area

The variation of the maximum levels corresponding to the maximum flow with the probability of
exceedance of 1%, on the Soimus river, in the Lazuri village, according to the chose levelling variant (settlement
of the river in the Lazuri vilage), compared to the existing regime, is shown in (Fig. 6). Levels corresponding to
the flows with a probability of exceedance of 1% are reduced on average by 0.33 m compared to the existing
situation. The lowering of the level in the two situations is especially due to the proposal of levelling projects of
the river bed section.

Fig. 6. Longitudinal profile, Soimus River – Lazuri village 1% excedentary flow probability
(Source: Crisuri Water Basin Administration)

The 3-nd variant consists both in the realization of a non-permanent frontal accumulation on the Tarcaita
valley (version 1), as well as specific hydrotechnical improvements for defense against the floods on the main
course of the Tarcăiţa river (version 2). For a comparative analysis with the previous variants, the same synthetic
flood waves were used, and for the Q1% flow, detailed analysis was performed as in (Fig. 7).
.

Fig. 7. Proposed flood defense hydrotechical solutions in Tarcaita and Tarcaia village area

In this scenario (version 3) presented the last, we can see the combined effect of the two proposed
defense solutions for the Tarcaita river. The cells identified alongside the river are removed from the flood effect
by the combined use of the two proposed solutions, nonpermanent reservoir upstream tarcaita village and
riverbed improvement in Tarcaita and Tarcaia villages. The variation of the maximum levels corresponding to
the maximum flow with the probability of exceedance of 1%, on the Tarcaita river, according to variant 3 of
improvement project (non-permanent reservoir upstream Tarcaita and levelling of the riverbed in the villages
Tarcaia and Tarcaita), directly compared with the existing regime.

The levels corresponding to the flows with a probability of exceedance of 1%, obtained within the
variant 3 of the hydrographical improvement are reduced on average by 0.85 m compared to the ones
corresponding to the existing profile, in the area of Tarcăiţa vilage and with approx. 0.45 m in the area of Tarcaia

village [2]. Also, after the hydraulic modelling riverbed improvment results like a feasible solution to be
implemented as flood defense infrastructure on the main course of the Briheni River, in the Briheni and Sustiu
villages area.
The river bed improvements project of the Briheni river consist in the re-profiling of the flow section
corresponding to a trapezoidal section with a width at the base which varies between 6 and 10 m and the slope
slope of 1: 1.5, completed where it is required with temporary supporting walls (Fig. 8).
Similar to the previously analyzed scenarios, three synthetic flood waves corresponding to the
maximum flows with 10%, 5% and 1% probabilities were simulated, and the detailed analysis was performed for
the values obtained after simulation Q1%, in accordance with Floods Risks Management National Strategy on
long and medium term [5].

Fig. 8. Riverbed improvement proposed solutions in Briheni and Sustiu village area

The variation of the maximum levels corresponding to the maximum flow with the probability of
exceeding 1%, on the Briheni River, according to variant 2 of hydrotechnical improvements compared to the
existing regime.
From the longitudinal profile for the area of Briheni village there is an increase of the level in the area of
the proposed projects (eg supporting walls). However, by carrying out these hydrotechnical projects, the flood
cells in the area of Briheni village are removed from the floods impact. As previously mentioned in the
downstream area the minor river bed is improved. From the simulations performed, it was observed that the
existing hydrotechnical improvement projects were dimensioned for a flow with values below the corresponding
values of 1% flow, in accordance with European Parliament and Council Directive 2007/60/EC on the
assessment and management of flood risks and Romanian Government decision no. 846 from 2010 for the
approval of Floods Risks Management National Strategy on long and medium term [4, 5].
From the longitudinal profile for the Sustiu village area there is an important increase of the levels in case there
are proposed regularization projects aimed at increasing the transport capacity for the sector so that the Q1%
flow can be transited. Due to the location (in the villages area), the only viable solution in this case is the defense
walls, but it leads to a considerable increase of the higher level for existing works on this sector.

3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It was analyzed the most feasible technical solutions needed to ensure the flow leakage from Soimus,
Tarcaita, Briheni rivers. By implementing these measures, the complexity of the bed's leakage capacity will
increase, and erosion will be reduced, ensuring a better transit of flow products on the studied water courses.The
studied basins are regularly subjected to exits from the riverbed and water, with a different extent, so that the
implementation of local defense works is necessary for a positive impact on the population located in the area.
The benefits of socio-economic results through the implementation of the proposed solutions are the safe
placement of the analyzed areas, thus preventing the flood risk and damages in the "no project" situation, with
additional direct benefits to the living standard of the population in the localities, on the roads network,
commercial/industrial and tourism. It will remove from the flood distructive effect (also by diminishing dangers
and harmed products) 23 localities located on the upper and middle section of Crisul Negru river basin and its
tributaries, as follows: Lazuri, Pocola, Soimus, Remetea, Gurbesti, Josani, Cabesti, Tarcaita, Tarcaia, Gradinari,
Beius, Briheni, Sustiu, Lunca, Hotarel, Seghiste, Ghighiseni, Cucuceni, Petrileni, Rieni, Sudrigiu, Pantasesti,
Totoreni.The beneficiaries of a future project to be implemented is 28,928 persons, of which 2,446 are direct
beneficiaries (included in the flood limit according to the results of hydraulic modelling) and 26,482 persons as
indirect beneficiaries.

REFERENCES
[1] Flood Risk Management Plan for Crisuri Hydrographical Basin.
[2] Feasibility Study of the project Complex arrangement of Crişul Negru river in order to protect
against floods the riverside localities on the upper and middle course.
[3] Financing documentation of the project Complex arrangement of Crişul Negru river in order to
protect against floods the riverside localities on the upper and middle course, proposed in the
framework of Large Infrastructure Operational Programme.
[4] European Parliament and Council Directive 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of
flood risks.
[5] Romanian Government decision no. 846 from August 11th, 2010 for the approval of Floods Risks
Management National Strategy on long and medium term.

Controlled Corrosion Conditions to Limit

Wastage of Water and Heat in Urban Networks
Ionescu Gh.C1., Cret P.1, Badea G.E.1, Ionescu G.L. 1, Hodut N.1
1
University of Oradea (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
Urban water distribution networks are very complex systems facing the problem of energy efficiency
and saving, with economic and social impact. The metal corrosion phenomenon is a natural one, but with proper
knowledge it could be controlled, limited. Corrosion appears in all the heterogeneous systems due to all
irregularities: of temperature, pressure, material, chemical composition of soil and water. Corrosion is not only
about chemistry, it needs an interdisciplinary approach. Statistical analysis of data, the number of failures due to
specific corrosion conditions could become the basis for reliability modelling and evaluation. Finding the
specific conditions for every type of corrosion failures and the specific sensors and a control and automation
system for water and heat urban networks, could improve the energy efficiency and limit the water and soil
pollution.
Keywords: corrosion, urban water network, statistics, failure, database.

1. INTRODUCTION
Choosing the best material for urban water networks could be difficult, because modern technology
offers nowadays a wide range of materials: metals, alloys, ceramic plastics, composite products. This is an
important responsibility, and have to be done by the specialists and engineers of exploitation. The effects of the
corrosion process are not only the losses of about 15% of the world's annual output of metallic materials, but also
additional costs associated with repairing facilities, replacing corroded pieces and preserving a sustainable
chemical contamination and / or biological of the environment.
Corrosion is a complex process and depends on the wide variety of technological environments and also
of the metallic materials. Corrosion is a heterogeneous redox reaction which is occurring at the metal /nonmetal
interface[1-5].
Corrosion as a heterogeneous redox reaction, has an electrochemical mechanism which involves
electrical charges exchange between metal and the environment:
z
-anodic, metal oxidation reaction: M  M  ze
-cathodic reaction: Ox  ze  R
Where in: Ox, R represents the oxidized, respectively the reduced form of a chemical specie from the
environment. Both reactions occur on the surface of the metal in the same time, with the same speed.
The spontaneous phenomenon of corrosion could be limited, by controlling, by o good corrosion
management, which means a rigorous application of all the accumulated knowledge or innovation. Corrosion
management involves interdisciplinary studies [6-19] in many areas like: electrochemistry [1-6], mathematics
[7], statistics [8], computer science and informatics [9, 10], failure analysis [11-14], operational reliability [15],
automation and monitoring [15, 16], decision theory [17-18].
The diversity of each water system, regarding to the physical-chemical properties of water, soil, air and
metallic materials, determines a continuing development of nonconventional methods. The statistical analysis of
data for a long period of time, i.e. one year, connected with the number of failures, at different levels of the water
network, due to a corrosion process, could offer important data for a further reliability modelling, which help to
improve the policies of increasing energy efficiency.
When transporting hot water and heat from the thermal plant to consumers, there is a loss of flow in
both transport and distribution networks, due to damage caused by the corrosion phenomenon. The thermal
losses are due to both the flow losses and the thermal insulation degradation.
In an attempt to limit the loss of hot water and heating medium it is recommended to introduce a control
and automation system at the urban transport and distribution network of hot water.
In the automated monitoring system there are two constructive types: the resistive system (figure 1) and
the system based on pulse propagation time measurement (figure 2).

Fig.1. Automated monitoring system – the resistive system

The fault localization is done by the variation of the resistivity with the increase of humidity, which also
leads to a change of the voltage, with a percentage, x, according to the relation:

U1 R1 L x
  1 
U0 R0 L0 100
(1)

where: U0, R0 - are the initial sizes; U1, R1, - voltage and resistance measured in case of defect; L0 is the length of
the pipe, and L1 is the distance to the defect. From the last equality we can calculate this last dimension, i.e. the
distance to the defect:
L
x  100  1
L0
(2)
It is believed that this should be an accurate measurement system because of the high specific resistance
of the CrNi conductor.
In Fig. 2 is schematically shown a pulse propagation monitoring system using a non-insulated Cu
conductor as a sensitive element. The return thread is tinned. This method sends high frequency pulses, pulses
that are reflected either at the end of the line or at the point where the fault occurred.

Fig. 2. Automated monitoring system - the pulse propagation monitoring system

The distance, x, where the fault occurred, can be determined with the relation:

v
x t (3)
2

where: v- is the propagation velocity of the impulses; t - measured pulse propagation time.

The central monitoring and data acquisition unit performs several functions: locating the fault and
signalling its production; storage of data from line units on a hard disk for later analysis; the configuration of the
line units according to the parameters of the hot water and the thermal agent, as well as the dimensions of the
pipes.
Line units send data to the central monitoring and acquisition unit, which oversees their operation and
centralizes data through an appropriate software. Line units are provided with a microprocessor and perform the
following tasks: performing controlled measurements; transmitting data to the higher level.
The exchange of data between the central unit and the line units is done by telephone cables, which can
be assembled with the monitored pipes as an accompanying cable.

2. EXPERIMENTAL
A database was made by collecting the daily analysis bulletins from the S.C. Compania de apa Oradea
S.A., and from the minutes of the interventions. The data of corrosion failures were collected in Microsoft
Office-Excel 2010 files, and the graphics were made using Origin 8.0.
The database includes the date for every type of failure, the localization and time for different levels of
the cold water network: highway, distribution, connection pipes, external pipes, different repairs, other non-
corrosion failures, actions for quality requirements. The main purpose of the database was to indicate the
location, the type, the frequency of occurrence and time of failures in the cold water networks, for a further
operational reliability study.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From the databases and statistical analysis of the interruptions / failures of cold water network, because
of corrosion, a hierarchy of corrosion defects could be made. The percentages of defects and the hierarchies were
based on the "number of failures in time ". Different causes of corrosion failures were encoded, as following: M-
for highway pipe, D- for distribution pipe, B- for connection pipes, H- for external pipes, A- for different other
failures, R- for remakes, F- for fountains, Q- for quality assurance.
The localization of different mechanism of corrosion is presented in figure 3, representing:
 corrosion in water (internal corrosion)- due to water qualities;
 corrosion in water and soil (internal and external corrosion) - specific to buried pipes;
 corrosion in water and air (internal and external corrosion) - Specific to air pipelines.

Fig.3. Statistical localization of different corrosion mechanism failures, for year 2013

In figure 4, another detailed statistical data shows the incidence of corrosion failures at different levels
of the cold water network.

Fig. 4. Distribution of the corrosion failures at different levels of the cold water
transport and distribution network, year 2013

That means 8 different elements of the transport and distribution water network, each of it with specific
types of interruptions / failures were establish for a month, January 2013.
For each of the eight different element of the urban cold water network: highway pipes, distribution
pipes, connection pipes, other repairs, external pipes, remakes, fountain and quality assurance, a distribution of
the encoded causes of failures could be made (Figures 5-11).

Fig.5. Failures distribution (M) of water highway pipes, year 2013

Fig. 6. Distribution failures (D) for water distribution pipes, year 2013

Fig. 7. Failures distribution(B) for water connection pipes, year 2013

Fig. 8. Failures distribution (H) for external water pipes, year 2013

Fig. 9. Failures distribution for remakes operations (R) of the water network, year 2013

Fig. 10. Distribution of non corrosion failures (A) for water network, year 2013

Fig. 11. Distribution of quality assurance failures (Q) for water network, year 2013

4. CONCLUSIONS
Regarding the distribution of failures, the hierarchy and the reliability level of cold water transport and
distribution networks, the following conclusions can be drawn:
 the causes of the failures at different levels were limited to one year 2013, for the cold water network:
 the statistical hierarchy was made on the basis of the values of the "number of failures in time".

The study could be extended for other urban networks, affected by corrosion, like heating network, gas
network or electric grids.
This case study have to be continued, to identify the correlations between the a specific failure of an
element caused by a certain mechanism of corrosion, to find the right measurable physical-chemical corrosion
parameters which could be monitored, in real time, in order to prevent the unexpected failures of the water
network, which could be an indirect, but effective way of energy efficiency increasing.
Monitoring systems may have several advantages, such as the possibility of monitoring different
pipelines of varying length; decreasing the heat loss flow rate, reliability in operation, centralizing the collected
data and locating quickly and precisely the areas where the malfunction occurred.

REFERENCES

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Hot Water Pipes, In Dynamic Conditions, Nonconventional Technologies Review, XIX (3), 4-8.
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transportand distribution urban networks, University of Oradea, Romania.
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Thermal Power Stations, Thermal Engineering, 53(8), 648–654.
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537–542.
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Prevention, 8, 469–481.
[13]. Craig B.D. (2006), Material Failure Modes, Part III: A Brief Tutorial on Corrosion- Related Material
Failure Modes, Journal of Failure Analyse and Prevention, 2, 12-19.
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May 2000, in Cleveland, Ohio, by ASM International.
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Chemical-Engineering Monitoring System.Taking a District Power Station As an Illustration,
Thermal Engineering, 53(8), 600–604.
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Study Regarding the Expansion and Rehability

of an Existing Metallic Structure
Ionescu G.L.1, Varga A.2, Varga C.1, Ionescu Gh.C1.
1
University of Oradea, Romania,
2
S.C.Maxwell S.R.L. Apahida Cluj
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
This optimization method focuses on finding the optimal static design scheme solution for ensuring the
resistance and stability of the building after its expansion, in accordance with the European codes regarding
weight bearings, the P100-1/2013 design codes, with a minimal construction material budget so that we can
obtain substantial energy economy within the applied materials. The study focuses on the transverse frame from
the 5th axis.

Keywords: metallic structure, AXISVM13, static frame.

1. INITIAL VARIANT - STATIC SCHEME OF THE FRAME WITH A SINGLE

UNDETERMINED OPENING FROM A STATIC POINT OF VIEW
The initial building is of a transverse frame type that is undetermined from a static point of view and no
longer corresponds to the norms found within the European codes regarding weight bearings or the P100-1/2013
and P100-3/2013 seismic design codes [1].
The static and volume calculations have been made by means of the AXISVM13 software.
Following the obtained results, we can see that the structure that was designed during the 2005-2006
period and put into execution during the 2006-2007 period does no longer satisfy the current norms.
As shown within Fig. 1 through Fig. 5 it is also revealed that the building's weight bearings do not line
up with the more severe standards that are presently the norm, and any intervention upon the existing building
needs that its overall resistance structure revamped in accordance with the proper norms and standards at the
time of the intervention.

Fig. 1. Showcase of existing structure

Thus, expansion on the transversal line, using mirrored symmetry in regards to the longitude axis D, by
implementing a compacting joint, is not possible by means of just modifying the resistance elements section or

by designing a new section with other characteristics for the resistance elements, respectively the whole static
scheme [1].
In the case of the displacements of the transversal axis 5 in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, folds the
SLS are:
ex=-72,560mm
ez=-164,122mm so fmax>fadm, the rigidity condition is not satisfied.

In the case of the My diagram and the normal tension diagram on the σ transversal axis of the ax 5 frame
according to the Mmin, Mmax, folds all the SLU are:
Mymax=-27.619 daNm for the frame's ruler
σmax=-3.534,70 daN/cm2 thus the resistance condition is not satisfied.

Fig. 2. My point diagram [daNm]

Fig. 3. ez displacement [mm]

Fig. 4. My point diagram [daNm]

Fig. 5. Normal tensions for the σ transversal section [daN/cm2]

2. THE NEW HALL VARIANT, CALCULATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH CURRENT

STANDARDS - STATIC SCHEME OF THE FRAME WITH AN OPENING THAT IS
STATIC UNDETERMINED A SINGLE TIME

The new metallic hall that is obtained by enlarging the resistance elements' sections in HEB260 pillars
and the frame rulers in IPN40.
From a static viewpoint it is a transversal frame with an opening that is static undetermined a single
time, the calculated hall in accordance with the current requirements regarding weight bearings and the seismic
design norms P100-1/2013 and P100-3/2013.
The static and volume calculations have been made using the AXISVM13 software.
Following the study of the attached diagrams results in the fact that the new metallic hall, by means of
enlarging the resistance elements, respects the rigidity and resistance conditions [1], [2].
Expansion on the transversal direction by maintaining the initial metallic hall without intervention, the
provision of a joint followed by the execution of the new metallic hall with enlarged sections in symmetry with
the newly created joint creates the possibility of a new variant in providing the solution for the hall's expansion,
but from a material budget standpoint it is not the optimal solution. In order for the minimum cost, the new hall
will be offset by half a bay over the longitudinal direction in regards to the old hall, thus the new foundations
will be intertwined with the existing foundations.
In the case of the displacements of the ax 5 transversal axis such as in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 according to the
Mmin, Mmax, folds, all the SLS are:
ex=-30,229mm
ez=-46,597mm thus fmax<fadm, the rigidity condition is satisfied.

Fig. 6. ex displacement [mm]

Fig. 7. ez displacement [mm]

In the case of the My diagram and the normal tension diagram for the σ transversal section of the ax 5
frame in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, folds, as shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 all SLU are:
Mymax=-26.308,00 daNm for the frame's ruler
σmax=-1.838,60 daN/cm2 thus the resistance condition is satisfied.

Fig. 8. My point diagram [daNm]

Fig. 9. Normal tensions at the σ transversal section [daN/cm2]

3. INTERMEDIARY VARIANT - STATIC SCHEME OF THE FRAME WITH TWO

OPENINGS AND ARTICULATED RULERS THAT ARE STATIC UNDETERMINED
FOUR TIMES
The building has had yet another opening attached without joint, resulting a transversal frame with two
openings with central pillar, the structure being symmetrical with the central pillar or the D row.
With this static scheme the necessary calculations have been made, in accordance with the European
codes regarding weight bearings and the P100-1/2013 and P100-3/2013 seismic design norms [1], [3].
The static and volume calculations have been made suing the AXISVM13 software as previewed by the
axonometric point of view render from Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. View of the structure with two openings and articulated rulers

Following the study of the attached diagrams it results that in the case of respecting the present norms
regarding weight bearings the thusly modified structure only respects the resistance condition and not also the
rigidity condition.
Thus, expansion on the transversal direction, using mirror symmetry over the D row longitudinal axis,
without a compacting joint is not possible by means of only modifying the resistance elements' section or by
designing a new frame with other characteristics for the resistance structures' elements, respectively the static
scheme.
In the case of the ax 5 transversal frame in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, folds, as shown in Fig. 11
and Fig. 12 all SLS are:
ex=-25,890mm
ez=-81,035mm thus fmax>fadm, the rigidity condition is not satisfied.

Fig. 11. ex displacement [mm]

Fig. 12. ez displacement [mm]

In the case of the My diagram and the normal tensions diagram over the σ transversal section of the ax 5
transversal frame in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, fold as shown in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 all SLU are:
Mymax=-12.391,50 daNm for the frame's ruller
σmax=-1701,60 daN/cm2 thus the resistance condition is satisfied.

Fig. 13. My point diagram [daNm]

Fig. 14. Normal tensions at the σ transversal section [daN/cm2]

4. FINAL VARIANT - STATIC SCHEME OF THE FRAME WITH TWO OPENINGS

AND EMBEDDED RULERS THAT ARE STATIC UNDETERMINED SIX TIMES

Fig. 15. View of the structure with two openings and embedded rulers

The previous structure the frame with two openings had its static undetermined degree modified by
means of transforming the nodes between the rulers and pillars in rigid nodes and by embedding the rulers within
the pillars as shown in Fig. 15.
With this static scheme, static calculations have been made in accordance with the current European
codes regarding weight bearings and the P100-1/2013 and P100-3/2013 seismic design norms. The static and
volume calculations have been made with the AXISVM13 software.
Following the study of the attached diagrams results that in the case of respecting the present norms and
standards, the thusly modified structure from the static scheme point of view satisfies both the rigidity condition
and resistance condition [1], [4], [5].
Thus, expansion on the transversal direction, by mirror symmetry in regards to the D row longitudinal
axis, without compacting joint is possible by changing the static undetermined degree, six times static
undetermined respectively.
In the case of the displacements of the ax 5 transversal frame in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, folds
as shown in Fig. 16 and Fig. 17 all SLS are:
ex=19,895mm
ez=-34,221mm thus fmax<fadm, the rigidity condition is satisfied.

Fig. 16. ex displacement [mm]

Fig. 17. ez displacement [mm]

In the case of the My diagram and the normal tensions diagram for the σ transversal section of the ax 5
transversal frame in accordance with the Mmin, Mmax, folds as shown in Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 all SLU are:
Mymax=-6.583,20 daNm for the frame's ruler in the grid;
Mymin=9.688,80 daNm for the frame's ruler on the support;
σmax=1217,28 daN/cm2 thus the resistance condition is satisfied.

Fig. 18. My point diagram [daNm]

Fig. 19. Normal tensions over the σ transversal section [daN/cm2]

REFERENCES
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industrial, Teză de doctorat, oct. 2018
[2] Varga Csaba, Varga Andrei, ″Rehabilitation of packaging station – sugar plant in Oradea using
materials with integrated low energy consumption″ 15th edition National Technical-Scientific
Conference: Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium, November 27-28, 2015- Oradea
(Romania), Medimond-Monduzzi Editore International Proceedings Division, Printed in February
2016, ISBN: 978-88-7587-724-8, pp.187-192.
http://www.arhiconoradea.ro/Conferinta/SY27.pdf
[3] Varga Andrei, Varga Csaba, ″ Study of Vibrations Acting on the Structural Strength of the
Packaging Station - Sugar Plant in Oradea,″ 15th edition National Technical-Scientific
Conference: Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium, November 27-28, 2015- Oradea
(Romania), Medimond-Monduzzi Editore International Proceedings Division, Printed in February
2016, ISBN: 978-88-7587-724-8, pp.181-186.
http://www.arhiconoradea.ro/Conferinta/SY27.pdf ISI
[4] Varga Csaba, Prada Marcela – Studiu privind realizarea unui planșeu tehnologic, ca urmare a
programului de modernizare a Fabricii de Zahăr din Oradea / The study concerning the
realization of a technological floor as a result of the modernization programme of Sugar Factory
from Oradea – Conferinţa Naţională (cu participare internaţională) „TEHNOLOGII MODERNE
PENTRU MILENIUL III” – Analele Universităţii din Oradea – Fascicula – Construcţii şi instalaţii
hidroedilitare, vol. VII, 2004, pag. 292-314.
[5] Prada Marcela, Varga Csaba, Mitrașcă Mihaela – Reabilitarea construcțiilor din
zidărie/Rehabilitation of bricks buildings - Conferinţa Naţională (cu participare internaţională)
„TEHNOLOGII MODERNE PENTRU MILENIUL III” – Analele Universităţii din Oradea –
Fascicula – Construcţii şi instalaţii hidroedilitare, vol. VII, 2004, pag. 209-218.
[6] SR EN 1990:2004/NA:2006 Eurocod: Bazele proiectării structurilor. Anexă naţională
[7] SR EN 1991-1-1:2004/NA:2006 Eurocod 1: Acţiuni asupra structurilor. Partea 1-1: Acţiuni generale.
Greutăţi specifice, greutăţi proprii, încărcări din exploatare pentru construcţii. Anexă naţională
[8] SR EN 1991-1-3:2005/NA:2006 Eurocod 1: Acţiuni asupra structurilor. Partea 1-3: Acţiuni generale.
Încărcări date de zăpadă. Anexă naţională
[9] SR EN 1991-1-4:2006/NB:2007 Eurocod 1: Acţiuni asupra structurilor. Partea 1-4: Acţiuni generale
- Acţiuni ale vântului. Anexa naţională
[10] SR EN 1992-1-1:2004/NB:2008 Eurocod 2: Proiectarea structurilor de beton. Partea 1-1: Reguli
generale şi reguli pentru clădiri. Anexă naţională
[11] SR EN 1993-1-1:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor din oţel. Partea 1-1: Reguli
generale şi reguli pentru clădiri. Anexa naţională
[12] SR EN 1993-1-10:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-10:
Alegerea claselor de calitate a oţelului. Anexa naţională
[13] SR EN 1993-1-11:2007/NB:2009 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-11:
Proiectarea structurilor cu elemente întinse. Anexa naţională
[14] SR EN 1993-1-12:2007/NA:2012 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-12: Reguli
suplimentare pentru aplicarea prevederilor standardului EN 1993 la mărci de oţel până la S 700.
Anexa naţională
[15] SR EN 1993-1-3:2007/NB:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-3: Reguli
generale. Reguli suplimentare pentru elemente structurale şi table formate la rece. Anexa
Naţională
[16] SR EN 1993-1-5:2007/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-5: Elemente
structurale din plăci plane solicitate în planul lor. Anexa Naţională
[17] SR EN 1993-1-8:2006/NB:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-8:
Proiectarea îmbinărilor. Anexă Naţională
[18] SR EN 1993-1-9:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-9: Oboseala.
Anexa naţională.
[19] P 100-1/2013 Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I–Prevederi de proiectare pentru clădiri.
[20] P 100-1/2006; P 100-1/2006 completare Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I–Prevederi de
proiectare pentru clădiri, indicativ P 100-1/2006.
[21] P 100-3/2008; P 100-3/2008 completare Cod de proiectare seismică" Partea a III-a Prevederi
pentru evaluarea seismică a clădirilor existente.
[22] CR 0-2012; CR 0-2012 completare Cod de proiectare.Bazele proiectării constructiilor.

[23] CR 1-1-3-2012; CR 1-1-3-2012 completare Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea actiunii zăpezii asupra
constructiilor.
[24] CR 1-1-4-2012; CR 1-1-4-2012completare Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acțiunii vântului asupra
construcțiilor.
[24] GP 003-1996 Ghid pentru proiectarea antiseimică a halelor parter cu structură metalică.
[26] NP 012-1997 Normativ pentru calculul elementelor din oţel cu pereţi subţiri formate la rece.
[27] NP 042-2000 Normativ privind prescripţiile generale de proiectare. Verificarea prin calcul a
elementelor de construcţie metalice şi a îmbinărilor acestora.
[28] GP 078-2003 Ghid privind proiectarea halelor uşoare cu structură metalică
[29] GP 082-2003 Ghid privind proiectarea îmbinărilor ductile la structuri metalice în zone seismice.
[30] C 133-2014 Instrucţiuni tehnice privind îmbinarea elementelor de construcţii metalice cu şuruburi
de înaltă rezistenţă pretensionate.
[31] P 118-1999 Normativ de siguranţă la foc a construcţiilor.
[32] NP 046-2000 Normativ pentru verificare la foc a elementelor structurale ale construcţiilor din oţel
[33] P 118/2-2013 Normativ privind securitatea la incendiu a constructiilor, Partea a-II-a-Instalatii de
stingere
[34] P 118/3-2015 Normativ privind securitatea la incendiu a construcţiilor. Partea a III–a. instalatii de
detectare, semnalizare si avertizare incendiu
[35] NP 112-2014 Normativ pentru proiectarea structurilor de fundare directă.

Thermal Analysis of Glass Fiber Reinforced

Polyamide Fasteners

Karda Sz.1, Nagy-György T.1, Daniel D.1, Boros I.1

1
Politehnica University of Timișoara, Civil Engineering Department (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper presents the analysis of the thermal behavior of the fasteners for external wall insulation
system, by determining the point thermal transmittance for a stainless-steel anchorage and a glass fiber
reinforced polyamide fastener. The calculation was based on a three-dimensional and a two-dimensional
simulation of the temperature fields, using the Antherm and HTflux thermal heat bridge calculation software.
The comparison between the two types of anchors was made in terms of energy efficiency taking into account
different thermal insulation thicknesses to define the heat flux variations in the anchors as well as in terms of
cost efficiency.
Keywords: Glass fiber fasteners, energy efficiency, low thermal conductivity materials, thermal bridge,
Ψ value.

1 Introduction
Energy is an essential element for the economy of any country in any form; it is an indispensable
necessity for society, both in terms of comfort and as a production factor, with an important part of economic
and social development, leading to an increased energy demand. More than 50% of all materials extracted from
the soil are converted into construction materials and products. European buildings are responsible for the use of
40% of energy consumption and this tendency of growth will be constant unless decisive actions are taken.
According to Directive 2010/31 / EU of the European Parliament and of the Council [1], member states of the
European Union have an obligation to achieve the reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions by 20%; to reduce
the Union's energy consumption by 20% by increasing the energy efficiency of buildings; and to achieve a share
of 20% renewable energy by 2020. The energy dependence can be reduced by using unconventional energy
sources (renewable energy) and a proper design of buildings. The rational use of energy implies the idea of
balancing the human comfort through low energy consumption [2]. Giving more attention to the building
envelope configuration and its orientation, the positioning of the external doors and windows and also the
materials thermal performance can provide a solution to meet the required criteria [3].

2 Components of external wall system

The external walls made of autoclaved aerated concrete blocks with a width of 25 cm and a 15 cm thick
stone wool (Fig. 1) are part of the envelope of a high school in Salonta, Bihor county which has 4 storeys and a
surface area of 4038 m2, and also is the first energy efficient school building implemented in Romania.

Fig. 1. External wall system

3 Thermal bridges
Thermal bridges present areas of the envelope where the heat flux ( ) is significantly different,
therefore influencing the energy consumption of the building and it can be classified into thermal bridges with
linear inclusions represented by linear thermal transmittance ( ) and thermal bridges with punctual inclusions
represented by the point thermal transmittance ( ).
Due to the penetration of the fasteners through the insulation layer which have a different thermal
conductivity, in each penetrated area by the anchorage point thermal bridges appear. Linear and point thermal
transmittance brings a correction to the one direction calculation, taking into account the real behavior of the
thermal flux in these heterogeneous surfaces of the building elements. The feat flux in these sensible areas can be
determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy by numerical calculations [4] using calculation software for the
thermal behavioral analysis of elements.
Antherm and HTflux are dedicated softwares developed and used for the thermal behavior analysis in
building constructions elements, allowing to evaluate the temperature distribution, thermal fluxes, and water
vapor diffusion streams in any combination of forms and materials.

4 Point thermal transmittance

In case of quasi-homogeneous layers such as thermal insulations, which are penetrated by fasteners of a
small diameters, the initial thermal conductivity of the insulation, λ is replaced by the equivalent conductivity
value [5]. This thermal conductivity is calculated with relation (1):

(1)

Where: is the thermal conductivity of the insulation [ ], is the thickness of the insulation layer [ ],
is the number of fasteners on an area of 1 m2, and is the point thermal transmittance [ ]

The analysed construction has 4 storeys and in comparison, with the neighbouring buildings is
significantly taller, therefore the wind effect on the facades is not reduced by the surrounding buildings, its speed
can reach values between 85-115 km/h [6] thus requiring 8 pieces of fasteners per m2 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Arrangement of fasteners for fixing the insulation layer

In order to evaluate the heat flux, according to the location of the building and national prescriptions
[4,5], the indoor conventional temperature considered is , and the outside conventional
temperature .
The declared thermal conductivity of the stone wool insulation boards is .
Considering that the reception of the building has been recently carried out, the quality and condition of the
construction materials are adequate; therefore it is not necessary to use correction coefficients for increasing the
thermal conductivity.

4.1 The thermal behavior of stainless-steel fasteners

The commonly used anchors are mainly stainless steel and have a thermal conductivity of
, their price is ~1.30 RON per piece. Following the analysis of the thermal behavior of
stainless-steel fasteners on the external wall system, where the autoclaved aerated concrete blocks have a thermal
conductivity of , the density of the heat flux in the fastener is (Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. 2-dimensional simulation of the external wall system using the HTflux software

Fig. 4. Heat flux distribution in 3-dimensional view using the Antherm software

The resulting heat flux for an 8 mm diameter fastener with a 52,26 mm2 cross section area is
, and the temperature difference between the external environment and the inner surface of the
thermal insulation right in the fastener is . The point thermal transmittance for the anchors is
. Using the data presented above, the equivalent thermal conductivity calculated for the stone
wool insulation with stainless-steel fasteners is .

4.2 The thermal behavior of glass fiber reinforced polyamide fasteners

In order to reduce the heat losses in the external wall insulation right in the anchors position, a suitable
solution is to use fasteners with low thermal conductivity [7]. The use of a high-quality polypropylene dowel
with fiberglass reinforced polyamide anchors (Fig. 5) brings a significant reduction of the heat flux of the
fasteners due to the reduced thermal conductivity of this material . The price of one piece is
~1.60 RON.
For the external wall insulation system with polypropylene dowels accompanied by a polyamide anchor
using the HTflux software, the density of the thermal flux across the polyamide fastener is
(Fig. 6).

The total heat flux of the cross-section of an anchor of Ø8 mm is and the temperature
difference between the outside environment and the inside of the thermal insulation at the anchor level
.The point thermal transmittance for the fiber reinforced polyamide anchors is ,
resulting an equivalent thermal conductivity of .

Fig. 5. Polypropylene dowel with glass fiber reinforced polyamide fastener

Fig. 6. Thermal behavior analysis of polyamide fasteners using the HTflux software

4.3 Variation of the equivalent thermal conductivity for different thicknesses

of thermal insulations
In order to evaluate the variations for the two types of fasteners, the following thicknesses of the stone
wool insulation layers were considered: 50 mm, 80 mm, 100 mm and 150 mm. In the figures below (Fig. 7 and
8) the isotherms for different thicknesses of thermal insulation are presented.
Following the analysis of the thermal behavior of the stainless-steel fasteners (Fig. 7) in the four
different thermal insulation thicknesses, the thermal flux density at the anchors has been reduced from 435.00
W/m2 to 308.00 W/m2 simultaneously with the temperature difference, which decreased from 11 °C to 6° C due
to the decrease of the wall thermal resistance.
The model of the external insulation wall system in case of polypropylene dowels with glass fiber
reinforced polyamide anchors (Fig. 8), shows a small increase in the density of the heat flux from 40.00 W/m2 to
52.00 W/m2 and the temperature difference decreased from to by reducing the insulation
thicknesses.
The results of the determination of the point thermal transmittances and the equivalent thermal
conductivity for the different thermal insulation thicknesses respectively for the two types of fasteners are
presented in Table 1.
The comparative study on the influence of the two types of fasteners in relation to the initial thermal
conductivity of the thermal insulating layers is schematized in Fig. 9.

Fig. 7. Temperature distribution for different thicknesses by using stainless-steel fasteners

Fig. 8. Temperature distribution for different thicknesses by using fiberglass reinforced polyamide fasteners

Table 1. Determination of the equivalent thermal conductivity of the thermo-insulating layers

Stainless-steel anchorage Glass fiber reinforced polyamide fastener
Thermal
Equivalent thermal Equivalent thermal
insulation Point thermal Point thermal
conductivity, conductivity
thickness transmittance transmittance
150 mm 0,001980 0,03940 0,000100 0,03710
100 mm 0,002061 0,03864 0,000136 0,03709
80 mm 0,002463 0,03857 0,000172 0,03706
50 mm 0,002580 0,03803 0,000270 0,03705

By using stainless-steel anchors in the insulation boards, it could be observed a significant thermal
conductivity decrease by reducing the insulation thicknesses due to the reduced thermal resistances of the
external wall system which includes the heat losses in large part through the insulation.
In the second case, when glass fiber reinforced polyamide fasteners were used, the point thermal
transmittance values on insulation boards are insignificant, so neither the equivalent thermal conductivity is
subject to higher thermal flux variations by reducing the insulation thickness.

Fig. 9. The stainless-steel and the glass fiber reinforced polyamide fasteners influence on the equivalent thermal
conductivity of the insulations

5 Conclusions
Using the results obtained by three-dimensional and two-dimensional analysis of the external wall
system, it can be concluded that glass fiber reinforced polyamide fasteners used for attaching stone wool boards
have a major influence to the thermal resistance of the insulation system, reducing about 85% of the heat loss
right in the anchors and with 6% the equivalent thermal conductivity in comparation with the initial solution
using stainless-steel anchors.
From the cost-effectiveness point of view, the price of polyamide dowels is 20 % higher than the
regular stainless-steel dowels. The difference could be insignificant considering the total cost of the whole
thermal insulation system.
Fiberglas reinforced polyamide fastener dowels bring a punctual correction to thermal insulation and
minimize the effect of point thermal bridge, therefore by paying more attention to the thermal insulation details
the thermal bridge free target can be achieved and a lower energy consumption of buildings can be obtained.

REFERENCES
[1] Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the
energy performance of buildings.
[2] Boros, I., Tănasă, C., Stoian, V., Dan, D. (2017). Life cycle assessment and life cycle cost
analysis of a nearly zero energy residential building - a case study. Environmental Engineering
and Management Journal 16(3), pp. 695-704.
[3] Dan, D., Tănasă, C., Stoian, V., Brata, S., Stoian, D., Nagy-György, T., Floruț, S.C. (2016).
Passive house design - An efficient solution for residential buildings in Romania. Energy for
Sustainable Development 32, pp. 99-109.
[4] EN ISO 10211:2017 – Thermal bridges in building construction - Heat flows and surface
temperatures - Detailed calculations.
[5] C107-3 / 2005 - Norm for calculation of thermal energy performance of building elements of
buildings.
[6] GP 123-2013 - Guide on the Design and Execution of Thermal Rehabilitation Works of
Buildings.
[7] EOTA Tehnical Report - Determination of point thermal transmittance of plastic anchors for the
anchorage of external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS), TR 025, June 2017.

Wind Effect Modelling for a Wind-Sensitive

Structure in Timisoara

Kun L.1,2, Crisan A.1,3, Nagy-György T.3, Boros I.3

1
Continental Automotive Romania, Timisoara (ROMANIA)
2
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (ROMANIA)
3
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Civil Engineering (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Present paper deals with the evaluation of wind load on the irregular and wind-sensitive structure of
New Millennium Reformed Centre of Timisoara, designed by the renowned architect, Imre Makovecz. The wind
pressure was initially evaluated using the Romanian national provisions, but due to the code’s limitations, a
numerical approach was considered i.e. Computational Fluid Dynamics. Using an industry confirmed turbulence
model i.e. k-ε, the numerical analysis was setup to evaluate the wind pressure for multiple wind directions. The
considered wind velocity was taken in accordance to code specifications. The paper concludes with a
comparison of the numerically obtained wind pressure and the values obtained by applying the simplified code
approach.
Keywords: wind pressure modelling, CFD, Makovecz, wind-sensitive structure, turbulence, k-ε model.

Introduction
Following the 1989 Romanian revolution, Makovecz Imre, who is considered to be the forefather of
organic architecture, visited Timisoara and offered his support for the elaboration of the New Millennium
Reformed Centre of Timisoara (Fig. 1) project. The project implementation started in 1999, but 3 years later, in
2002, the construction site was closed due to lack of funding.
Well known for his unique, organic work and his attitude against functionalistic and stylish approaches
[2], in his designs, Makovecz promotes philosophic ideas and symbolism. The focus of his work is the symbiotic
relationship between structure and landscape. The buildings are generally organized along a symmetry axis, but
are also incorporating asymmetrical elements aimed for keeping the proportionality of the human body. The
architect’s material of choice was timber, not only from aesthetic consideration, as expressionism, but also as
structural elements, respecting the principles of bionics, in architecture.
His designs are usually comprised of arches with different radii and slender elements intersected in
complex joints. Due to the irregular shapes present in his projects, both in plane and elevation, seismic, snow and
wind actions are difficult to assess. This design step usually implies detailed finite element analysis models or
reduced scale laboratory tests. Furthermore, in most cases, the structural calculation according to codes and even
detailing represent a real challenge even for experienced structural engineers.
In the present study, a comparison of the simplified code approach and numerically obtained wind
pressure is presented. The main goal and principal challenge was to optimize the design concept and structural
behaviour, to reduce the overall cost to a minimum without compromising structural integrity. Another focus
was to avoid complicated details that could lead to on site execution issues, also frequent in such cases. The main
building, which is going to serve as a church, has the in-plane section of approximately 32 by 21 meters. The
structure rises to a total height of about 28 meters and it has a base made of reinforced concrete elements (up to 4
meters) covered by a laminated timber roof structure of about 24 meters. The adjacent two winged-towers have
an in-plane base of 5.8 by 5.8 meters and are also made of reinforced concrete walls with a timber roof rising to
a total height of about 40 meters.
The building complex is part of a veritable cultural and ecumenical centre with a total estimated
investment value of about €6 million. The centre will be one of the most important buildings of “2021
Timisoara, Cultural European Capital” event.

2 Wind Load
Mean wind force onto structure is computed from the mean wind velocity and the fluctuating wind
force produced by the flow field. Fluctuating wind pressure varies with time, and their dynamic characteristics
are not uniform at all positions on building’s surface. For most buildings, the effect of fluctuating wind force
generated by wind turbulence is predominant. Besides the turbulence, the wind pressure distribution on the
surfaces (even for rectangular shapes) is asymmetric even when wind blows normal to the building surface [3].
Furthermore, wind intensity on-site varies for each wind direction, geographic location and large-scale
topographic effects.

Fig. 1. New Millennium Reformed Centre of Timisoara – initial concept (courtesy of Prof. Földváry A.)

The velocity pressure (i.e. kinetic energy per unit volume) determines the wind loading on a building. It
corresponds to the rise in pressure from the free stream (atmospheric static pressure) to the stationary point on
the directly exposed face of the building; External pressure coefficients considered by design codes correspond
to the most critical positive and negative peak pressures on each part of a building irrespective of wind direction.
For the evaluation of wind pressure or force onto structures, EN 1991-1-4:2005 European norm [4] and
CR 1-1-4/2012 Romanian code [5] account for various factors (e.g. structure’s location, terrain roughness,
surroundings, structural shape, etc.). In design, the wind action is represented by a simplified set of pressures or
forces whose effects are equivalent to the maximum effects of the turbulent wind. When the structure’s geometry
is complex, the evaluation of pressure coefficients on all surfaces becomes a cumbersome procedure.
According to the Romanian wind design code [5] provisions, the reference value of the dynamic wind
pressure (i.e. reference pressure) for Timișoara is =0.6 kN/m2 for a standard air density of =1,25 kg/m3.
The pressure is computed based on the refence value of the wind speed with an average recurrence interval of 50
years. The terrain category considered for calculations was type III, described as an area with regular cover of
vegetation or buildings or with isolated obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (i.e.
suburban terrain). To consider the effect of non-simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface
together with the effect of the vibrations of the structure due to turbulence on wind pressure, a structural factor
must be considered. Furthermore, based on the Romanian approach, buildings are divided in classes of
importance-exposure ([5], Table 3.1), depending on the consequences that may be caused by a major event. The
building under study was classified as class II, because the building’s capacity is over 250 people in the total
exposed area, thus the structural factor =1.15 was chosen. To model the wind action onto a structure, the
load is was considered as a surface pressure and evaluated using eq. ( 1 ):
(1)

where is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure, is the reference height for the
external pressure. The peak velocity pressure is computed using eq. ( 2 ):
(2)

The exposure factor can be obtained by using a detailed procedure based on a roughness factor
and short-term velocity fluctuation . In the same time, a simplified graphical method approach can
be applied (Figure 2.2 in [5]), resulting in a =2.4 and finally =1.37 kN/m2.

The main challenge when using eq. ( 1 ) is to determine the external pressure coefficients , and to
account for the height, length, width and arch diameter of the structure, as presented by Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Recommended values of external pressure coefficients base on EN 1991-1-4:2005

Fig. 3 presents the results of pressure evaluation considering the simplified code approach [4], [5]. It
can be easily observed that the wind pressure variation is limited to macro scale areas and that no local effects
can be considered. In the same time, the “split effect” of the dome cannot be considered in the evaluation of the
wind pressure onto the winged towers.

+1.0
Wind -

+1.0 wi -0.9
Wind +

21.5 m
Wind +
-0.5 nd -1.6
Wind -
-1.6 -0.5
18 m 14 m
32 m

wind
8.7 m
+18.5m
-1.6
28 m f/d=0.58 f/d=0.88 wind
Wind +
h/d=0.125 h/d=0.2
+1.0 -1.6 -0.5 +1.0 -0.5

32 m 21.5 m

a. Considered f/d and h/d coefficients b. Computed wind pressure (values in kN/m2)
Fig. 3. Wind pressure details according to design code

3 Numerical model setup

As described before, the structure under study is part of an ecumenical complex (please refer to Fig. 4a
for more details). As the code [5] offers limited indications for structures with complex geometries and while [3]
states that if a group of two or more tall buildings are constructed in proximity to each other, the wind flow
through the group may be significantly deformed causing higher dynamic pressures on neighbouring
downstream buildings, a numerical approach was considered i.e. a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
analysis.
In general, a CFD analysis consists of four main steps i.e. geometry setup and mesh generation, setting-
up the model (input and boundary conditions), solving the Partial Derivative Equations (PDEs) and post-
processing.

3.1 Geometry, assumptions and turbulence model

Setting-up the model represents one of the most important steps in the analysis [6]. The ideal model
should introduce the minimum amount of complexity into the modelling equations, while capturing the essence
of the relevant physics. To accurately determine the wind pressure onto the structure’s envelope and to also
consider neighbouring structures, the air around the structured was modelled using Ansys CFX R17.1 [7].

Vortex-induced vibration and aeroelastic instability can occur with flexible buildings or structural
members with very large aspect ratios. Criteria for cross-wind and torsional, and vortex-induced vibrations are
provided for buildings with regular sections. In the calculation of wind load on components/cladding, the
resonance effect is usually ignored, because the natural frequency of components/cladding is generally high. For
the present study, the structure was considered to be stiff enough so that the dynamic effect was ignored. Thus,
the structure was considered as a non-deformable solid (Fig. 4a). Using this approach, all dynamic effects were
ignored, including other possible fluid-solid interaction. The simulation domain was obtained by intersecting the
surrounding air volume (a rectangle of 60 m x 130 m x 400 m) with the structure’s outer shell, depicted by Fig. 4
a. In order to reduce the computational effort associated with mesh generation step, a circular section was
defined (Fig. 4b, the part depicted in light grey) surrounding the structure. This simple modification allowed
easy consideration of various wind directions, without regenerating the mesh for each run.

a. 3D model of the analysed structure b. Simulated air domain around the structure of interest
Fig. 4. Structure under study and simulation domain

The air around the structure was assumed to be an incompressible fluid (as expected wind speeds were
below 0.3 Mach [8]), with a constant temperature of 25°C. This assumption allowed for a good convergence rate
without compromising the results.
Fluid flow encountered in everyday situations can be considered to be turbulent, i.e. a fluid motion
characterized by random changes in flow velocity and pressure. There is no real definition for turbulent flow, but
it has several characteristic features [9] e.g. irregularity, diffusivity, three-dimensionality, dissipation, etc. Even
though turbulence is chaotic, it is deterministic and is described by the Navier-Stokes equations [10]. There are a
wide range of scales in turbulent flow. Complexity of different turbulence models may vary strongly. It depends
on the details one wants to observe and investigate by carrying out such numerical simulations. A complete and
comprehensive description of the turbulence models is given in [11]. To model open air turbulences for wind
flow around the structure under study, a k-ε model transfer was chosen. The model solves PDEs for two
variables i.e. the turbulence kinety energy, k, and the energy dissipation rate, ε. The k-ε model is very versatile
and it was proven to perform well external flow around complex geometries.

3.2 Boundary conditions

To account for different wind directions, the cylindrical part containing the ‘negative’ model of the
analysed structure (Fig. 4b) was kept fixed, while the exterior air domain was rotated around the axis of the
cylindrical volume. Fig. 5 presents the boundary conditions considered for the air domain. On the inlet, a normal
velocity profile with power law variation (Fig. 6a) depending on height was set up. At the ground level of the
domain a no-slip wall condition was imposed, while the rest of the air volume bounding faces limits were set up
as openings not to over-constrain the flow.
Opening

Inlet

No slip wall

Fig. 5. Considered boundary conditions for the air domain

Using this approach, 13 different wind directions were considered (Fig. 6b). The wind directions were
considered using a 15° rotation step, on the 180° interval. It must be mentioned that the structure is symmetric,
thus allowing for consideration of the half circle for wind pressure evaluation.

a. Simulated air domain around the structure of interest b. Considered wind directions
Fig. 6. Considered wind directions and wind velocity profile

3.3 CFD results

Pressure generated by the wind on the analysed structure has been determined using a CFD analysis
implying a k-ε turbulence model. Pressure maps onto the main structure were analysed for each of the 13
considered wind direction (Fig. 6b).
It was found that the towers experience the highest wind pressure values when the wind is blowing
straight from the front and the back of the structure (Fig. 7). Also, the highest pressures are acting on the top
portions of the towers, which is expected due to the higher wind speeds. It can also be observed that on the
interior faces of the towers (Fig. 7b) the pressure is higher due to the wind splitting effect of the dome’s roof.

a. Front view b. Back view

o o
Fig. 7. Wind pressure for 0 and 180 wind directions

Fig. 8 depicts, in deep blue colour, the areas at the roof top where the air flow detaches from the
surface, causing negative pressures with a significant suction effect that may damage the structure’s enveloping
elements. These low-pressure areas are present in most of the considered wind direction. The central dome is
subjected to higher wind pressure when the angle is between 120-135°. However, the pressure level was found to
be somewhat lower than in case of the towers. Fig. 8a presents the pressure map on the dome’s roof as a view
from the top of the structure. The same figure shows that even at this wind angle (i.e. 135°), certain towers’ areas
exposed to wind experience higher pressure values. Fig. 8b shows the 0° case, top view, where the low-pressure
areas are visible on the dome’s roof as well as in the centre zone of the tower ornaments.

a. Pressure map, upper view, wind angle 135° b. Pressure map, upper view, wind angle 0°
Fig. 8. Wind pressure for 0o and 180o wind directions (top view)

4 Conclusions
The present paper provides an insight in the evaluation of wind pressure onto structures with complex
geometries as part of a group of buildings. When assessing the wind pressure onto a structure with complex
shape, the most cumbersome procedure is the evaluation of the pressure coefficient, cpe. European [4] and
Romanian [5] norms give guidance on the determination of wind actions used for the structural design of
buildings with regular shape in plane and elevation. In practice, if the structure shape is complex, the wind load
evaluation becomes difficult to assess, prone to over simplification leading to high uncertainty regarding wind
pressure distribution.
For the structure under study, since using a manual calculation approach would not allow a
consideration of different wind directions (apart from longitudinal and transversal), the effects of adjacent
structures nor the creation of a detailed pressure map. To overcome these shortcomings, a numerical procedure
was applied i.e. CFD. This approach allowed for the consideration of multiple wind angles with relatively
limited computational effort (Fig. 6). It also allowed for the identification of pressure concentration areas, for
each dominant wind direction, superposing of pressure and suction loads, wind pressure variation in plane and in
elevation. Furthermore, the numerical approach allowed the direct consideration of nearby structures (i.e. two
medium rise blocks of flats) and their influence on the structure of interest, including the dome’s “split effect”.
It is important to mention that the simplified manual calculation according to the Romanian code
resulted into conservative pressure values, aside from a limited area with pressure concentrations (the 2 kN/m2
load presented in Fig. 7).

REFERENCES
[1] Makovecz, I. (2015). Guide to Hungarian Organic Architecture, EPL, pp. 182.
[2] Makovecz, I. (2013). Churches, pp. 332.
[3] Architectural Institute of Japan (2006). Recommendations for Loads on Buildings.
[4] EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions - Wind
actions, 2010.
[5] CR 1-1-4/2012 - Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea actiunii vântului asupra constructiilor.
[6] Sodja, J. (2007). Turbulence models in CFD, Ljubljana.
[7] ANSYS® CFX, Release 17.1, Help System, ANSYS, Inc.
[8] https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/machrole.html (last accessed in 2019 febr.).
[9] Tennekes, H., Lumley, J. L. (1972). A First Course in Turbulence. The MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
[10] Davidson, L. (2018). An Introduction to Turbulence Models, Publication 97/2, Chalmers
University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden.
[11] Davidson, L. (2019). Fluid mechanics, turbulent flow and turbulence modelling, Chalmers
University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden.

Validation of FE Model for Bolted Steel Macro

Component

Marginean I.1, Both I. 1, Dogariu A.1, Pintea D.1, Dinu F.1, Zaharia R.1
1
University Politehnica of Timisoara, Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The bolted end plate connections represent a convenient method for joining structural elements in multi-
storey steel frame structures. Their design is based on the component method, which evaluates the behaviour of
the basic components through equivalent T-stubs, to model the tension zone that constitutes the most relevant
source of deformability. Although numerical investigations can determine accurately the elastic capacity, the
plastic response is highly dependent on the failure mode of the T-stub, due to the plasticisation of the bolts and
of the steel plate. The paper presents the validation of a FE model for bolted steel macro component using
experimental results on bolted T-stubs.
Keywords: T-stub, numerical analysis, experimental results, validation.

INTRODUCTION
Within the CODEC research project [1], a study on steel connections was engaged, with detailed
investigations on the macro-components of a connection, tests on joint under column loss scenario, and a system
test under column loss scenario. The tests were conducted in order to simulate the conditions of a possible
impact scenario, when the structures are subjected to extreme actions. The extreme actions regard the loading
rate and the elevated temperature.
The complex phenomena that occurs in the case of extreme deformation of a connection caused by a
possible column loss is presented in [2]. Along with the structural elements plasticisation, the connections
degradation influences the post elastic response of the structural system. A deformable joint allows the transfer
of internal forces to adjacent elements without a sudden collapse of the affected area, preventing the progressive
collapse.
From ductile to brittle behaviour, the connections can still transmit internal forces although they reached
the elastic limit or they can fail without any additional post elastic behaviour. Such responses are acknowledged
for the simple macro-component (T-stub), which is the base of bolted connection assessment, by EN 1993-1-8
[3] as the failure mode. Three failure modes are describing the damage of a T-stub: plasticisation of the steel
plate before bolt failure, limited plasticisation of the plate and bolt failure, and only bolt failure.
For failure mode 2, when both structural steel and bolt material reach plastic stage, the degradation of
material properties has a high effect on the plastic behaviour of the T-stub. A simple approach for elastic and
plastic parameters in the numerical model is less accurate; therefore additional considerations must be
introduced.
Starting from some experimental results obtained on T-stubs, the paper describes the parameters
considered by the authors for a numerical model using Abaqus [4] and the validation based on these
experimental results.

1 Experimental results
The large experimental program of CODEC Project [1] included also testing on T-stubs. Function of the
failure mode, two sets of specimens was tested. The first set included T-stubs with flange thickness of 10 mm
and 12 mm, designed for failure mode 1 according to the relations provided in EN1993-1-8 [3]. The second set
of specimens, designed to obtain failure mode 2 included T-stubs with flanges of 15 mm and 18 mm.
In order to investigate the effect of the distance between the bolts, all the specimens were considered
with the distances of 100 mm, 120 mm and 140 mm. The specimens were tested under quasi-static and high
strain rate loading, and under normal and elevated temperature. Due to the experimental setup for elevated

temperature tests in the environmental chamber, the specimens were required to have an increased length of the
web, as presented in Fig. 1 a).
The following presents the data for the specimens with failure mode 2, tested at normal temperature and
quasi-static loading rate (0.05mm/s), having the flange thickness equal with 15 mm. The generic dimensions of
the specimens are presented in Fig. 1 b), while the nominal and the measured dimensions are given in Table 1.

a) b)
Fig. 1. a) experimental setup, b) specimen geometry

Table 1. Dimensions of the specimens

Specimen Nominal Measured
tp b p Lp c e mx tp bp Lp c e mx aw tw
T-15-16-100C 15 90 160 100 30 45 15.8 88.65 159 100.7 20.2 44.0 7 10
9.7 89.2 160 100.5 30.5 43.6 7 10
T-15-16-120C 15 90 180 120 30 45 15.8 89.15 179 120.7 20.9 45.2 7 10
15.8 88.75 178.5 120.2 20.7 44.5 7 10

The materials properties of the T-stub, determined from standard tensile tests, are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Material properties of T-stub parts

Element fy [N/mm²] fu [N/mm²] Agt [%] At [%]
T-stub web, t = 10 mm 390 569 18.7 26.5
T-stub flange, t = 15 mm 275 400 21.6 34.4
Bolt, M16 965 1080 5.0 6.5
Note: Agt - total elongation at maximum force; At - total elongation at fracture

The force - displacement curves for the two specimens are presented in Fig. 2.

250

200
Force [kN]

150

100 T-15-16-100-C

50 T-15-16-120-C

0
0 10 20 30 40
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 2. Experimental results

2 FE model
The numerical analysis using advanced FE computer codes represent a useful tool for the assessment of
steel bolted connections response. Nevertheless, erroneous results are obtained if the FE model is not calibrated
against experimental results. Starting from the geometry definition, mesh size and finite element type, to the
method used to solve the analysis, the finite element method is based on parameters which influence the
precision of the results.
The geometry of the T-stub specimens was defined in the Part module of Abaqus considering the
measured dimensions. Using Solid shape, the assembly was created by two parts, i.e the T-element and the bolt,
as shown in Fig. . The T-shaped element was created using extrusion option, considering the welding between
the two plates as a triangular shape. For a regular shape of the finite elements, the element was partitioned at the
contact of the web and weld and also at the contact of the flange and weld. For the bolts, Solid shape is chosen
and the shape was obtained by revolution parameters.

a) b) c
Fig. 3. Model of the T-stub: a)T-stub, b) bolt, c) assembly

In the Property module, the materials are defined within Abaqus by Elastic behaviour, Plastic
behaviour and Ductile Damage criteria. The elastic behaviour of model is interpreted through the Young’s
modulus of 210 GPa and the Poissons ratio of 0.3. Although required only for certain solvers e.g. Explicit, the
Density is defined as 7.85e-9 N/mm2.
The properties defined for the T-stub parts were based on the tensile tests results. The stress-strain
determined from the tensile tests does not take into consideration the reduction of cross section caused by the
necking of the specimen. Thus, for a more accurate simulation of the tests on T-stubs, the resulted engineering
curve needs to be adjusted. A separate model of the standard coupons was analysed in order to respect the force
displacement curve of the tensile tests.
First, the engineering stress-strain curve was modified to true stress-strain curve for the interval between
the yielding and the ultimate strength by the relations provided in EN 1993-1-5 [5] and presented below in Eq. 1
and Eq. 2, while the Plastic strains in Abaqus were defined as in Eq. 3. Similar operations were performed for
the bolt material of Class 10.9.

σtrue=σ(1+ ε) Eq. 1
εtrue=ln(1+ ε) Eq. 2
ε plastic= εtrue - σtrue / E Eq. 3

For the descending branch of the coupon tests, additional modelling parameters were used. The Ductile
Damage was supplementary defined, an option that allows a degradation of the material by a Damage Evolution.
The values of the corresponding parameters were calibrated such that the numerical force-displacement curve
follows closely the descending branch of the experimental curve. Also, by monitoring the Equivalent Plastic
Strain, an offset of the strain corresponding to the ultimate strength was introduced in the stress-strain curve of
the numerical model. The values of these calibrated coefficients for Ductile Damage are given in Table and
Table 3.

Table .3. Damage evolution definition in Abaqus

For structural steel For bolt
Tabular softening Linear
Damage variable Displacement Displacement at failure
0 0
0.25 0.4 0.15
1 0.8

The same material properties were introduced in the numerical model of the T-stub and, because the
previous parameters are mesh dependent, the mesh size of the T-stub was defined with similar dimensions as the
standard coupon model size.

Table 3 Ductile damage criterion coefficients in Abaqus

Material Fracture strain
t=10 mm (S355) 0.35
t=15 mm (S235) 0.65
Bolt M16 Class 10.9 0.15

The type of analysis to be used is defined in the Step module. Dynamic explicit Step with Mass Scaling
was used to simulate the quasi-static response of the T-stub. The option of scaling to Target Time Increment was
set to 5E-6, in order to reduce the analysis time.
Many different possible interactions need to be considered in a connection, which lead to a complex
numerical problem. The General contact type was used for defining the contact, as it is a surface based
interaction recommended for use within dynamic solver. The General contact tool is a very powerful option,
introduced in recent Abaqus versions, which allows for Self-Contact. Using this option, no contact surfaces need
to be specified manually, but, depending on the considered problem size, it may extent the time for the
calculation. For Tangential behaviour, a friction coefficient of 0,8 was defined in the basic Coulomb friction
model, while for Normal behaviour the Hard Contact was introduced. This means that contact pressure can be
transmitted if the surfaces are in contact, but also a separation of contact surfaces is allowed. Finite element
models including contact problems are very sensitive to any applied load and may have problems to converge
numerically at the beginning of a calculation. The reason is that the contact is not fully established as long as
there is zero force in the model [6].
In the Assembly module, two reference points were defined, required for the loading conditions. One
reference point was fully fixed, while the second reference point was free for the T-stub longitudinal
displacement, in order to replicate the experimental conditions. For the second reference point, an imposed
displacement of 20 mm was increased using a Smooth amplitude.
Explicit element type was chosen for Mesh options and C3D8 element type was used. Approximate
global size for Seed is 7 mm. Around the holes for the bolts, the size of the mesh is reduced. Two elements per
thickness for the web and three elements per thickness for the flange were set up in Seed Edges option in order to
obtain finer mesh geometry and to produce more accurate results, in a reasonable processing time. The behaviour
of the bolts has a very important influence on whole T-stub model and the mesh size is important for simulating
the complex state of stress. In a T-stub connection, the bolts are subjected both to tension and bending due to
deformation of T-stub flanges. Each bolt assembly consists of a head, nut and shank and each of these
components is a source of deformation that has to be taken into account when modelling the bolt, as explained in
[7]. The mesh discretization for the bolt, flange of T-stub and global mesh are shown in Fig. 3.

a) b) c
Fig. 3. Finite element discretization: a)T-stub, b) bolt, c) assembly

3 Results
Qualitative results are presented in a visual comparison between the deformed shape of the real
specimen and the numerical model in Fig. 4. A good agreement is observed for both the plastic region of the
flange in the vicinity of the web and for the bending of the bolts.

a) b)
Fig. 4. Experimental and numerical deformed shape of the specimens: a) T-15-16-100-C, b) T-15-16-120-C

The quantitative results of the numerical analysis follow closely the experimental results of the
specimens, see Fig. 5.

T-15-16-100-C T-15-16-120-C
250 250

200 200
Force [kN]
Force [kN]

150 150

Exp Exp
100 100
FEM FEM
50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]

Fig. 5. Experimental vs numerical results

4 Conclusions
Bolted end plate connections are assessed in the Eurocodes using the T-stub model. When a numerical
analysis of this macro-component is considered, simple approaches for elastic and plastic parameters in the FE
model are not prone to provide accurate results, especially for failure mode 2, in which both structural steel and
bolts demonstrate high degradation of material properties.
Calibrated parameters for damage criteria were introduced for the materials in the FE model in order to
obtain accurate results in the plastic range of the T-stub response. The procedure considered to calibrate the
coefficients required in Abaqus for ductile damage criterion and damage evolution leads to a good agreement
between numerical and experimental results. For validation purposes, two tests performed on T-stubs which
demonstrated failure mode 2 were considered.

REFERENCES
[1] CODEC, “Structural conception and collapse control performance based design of multi-story
structures under accidental actions, Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research,
Development and Innovation Funding, Romania, PN II PCCA 55/2012.”
[2] Dinu, F., Marginean, I., Dubina, D. (2017). Experimental testing and numerical modelling of steel
moment-frame connections under column loss. Engineering Structures 151, pp. 861–878.
[3] CEN (2005). EN 1993-1-8 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-8: Design of joints, 2005
[4] Dassault Systemes (2014). Abaqus 6.14 Documentation, Providence, RI.
[5] CEN, “EN 1993-1-5 (2006). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-5: Plated structural
elements,” Brussels.
[6] Heistermann, C. (2011). Behaviour of pretensioned bolts in friction connections, PhD Thesis,
Lulea.
[7] A. M. C. Girao, A.M.C. (2004). Characterization of the ductility of bolted end plate beam to column
steel connections, PhD Thesis.

Proposals to Improve Some Aspects of

Regulation Approaches in our Country for
Assessment of Actions and Capacities from
Axial Forces, Bending Moments and Shear
Forces from Seismic Action

Mironescu. M1, Stanescu A.1, Brotea T.1, Comanescu R.1, Purdea D.1,
Stanescu M.1
1
MIRO GRUP (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The present article reflects what has initiated new debates and proposals regarding the upgrade
of some provisions of the P100-1/2013 code, which were adopted by AICPS and UTCB, and finally
sent to be approved.
Moreover, a proposal to modify the P100-3/2008 code was approved by MDRAP and also sent
for approval by the CEN European Community. These improvements generally refer to detail aspects
or correct harmonization to the provisions of Eurocodes EN 1998-1 and EN 1998-3.
New and perfected approach methods appeared in the USA and other countries outside of the
EU with significant seismic areas, in the time between the emergence of the Eurocodes and the present
day, with overall increased efficiency for economy and society.
Since the 2nd Seismic Engineering World Conference in Tokyo 1960 and up to the present day,
our country has used or created methods or regulations of the highest levels.
The appearance of the Eurocodes, dating back to 1990, produced a significant progress, benefic
for the member countries which adopted all of the ten codes (EN 1990 – En 1999). Of those ten, EN
1998, “Design of structures for earthquake resistance” is amongst the most valued, but the basis and
adaptation method to the particular cases for countries with significant seismic activity, such as our
country, require knowing the approaches from all countries with similar seismic activity.
The paper will present the pursuit to assimilate and adapt the proposals or provide personal
proposals, evaluation methods with regard to these aspects, assessment for axial forces, bending
moments, and in particular, for shear action, demand and capacity, for gravity and seismic action.
Keywords: action, demand, capacity, axial forces, bending moments, shear forces.

1 Introduction
In our article from AICPS 4/2012 [1] we made a comparison between our earlier approaches and the
results for one of the elements analyzed by Moehle et. al., in JSE Oct. 2012 [2].
Of the 56 analyzed elements, which had, in addition to evaluation through assessment, capacity results
from tests, we chose at the time element UM 231 (37th in the list).
The basic point of our article was that the deformations, as well as rotation of the reinforced concrete
elements, is influenced by the slipping of the reinforcement bars in the link, in relation to which the evaluation for
rotation is done, and this was highlighted by the comparison with our results for sectional evaluation, rotation and
displacement. Reinforcement bars slip can lead to up to 100% increase in element rotation.

In our present article we make some explanations regarding this aspect, through the comparison for all
the elements mentioned in [2], in addition to which a further comparison to basic parameters, shear force, element
deformation and rotation, with respect to ASCE regulations, ACI/2016 and SREN 1998-3-2005.
This is a useful comparison because, for example, in the formulas from SREN 1998-3-2005, which are
also given in the P100-3/2018 proposal, the influence of the parameters used is difficult to check. American
regulations are clearer and more pragmatic, but are still, in part, complicated.
The comparison made in this present article shows the utility of simplified sectional analysis and
evaluation formulas.

2. Description of assessment approach for the capacities for axial forces,

bending moments, shear forces, during seismic actions
As a result of the earthquake of 4.03.1997 and other previous studies, we have tackled the issue of
combined stresses given from gravitational forces, bending moments and shear forces, according to figure 1 [1].
N

Scap shear S
S
force failure
U
SU C
DUCTILE CRACKING THROUGH
F COMPRESSION WITH BENDING
CRACKING THROUGH H

COMPRESSION + BENDING+SHEAR
FORCE FRAGILE CRACKING FROM
SHEAR FORCE

a a

(/H)
a-a
LEGENDA: b
h
F - fissure state C+B F =0.1-0.2‰
C - yield state C+B c y =1.5-2.5‰
U - ultimate state C+B U =3.5‰
C=compression; B=bending

Fig. 1. S-δ diagram

Many new methods and approaches have been implemented, between then and the present day, as
illustrated in figures 2-4.

Fig. 2. Load dispacement curve of a column that failed in shear by ASCE/SEI 41-13 [3]

Fig. 3. Proposed load-displacement curve of a short column that failed in shear [3]

Fig. 4. Concrete shear strength degradation with displacement ductility [4]

It is possible to comment to these figures, but essentially, in all of them, the collapse of the element,
marked in the figures as the last deformation point, does not correspond to maximum shear, and it is considered in
ACI and ASCE that the deformation area between the two points is uncertain for alternating cycles. From
deformations nearing the deformation associated to maximum shear force until collapse deformation point, shear
forces decrease until 0.
This aspect enables us to correct our previous approach from [1] such that, for each element, we can
attribute the smallest value of shear force, resulted from our simplified formulas or associated to the maximum
bending moment, with deformations corresponding to the maximum bending moment. The tables below (Table 1,
2), and the explanations, show a comparison between the models and methods of ASCE – ACI 2014, Eurocode,
SREN 1998/3 and our own method for the 56 elements of the initial table, plus one more, in total 57 elements.
Figure 5 shows the schematic approach for a reinforced concrete element subjected to vertical, horizontal load and
bending moment.

Table 1. Element characteristics

No. Element b (cm) h (cm) d (cm) a (cm) s (cm) l  tr fyl (tf/cm2) fyt (tf/cm2) f'c (tf/cm2) P (tf) P / (A xf'c)
1 2CLD12 45.7 45.7 39.4 147.3 30.5 0.025 0.0017 4.41 4.69 0.211 66.1 0.15
2 2CHD12 45.7 45.7 39.4 147.3 30.5 0.025 0.0017 4.41 4.69 0.211 268.81 0.61
3 2CVD12 45.7 45.7 39.4 147.3 30.5 0.025 0.0017 4.41 4.69 0.209 222.61 0.51
4 2CLD12M 45.7 45.7 39.4 147.3 30.5 0.025 0.0017 4.41 4.69 0.218 68.29 0.15
5 3CLH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.03 0.0012 3.31 4 0.256 48.12 0.09
6 3SLH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.03 0.0012 3.31 4 0.256 48.12 0.09
7 2CLH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.019 0.0012 3.31 4 0.331 48.39 0.07
8 2SLH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.019 0.0012 3.31 4 0.331 48.39 0.07
9 2CMH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.019 0.0012 3.31 4 0.257 150.29 0.28
10 3CMH18 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.03 0.0012 3.31 4 0.276 149.87 0.26
11 3CMD12 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.03 0.0017 3.31 4 0.276 149.87 0.26
12 3SMD12 45.7 45.7 38.1 147.3 45.7 0.03 0.0017 3.31 4 0.257 150.29 0.28
13 2D16RS 20 20 17.5 40 5 0.02 0.0056 5.4 4.6 0.465 26.04 0.14
14 4D13RS 20 20 17.5 40 5 0.025 0.0056 5.4 4.6 0.434 26.04 0.15
15 H215 20 20 17.5 40 5 0.025 0.0052 3.6 3.65 0.23 15.64 0.17
16 HT215 20 20 17.5 40 7.5 0.025 0.0052 3.6 3.65 0.202 14.54 0.18
17 H213 20 20 17.5 40 4 0.025 0.0065 3.6 3.65 0.23 26.68 0.29
18 HT213 20 20 17.5 40 6 0.025 0.0065 3.6 3.65 0.202 23.43 0.29
19 U7 40 40 37.5 100 12 0.024 0.0047 4.46 3.82 0.29 46.4 0.1
20 U8 40 40 37.5 100 12 0.024 0.0052 4.46 3.82 0.335 107.2 0.2
21 U9 40 40 37.5 100 12 0.024 0.0057 4.46 3.82 0.341 163.68 0.3
22 U1 35 35 30.5 100 15 0.033 0.003 4.3 4.7 0.436 0 0
23 U2 35 35 30.5 100 15 0.033 0.003 4.53 4.7 0.302 59.19 0.16
24 U3 35 35 30.5 100 7.5 0.033 0.006 4.3 4.7 0.348 59.68 0.14
25 BRS1 55 55 48.5 148.5 30 0.02 0.001 4.45 4.25 0.448 203.28 0.15
26 IK43 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 4.34 5.58 0.196 7.84 0.1
27 IK 44 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 4.34 5.58 0.196 7.84 0.1
28 IK 45 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 4.34 5.58 0.196 15.68 0.2
29 IK 46 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 4.34 5.58 0.196 15.68 0.2
30 IK 62 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 3.45 4.76 0.196 7.84 0.1
31 IK 63 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 3.45 4.76 0.196 15.68 0.2
32 IK 64 20 20 17.5 50 10 0.02 0.0028 3.45 4.76 0.196 15.68 0.2
33 UM 205 20 20 18 60 10 0.02 0.0028 4.62 3.24 0.176 15.49 0.22
34 UM 207 20 20 18 40 10 0.02 0.0028 4.62 3.24 0.176 15.49 0.22
35 UM 208 20 20 18 40 10 0.02 0.0028 4.62 3.24 0.176 39.2 0.22
36 UM 214 20 20 18 60 20 0.02 0.0028 4.62 3.24 0.176 39.42 0.56
37 UM 220 20 20 18 40 12 0.012 0.0011 3.79 6.48 0.329 15.79 0.12
38 UM 231 20 20 18 40 10 0.01 0.0013 3.24 5.24 0.148 15.39 0.26
39 UM 232 20 20 18 40 10 0.01 0.0013 3.24 5.24 0.131 15.72 0.3
40 UM 233 20 20 18 40 10 0.012 0.0013 3.72 5.24 0.139 15.57 0.28
41 UM 234 20 20 18 40 10 0.012 0.0013 3.72 5.24 0.131 15.72 0.3
42 UM 372 20 20 17 50 10 0.008 0.0031 5.24 3.52 0.199 15.92 0.2
43 UM 373 20 20 17 50 10 0.02 0.0031 5.24 3.52 0.199 15.12 0.19
44 UM 452 20 20 17 50 10 0.03 0.0031 3.6 6.07 0.204 36.72 0.45
45 UM 454 20 20 17 50 10 0.04 0.0031 3.6 6.07 0.219 39.42 0.45
46 40033aW 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 12.7 0.025 0.0033 4.96 3.45 0.347 19.3 0.12

No. Element b (cm) h (cm) d (cm) a (cm) s (cm) l  tr fyl (tf/cm2) fyt (tf/cm2) f'c (tf/cm2) P (tf) P / (A xf'c)
47 40033E 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 12.7 0.025 0.0033 4.96 3.45 0.336 17.13 0.11
48 25033E 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 12.7 0.025 0.0033 4.96 3.45 0.336 10.9 0.07
49 0033E 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 12.7 0.025 0.0033 4.96 3.45 0.32 0 0
50 40048W 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 8.9 0.025 0.0047 4.96 3.45 0.261 18.15 0.15
51 0048W 15.2 30.5 26.7 87.6 8.9 0.025 0.0047 4.96 3.45 0.259 0 0
52 sp1 22.9 22.9 19.7 73.7 15.2 0.025 0.0018 4.79 6.89 0.245 12.85 0.1
53 sp2 22.9 22.9 19.7 73.7 15.2 0.025 0.0018 4.79 6.89 0.239 30.08 0.24
54 ColA1 15.2 15.2 13.1 49.5 10.2 0.025 0.0015 5.52 6.55 0.246 9.66 0.17
55 ColB1 15.2 15.2 13.1 49.5 10.2 0.025 0.0015 5.52 6.55 0.246 10.8 0.19
56 No6 30 30 25.4 60 10 0.018 0.0019 4.09 3.92 0.307 55.26 0.2
57 No7 30 30 25.4 60 10 0.018 0.0013 4.09 3.92 0.307 55.26 0.2

Fig. 5. Element characteristics and actions from P, V, M

Table 2. Comparison results

y u =
VyT
VmaxT Scap SREN
Scap ACI
ScapMy ScapMu ScapM1 ScapM2 y u /a /a u / umSREN
No. Element (tf) (tf) (tf) (tf) (tf) (tf) (tf) (tf) (cm) (cm) (%) (%) y yT(%) maxT(%) (%)
1 2CLD12 24.78 31.49 16.36 28.24 26.35 31.82 24.3 27.3 0.61 1.75 0.41 1.19 2.87 0.9 1.9 2.71
2 2CHD12 28.51 35.9 36.97 37.91 37.8 37.49 24.3 27.3 0.95 0.97 0.64 0.66 1.02 0.49 0.88 1.53
3 2CVD12 27.49 30.07 34.66 35.59 37.95 37.74 24.2 27.2 0.81 1.04 0.55 0.71 1.28 0.66 0.95 1.72
4 2CLD12M 23.58 29.45 16.61 28.63 26.35 31.82 24.8 28 0.61 1.75 0.41 1.19 2.87 0.96 2.07 2.68
5 3CLH18 24.42 27.13 12.46 27.36 23.05 28.91 26.1 31.6 0.45 2.16 0.31 1.47 4.8 0.67 1.03 3.07
6 3SLH18 22.91 26.69 12.46 27.36 23.05 28.91 26.1 31.6 0.45 2.16 0.31 1.47 4.8 0.53 0.78 3
7 2CLH18 20.02 24.02 11.89 29.75 17.47 22 30.8 38.6 0.42 3.06 0.29 2.08 7.29 0.62 2.59 3.65
8 2SLH18 21.35 23.13 11.89 29.75 17.47 22 30.8 38.6 0.42 3.06 0.29 2.08 7.29 0.54 1.08 3.4
9 2CMH18 28.91 31.58 24.39 32.59 26.58 29.8 26.1 31.7 0.53 1.4 0.36 0.95 2.64 0.53 1.03 2.38
10 3CMH18 31.14 33.81 24.53 33.39 32.2 36.44 27.3 33.5 0.54 1.35 0.37 0.92 2.5 0.71 0.91 2.48
11 3CMD12 31.14 35.59 27.91 37.57 32.2 36.44 31.5 33.5 0.54 1.35 0.37 0.92 2.5 0.64 1.03 2.48
12 3SMD12 32.03 37.81 27.94 36.77 32.2 36.44 30.3 31.7 0.54 1.35 0.37 0.92 2.5 0.74 1.55 2.38
13 2D16RS 8.54 10.19 6.83 8.49 9.5 10.75 15.9 9.8 0.14 0.32 0.35 0.8 2.29 0.96 2.74 2.72
14 4D13RS 9.12 11.08 6.84 8.29 9.5 10.75 15.5 9.3 0.14 0.32 0.35 0.8 2.29 0.83 1.72 2.65
15 H215 7.34 10.32 4.29 5.53 6.3 7.28 10.4 5.6 0.1 0.36 0.25 0.9 3.6 0.51 2.04 2.24
16 HT215 7.92 10.19 4.8 6.2 6.3 7.28 11 5.1 0.1 0.36 0.25 0.9 3.6 0.61 1.87 2.15
17 H213 8.76 12.05 6.35 6.09 7.63 8.3 12.3 5.6 0.11 0.28 0.28 0.7 2.55 0.45 1.06 1.94
18 HT213 9.16 11.16 6.52 6.62 7.63 8.3 11 5.1 0.11 0.28 0.28 0.7 2.55 0.61 1.51 1.89
19 U7 30.38 32.78 13.64 25.1 25.23 31.08 39.8 26.6 0.31 1.34 0.31 1.34 4.32 0.89 3.55 2.78
20 U8 35.19 39.28 24.43 31.21 32.82 38.18 44.7 29.9 0.34 0.99 0.34 0.99 2.91 0.84 1.26 2.55
21 U9 35.76 42.97 33.98 36.05 39.41 42.89 47.7 30.3 0.34 0.99 0.34 0.99 2.91 0.76 2.26 2.27
22 U1 22.46 27.49 5.19 19.32 16.35 21.2 30.8 28.4 0.32 1.73 0.32 1.73 5.41 1.7 4.52 3.6
23 U2 22.55 27 13.56 20.73 23.41 27.78 25.9 21.1 0.4 1.06 0.4 1.06 2.65 1.5 3.03 2.73
24 U3 22.91 26.82 13.49 21.74 22.9 27.57 49.8 23.6 0.38 1.15 0.38 1.15 3.03 1.6 2.72 2.89
25 BRS1 53.56 57.83 33.64 51.64 56.47 67.16 54.7 71.9 0.52 1.8 0.35 1.21 3.46 0.55 1.01 2.97
26 IK43 6.09 7.38 3.52 6.11 4.08 4.8 8.6 5 0.17 0.61 0.34 1.22 3.59 0.66 2.13 2.55
27 IK 44 6.36 7.65 3.52 6.11 4.08 4.8 8.6 5 0.17 0.61 0.34 1.22 3.59 0.66 1.62 2.55
28 IK 45 7.12 8.23 4.76 6.47 4.92 5.54 8.6 5 0.18 0.5 0.36 1 2.78 0.96 1.62 2.26
29 IK 46 7.56 8.05 4.76 6.47 4.92 5.54 8.6 5 0.18 0.5 0.36 1 2.78 0.96 1.22 2.26
30 IK 62 5.29 5.78 3.01 5.66 3.5 4.18 7.7 5 0.13 0.66 0.26 1.32 5.08 0.61 1.76 2.55
31 IK 63 5.69 6.85 4.3 6.02 4.36 5 7.7 5 0.15 0.54 0.3 1.08 3.6 0.61 2.35 2.26
32 IK 64 6.49 6.85 4.3 6.02 4.36 5 7.7 5 0.15 0.54 0.3 1.08 3.6 0.71 1.89 2.26
33 UM 205 6.23 7.12 3.4 5.07 4.25 4.75 5.7 4.6 0.27 0.64 0.45 1.07 2.37 0.81 2.08 2.29
34 UM 207 9.61 10.59 4.33 5.07 6.38 7.13 5.7 4.6 0.12 0.34 0.3 0.85 2.83 1.01 1.27 1.99
35 UM 208 - 13.5 8.76 6.15 9 8.9 5.7 4.6 0.38 0.43 0.95 1.08 1.13 - - 1.99
36 UM 214 7.83 8.27 7.92 7.98 6 5.93 5.7 4.6 0.17 0.2 0.28 0.33 1.18 1.02 1.48 1.52
37 UM 220 6.49 7.83 4.07 6.18 4.78 5.55 7.4 7.4 0.09 0.52 0.23 1.3 5.78 0.38 2.03 2.58
38 UM 231 4.36 5.07 3.88 4.34 3.93 4.28 4.5 4.1 0.09 0.35 0.23 0.88 3.89 0.25 1.01 1.82
39 UM 232 4.8 5.83 3.94 4.18 3.93 4.28 4.3 3.8 0.09 0.35 0.23 0.88 3.89 0.32 1.01 1.69
40 UM 233 5.78 6.89 3.94 4.26 4.15 4.45 4.4 3.9 0.1 0.34 0.25 0.85 3.4 0.38 1.71 1.75
41 UM 234 5.83 6.72 3.97 4.18 4.15 4.45 4.3 3.8 0.1 0.34 0.25 0.85 3.4 0.38 2.03 1.69
42 UM 372 5.96 7.43 3.96 5.47 4.02 4.38 6.8 5 0.2 0.55 0.4 1.1 2.75 0.51 1.98 2.26
43 UM 373 7.16 8.81 3.86 5.43 4.02 4.38 6.8 5 0.2 0.55 0.4 1.1 2.75 0.71 1.87 2.29
44 UM 452 9.03 11.03 8.34 8.05 7.92 8.16 10 5.1 0.2 0.32 0.4 0.64 1.6 0.61 1.27 1.69
45 UM 454 8.76 11.03 8.77 8.34 8.28 8.26 10.2 5.4 0.21 0.3 0.42 0.6 1.43 0.46 1.02 1.71
46 40033aW 9.03 9.56 4.29 7.44 6.95 8.74 9.2 8.9 0.38 0.9 0.43 1.03 2.37 0.87 2.64 2.97
47 40033E 9.16 8.85 4.01 7.22 6.95 8.74 9.1 8.7 0.38 0.9 0.43 1.03 2.37 1.39 3.88 2.98
48 25033E 8.01 8.18 3.18 6.84 5.94 7.95 9.1 8.7 0.36 1.03 0.41 1.18 2.86 1.36 3.59 3.13
49 0033E 6.76 8.1 1.73 6.08 4.85 7.03 8.8 8.3 0.34 1.19 0.39 1.36 3.5 0.87 2.61 3.37
50 40048W 9.43 9.47 4.13 6.67 5.47 6.45 10.2 7.1 0.38 0.93 0.43 1.06 2.45 1.65 5.54 2.68
51 0048W 7.34 8.59 1.6 5.68 3.25 4.52 10.2 7.1 0.32 1.45 0.37 1.66 4.53 1.54 6.35 3.21
52 sp1 7.25 8.05 4.84 8.75 5.01 5.94 12.5 7.7 0.35 1.03 0.47 1.4 2.94 1.31 2.62 2.92
53 sp2 8.32 8.81 6.97 9.57 6.85 7.49 12.4 7.5 0.41 0.76 0.56 1.03 1.85 1.36 1.69 2.46
54 ColA1 3.6 3.22 2.33 3.69 2.71 2.89 3.2 3.4 0.33 0.54 0.67 1.09 1.64 - 3.26 2.7
55 ColB1 3.6 4.39 2.46 3.75 2.71 2.89 3.2 3.4 0.33 0.54 0.67 1.09 1.64 - 3.15 2.64
56 No6 17.26 21.93 11.54 12.49 15.85 18.03 15 15.7 0.16 0.58 0.27 0.97 3.63 0.54 2 2.31
57 No7 16.5 21.31 11.01 11.79 15.85 18.03 12.9 15.7 0.16 0.58 0.27 0.97 3.63 0.52 1.5 2.31

Formulas used:
𝑆𝑅𝐸𝑁 1 ℎ−𝑥 𝑝𝑙
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑉𝑅 = ∙{ ∙ min(𝑁; 0.55 ∙ 𝐴𝑐 ∙ 𝑓𝑐 ) + (1 − 0.05 ∙ min(5; 𝜇𝛥 )) ∙ [0.16 ∙ max(0.5; 100𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑡 ) ∙ (1 −
𝛾𝑒𝑙 2∙𝐿𝑉
𝐿𝑉
0.16 ∙ min (5; )) ∙ √𝑓𝑐′ ∙ 𝐴𝑐 + 𝑉𝑊 ]}
ℎ
𝐴𝐶𝐼 𝑁𝑢
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑉𝐶 = 2 ∙ (1 + ) ∙ 𝜆 ∙ √𝑓𝑐′ ∙ 𝑏𝑤 ∙ 𝑑
2000∙𝐴𝑔
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑢
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑀1 ℎ
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑 ∙ 0.03 ∙ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 𝜌𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑖 ∙ ∙ 𝑓𝑦 𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑖 – simplified formula
𝑠
𝑀2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑 ∙ 0.045 ∙ 𝑓𝑐𝑚 - simplified formula, fcm = mean compression resistance for concrete
0.225 0.35 𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝑆𝑅𝐸𝑁 1 max(0.01;𝜔′ ) 𝐿 𝛼∙𝜌𝑠𝑥 ∙
𝜃𝑢𝑚 = ∙ 0.016 ∙ (0.3𝜈 ) ∙ [ ∙ 𝑓𝑐 ] ∙ ( 𝑉) ∙ 25 𝑓𝑐 ∙ 1.25100∙𝜌𝑑
𝛾𝑒𝑙 max(0.01;𝜔) ℎ

3 Conclusions
Following the results given in tables 1, 2, 3 and our own considerations based on papers (2), (3), (4) and
(5), we propose a new S-δ diagram, as shown in figure 6:

Fig. 6. New proposal for S-δ diagram

To further exemplify, we chose the 1st element in the table 2CLD12:
No. Element b (cm) h (cm) d (cm) a (cm) s (cm) l  tr fyl (tf/cm2) fyt (tf/cm2) f'c (tf/cm2) P (tf) P / (A xf'c)
1 2CLD12 45.7 45.7 39.4 147.3 30.5 0.025 0.0017 4.41 4.69 0.211 66.1 0.15

The differences between our simplified methods and models and ACI are relatively small, while, for
SREN, the differences are smaller or larger, depending on the case.
Moreover, the element rotations evaluated without rebar slip are approximately half those from the tests
or the ones evaluated with rebar slip. The latter are closer to SREN values.
In the majority of cases, our simplified methods are true, and most importantly, they are valid in order to
determine the measurement scale when passing from pre-dimensioning to dimensioning stages for new structures
and for a quick evaluation for triage evaluation for assessment of existing buildings.

References

[1] Probleme de ductilitate pentru stalpii de beton armat cu armatura transversala realizate in
Romania inainte de cutremurul din 4.03.1977, M. Mironescu et all, Revista AICPS 4/2012.
[2] Rotation-Based Shear Failure Model for Lightly Confined RC Columns, W.M. Ghannoum,
J.P. Moehle, JSE, oct. 2012.
[3] Probleme de ductilitate pentru stalpii de beton armat cu armatura transversala realizate in
Romania inainte de cutremurul din 4.03.1977, M. Mironescu et all, Revista AICPS 4/2012.
[4] Prediction of Lateral Displacement Curves for Reinforced Concrete Short Columns Failed
in Shear, Yi-An Li, Shyh-Jiann Hwang, JSE, feb. 2017.
[5] Shear Strength Model for Lightly Reinforced Concrete Columns, Halil Sezen, J.P. Moehle,
JSE, nov. 2004.
[6] Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete ACI 318-14 and Commentary (ACI
318R-14).
[7] SREN 1998-3 (Eurocode 8/3) – Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance.
Assessment and Retrofitting of Buildings.

Applications of stabilized soil in hydraulic

constructions

Nagy A.-Cs.1, Cîrcu A.-P.1, Ciubotaru V.-C.2, Crăciunescu B.-M.2,

Topan G.2, Cherecheş T.1, Fărcaş V.S.1
1
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca (ROMANIA)
2
University of Petroşani (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Romania has a complex geography, and extensive freshwater system, consisting mainly of rivers, which
spring from the Carpathian Mountains, which cover roughly 30% of the country’s surface. Initial portions,
located in the mountain area pose an erosion problem, which is yet to be dealt with. With the intense expansion
of settlements in these areas, due to touristic development, this might represent an important issue in the years to
come. River bank erosion is a common event in Romania. There is interest in reducing erosion in urban parts of
settlements, at the proximity of road structures and nearby hydrotechnical objectives. Classic river bank
stabilization methods consisted of using different type of concrete or riprap materials, however concrete
manufacture consumes large amount of non-renewable raw materials and energy, and it is a carbon-intensive
process, while acquiring crushed stone tends to become problematic. Many efforts are, therefore, being
undertaken towards the developing “greener” solutions, by using on site materials. An experimental project was
carried out on “Căpuș” river from Cluj County, and will make the object of the present study.
Keywords: soil stabilization, permeability, oedometric tests, direct shear tests.

1 Introduction
Mixing hydraulic binders with different soil types is an established method for stabilization in case of
difficult foundation layers. An increasing volume of hydraulic constructions in the United States, carried out in
the post war period made it necessary to search for new types of slope protection, since conventional riprap
materials were not always in the proximity of the projects, while reinforced concrete protection would have
caused a significant rise in building cost. Initially used in road construction works, the method gradually
evolved, being suitable for linings of canals and reservoirs.
Soil-cement slope protection was first tried (1951) by the USBR (Bureau of Reclamation) on an
experimental test section at Bonny Dam in eastern Colorado. A special embankment with a soil-cement facing
was constructed at a site expected to get maximum destructive exposure. The test section was separate from the
dam, and the soil-cement was constructed using mixed-in-place techniques. The facing was inspected frequently,
and after 10 years of evaluation, soil-cement was added to USBR specifications as an alternate to riprap as a
method of upstream slope protection, as discussed by Holtz and Walker (1962) [1]. Merritt Dam was the first
(1963) dam to have soil-cement slope protection, followed closely by Cheney Dam (1964). In the period 1966 to
1969, five other embankments were constructed with soil-cement facings. [2].
Slope protection is necessary to avoid erosional processes. Riverbank erosion occurs in at river bends,
where a meander is formed, increasing the flow section. This decreases flowing speed, which leads to warping
the river bed, in periods when the water level is low. In high water level periods the increased flow section is
subjected to erosion of the already weakened bank. The majority of rivers from Romania were affected from
human involvement, which resulted in changes in water discharge, flow speed, and river bed depth. Rivers
gather their water from a collection basin. Reducing vegetation leads to large quantities of rainwater pouring
down in the river valleys, in the rainy periods of spring, summer and autumn. This way, the erosion process is
increased in the superior sections of the rivers, while sedimentation is accentuated in the lower parts.
Deforestation alters the natural equilibrium of the river. A considerable number of small hydropower plants were
built, especially in the Apuseni Mountain range, which altered the flow speed of water in the river. Hydropower
plants were built on small rivers, and gathered a large percentage of the flow rate. By discharging water, they
affect the downstream river banks, subjecting them to intense erosion. All of these changes modified the natural

equilibrium by increasing the erosion phenomenon of the river banks, as the water is relocating, digging a new
riverbed. Besides increasing flood hazard, the new riverbed is commonly taking space from private property of
the area’s inhabitants.
One such example found was in Gilău town, on the “Căpuş” river, presented in the pictures below (Fig.
1).

Fig. 1. Large scale erosion on “Căpuş” riverbank

2 Consolidation project

2.1 Design phase

Riverbank consolidation implied designing a protection system on the right side, and a small dam on the
left side of the river, according to Fig. 2 below:

Fig. 2. Stabilized soil structures on both riverbanks

Hydraulic binders were acquired from our partners, the Lafarge Holcim Group Romania, and were
selected according to their expertise, and results of the laboratory analysis. On the left bank there was enough
space to build a small dam, stabilizing the local soil with Doroport TB25© [3]. The right side of the river was
considerably steeper, so a slope protection was more suitable. It was built with soil-Dorosol C30© [4] admixture.

2.2. Laboratory analysis

2.2.1. Granulometric curves
The first step in our study was to perform a granulation analysis on the soil types encountered in the
riverbanks on the left and right side. Granulometric curves are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Granulometric curves on soil form the left and right riverbank

2.2.2. Proctor tests

A series of normal Proctor test was performed on both soil types, in natural state, and in admixture with
hydraulic binders. 3% and 5% of binder was considered, and the final recipe was chosen after correlating other
laboratory analysis results such as direct shear tests, and oedometer tests. The resulting compaction curves being
presented in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Compaction curves on unstabilized soil form the left and right riverbank
Optimal water content for the left riverbank was around 11%, while on the right side it was near to 13%.
The recipe for stabilization included 5% of hydraulic binder on both sides of the embankment. Optimal water
content remained 11% for the left side, and decreased to 11% on the right side, shown in Fig. 5. On site
compaction was made considering these values.

Fig. 5. Compaction curves on stabilized soil form the left (5% Doroport) and right (5% Dorosol)
riverbank
2.2.3. Direct shear tests
Direct shear tests give an indicator of cohesion and internal friction angle improvements of soil.
Cohesion is the component of shear strength soil that is independent of interparticle friction. Soil friction angle is
another shear strength parameter of soils. Its definition is derived from the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and it
is used to describe the friction shear resistance of soils correlated with the normal stress.
A series of direct shear tests in consolidated drain conditions were performed on soil from both sides of
the embankment, in submerged state, to recreate in situ conditions. Stabilized soil samples were given a minimal
7 days curing time before being subjected to testing. The test was carried out according to Romanian standards in
use [5].
Coulomb lines for normal stress (σ) – maximal tangential stress at failure (τmax) pair of values show a
steady improvement of shear parameters, as we increase the percentage of hydraulic binder on the left side of the
embankment (Fig. 6). Soil in its natural state had a cohesion value of 17.74 kPa, and a friction angle of 36.15°,
typical for sandy soils. Adding 3% of Doroport TB 25© increased cohesion to 182.01 kPa. Further increasing the
percentage to 5%, the admixture yields values of 38.39° for friction angle, and 234.83 kPa for cohesion. Friction
angle remains the same or present a small decrease.
On the right embankment (Fig. 6) the improvement tendency is less pronounced. In its natural state the
soil had cohesion of 19.93 kPa, and an internal angle of 34.05°.

Fig. 6. Coulomb lines for soil form the right embankment

In case of adding 5% of Dorosol C30© granted only a small improvement of cohesion, up to 48.28 kPa,
but a more significant improvement was found for the internal friction angle value, which grew up to 49.87°; in
this case more tests are required.
2.2.4. Oedometer tests
Oedometer test is used to determine the rate and magnitude of settlement in soils. This test involves
applying increments of vertical static load to the sample and recording the corresponding settlement. Increments
of vertical static load are usually applied using dead loads and a static loading system. The evolution of the
settlement of the sample against time is recorded during each loading increment. The duration of the application
of each load depends on the soil and its consolidation characteristics. Once equilibrium reached for a loading
step, the next increment is applied. The load is increased at each increment until reaching the maximum required
load, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500 and 1000 kPa.
The consolidation test results include the presentation of stress-void ratio in a semi-logarithmic scale.
From the changes in thickness at the end of each loading step, one can determine the Swelling Index (Cs),
Compression Index (Cc) and, Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv). The coefficient of consolidation (cv)
and the rate of consolidation can be also measured using the results of the thickness changes of the sample
against time during a load step. These tests were carried out according to current Romanian standards [6], under
submerged conditions. Variations of the oedometric deformation modulus are presented in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Variations of oedometer deformation modulus on natural and stabilized samples

The oedometer deformation modulus is a ratio between difference of applied stress and difference
between specific settlements, from one load increment to another. This parameter can be multiplied by a
coefficient which takes in consideration the lateral constraints of the sample in this test, to obtain the global
elastic deformation modulus of soil (E). The graphic shows higher values of the modulus for stabilized samples.
The coefficient of consolidation (cv), mentioned before, can be determined by logarithmical
representation method.

2
T90% H90%
cv 
t 90%
- for the logarithmical representation, where T – time coefficient, t – time
passed until specific settlement of 90% is reached, H – distance between medium plane of sample and top for
specific settlement of 90%.
Considering the fact that settlement is registered in submerged conditions, on saturated samples, and
both time and distance from the middle of the sample are water infiltration values, this test can also be used as an
indirect permeability test. The permeability index k (cm/s) results from:
cv  a v   w
k 
1 e - where γw is volumetric weight of water, and e is the void ratio under load increment.
The objective of this study was to determine the viability of stabilized soil combinations for hydraulic
constructions, so determining permeability before and after stabilization was an important step. Soil samples
were compacted under laboratory conditions, using optimal compaction moisture content. Permeability values
are presented in table 1, and Fig. 8.

Table 1. Permeability values for natural and stabilized soil samples (P1 – Dorosol 3%, P2 – Dorosol
5%, P3 – Doroport 3%, P4 – Doroport 5%, P5 – right embankment unstabilized, P6 – left embankment
unstabilized)

Load
k - P1 [cm/s] k - P2 [cm/s] k - P3 [cm/s] k - P4 [cm/s] k - P5 [cm/s] k - P6 [cm/s]
increment
right emb. right emb. left emb. left emb. right emb. left emb.
[kPa]
20 2.01302E-06 5.70169E-06 4.75525E-06 1.65042E-06 7.47842E-06 3.37297E-06
50 5.77602E-07 1.80599E-06 1.43424E-06 4.73716E-07 2.63582E-06 1.00975E-06
100 3.39388E-07 2.7184E-06 1.59145E-06 4.12105E-07 1.21102E-06 5.28765E-07
200 1.96804E-07 9.91956E-07 7.01983E-07 2.89445E-07 5.90045E-07 3.98845E-07
300 1.18942E-07 3.62859E-07 3.19244E-07 1.80262E-07 3.68257E-07 1.79293E-07
500 8.53683E-08 2.75426E-07 2.54022E-07 1.39954E-07 2.52058E-07 1.41373E-07
1000 6.80533E-08 1.55184E-07 1.36266E-07 9.43762E-08 1.55911E-07 1.05588E-07

Fig. 8. Permeability values on natural and stabilized samples

Soil on left and right embankment had a low permeability from the start. Mixing hydraulic binder
improved this property slightly. All permeability values are between 10-6...10-7, which is suitable for hydraulic
constructions.

3. Execution phase
Construction of the dam and slope protection was made regarding values obtained from laboratory
analysis. Hydraulic binder was spread across the width and length of the structures, and then a heavy mixer
added optimal moisture content and created the desired admixture on both sides of the river. Compaction works
were made according to Romanian regulations [7], with successive layers of equal thickness. Fig. 9 presents one
step of the spreading and mixing of hydraulic binder. The construction process was described in detail in other
publications of this research group [8].

Fig. 9. Stabilized soil mixing in situ

Conclusions
Stabilization with two types of hydraulic binders affected the shear parameters differently. The left
embankment, stabilized with Doroport TB25© presented a significant growth in cohesion values, from 17.74
kPa to 234.83 kPa, while internal friction angle remained roughly the same. On the right side of the river the
apport of hydraulic binder shows an increase of the cohesion from 19.93 kPa to 48.28 kPa. So using a type of
hydraulic binder basically comes down to an increase of the cohesion. Oedometric tests show light
improvements of the deformation modulus, while permeability values were not altered by remixing soil with
binders. Considering the fact that local soil is used, this technology has a considerably lower carbon footprint
than conventional solutions, since it lacks steel reinforcement, and avoids most of transport processes implied
otherwise.

REFERENCES
[1] Holtz, W. G., Walker F. C. (1962). "Soil-Cement as Slope Protection for Earth Dams", Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 88,No. SM6, pp. 107-134.
[2] Casias, T. J., Howard, A. K., "Twenty-Year Performance of Soil-Cement Dam Facings" (1984).
International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering. 49.
[3] Fișă tehnică – Doroport.
[4] Fișă tehnică – Dorosol.
[5] STAS 8942/2-82. Determinarea rezistenței pământurilor la forfecare prin încercarea de
forfecare directă.
[6] STAS 8942/1-89. Determinarea compresibilității pământurilor prin încercarea în edometru.
[7] GE-026-97. Ghid pentru execuţia compactării în plan orizontal şi înclinat a terasamentelor.
[8] Ciubotaru, V.C., Cîrcu, A. P., Crăciunescu, B. M., Nagy, A.-Cs., Topan, G, Dârgău, A. (2019).
"Metode de apărare împotriva inundaţiilor. Sector experimental pe râul Căpuş" Revista
Construcţiilor - forthcoming publication.

Experimental Investigations for Joints Made by

Cold-Formed Sigma Profiles

Nagy Z.1,2, Mureșan A.-A.2, Fodor R.2

1
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Structures Department (ROMANIA)
2
Gordias SRL (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected]

Abstract
The following paper presents an experimental investigation of beam-to-beam and beam-to-column
joints of portal frames, namely the ridge joint and the eaves joint, formed by back-to-back cold-formed Sigma-
profiles subjected to monotonic loads. Four experimental tests have been performed on the ridge joint and,
respectively on eaves joint with the purpose to determine their moment resistance and stiffness. The paper
presents the procedure of the experimental test, the configuration of the specimens and the results of the
experimental study.
Keywords: cold-formed profiles, steel joints, experimental study, load bearing capacity, joint stiffness.

1 INTRODUCTION
Structural elements made of cold-formed steel are widely used in civil engineering due to their light
weight, their good strength-to-weight ratio, easy manufacturing and short erection time. In the past years, there
has been an increased interest in studying the behaviour of cold formed profiles as load bearing structural
elements. The past research focused on their buckling behaviour and on the performance and mechanical
behaviour of cold-formed steel joints. Lee et al [1] and Komara et al [2] reviewed the state-of-the-art of different
types of cold-formed steel joints and their performance.
The design of a steel structure depends significantly on the connections. In the past, structural engineers
assumed that cold-formed steel connections were either pinned or rigid. But due to the slenderness of the cold-
formed structural elements, unlike the hot-rolled profiles, the deformations are significant in case of these type of
members. Therefore, the bolted joints of cold-formed steel frames have semi-rigid behaviour, influencing the
entire performance of the cold-formed steel assembly. Experimental studies by Lim [3], Dundu & Kemp [4],
Kwon et al [5], Ahmed & Mahendran [6], Lim & Nethercot [7], Nagy et al [8], Chung & Lau [9] and Öztürk &
Pul [10] proved that joints from cold-formed steel frames are semi-rigid and, in most of the cases, have partial
resistance. Also, Lim & Nethercot [7], Chung & Ip [11], Yu et al [12], Wong & Chung [13] and Chung & Lau
[14] showed that in beam-to-column connections rotational deformations always occur. These aspects have an
important influence on the global flexibility of the joints.
Another important contribution to the global flexibility of the joints are the bearing effect (i.e. the
elongation of the bolt holes) and the deformation induced by the local buckling or distortion of the cold-formed
profiles. If the joint is unwisely configured, then the premature local buckling of the cold-formed profile can
cause the failure of the joint itself well below the predicted load bearing capacity. In case of back-to-back bolted
connections, Dundu & Kemp [15] observed that the local buckling of the cold-formed profiles becomes more
critical from stress concentrations, shear lag and bearing deformations if the bolts are installed only on the web.
In case of usual cold-formed cross sections, Lim & Nethercot [7], Yu et al [12] and Ho & Chung [16] observed
from the experimental and numerical results that the bearing work of bolts associated with elastic-plastic
elongation of bolt holes is the most important component which controls the stiffness and the load bearing
capacity of such type of joints. The components of the joint which have a significantly lower contribution to the
joint’s stiffness and bearing capacity are the flanges in tension/compression caused by bending and the web in
shear caused by the transverse load.
The following paper presents an experimental study performed on a cold-formed beam-to-beam and a
beam-to-column joint of a portal frame, namely on the ridge joint and, respectively on the eaves joint. The
purpose of the experimental study is to determine the load bearing capacity and stiffness of the joints mentioned
previously. The experimental study was performed at the Structure Laboratory from the Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Two different experimental set-ups were designed

for the ridge joint and for the eaves joint. The experimental set-ups focused on the isolation of the joints of the
structure such that they behave similarly with the joints of a frame having the span of 10 meters. The lateral
stability loss during the test was avoided by providing the specimens with side supports. The supports, made of
plastic and Teflon, were added to the experimental set-ups in order to reduce friction between the cold-formed
profiles and the elements of the experimental set-up as much as possible.

2 THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM AND THE DETAILS OF THE SPECIMENS

In the following paragraphs are described the details of the specimens and the procedure of the
experimental test.

2.1 The details of the specimens

The specimen joints consisted in two back-to-back Sigma-profiles having the size 300/3 and fixed
together by a T-shaped profile having the thickness 8 mm and the steel grade S 235 (i.e. yielding strength fy=235
N/mm2, ultimate strength fy=360 N/mm2), according to EN 1993-1-1 [17]. On opposite side of the T-shaped
joining element, L-shaped profiles were provided as flange fixing elements. The L-shaped profiles for the ridge
joint were of size L80x40x6, while for the eaves joint the size L80x60x6 was used. The T-shaped profile is fixed
to the web of the Sigma-profiles with 4 M12 8.8 grade (i.e. yielding strength fyb=640 N/mm2, ultimate strength
fub=800 N/mm2) bolts (i.e. 12 mm). The L-shaped profiles are fixed to the flanges of the Sigma-profiles with 12
M16 8.8 grade bolts (i.e. 16 mm), namely 6 on the upper flange and 6 on the lower flange.
For the ridge joint, the Ridge Welded (RW) configuration was considered, where the L-shaped profiles
have the end sections from the center of the ridge joint welded. For the eaves joint, the following configurations
were considered: Knee Welded (KW) and (ii) Knee Welded-Plate (KWP). In the case of KW joint, the end
sections of the L-shaped profiles that meet in the corner of the eaves joint are welded, while in the case of KWP
joint, a welded plate of 8 mm thickness was added to the haunch as lower flange.
The Sigma-profiles used in the experimental tests had the steel grade S 320 (i.e. yielding strength
fy=320 N/mm2, ultimate strength fy=390 N/mm2), according to EN 1993-1-3 [18].

2.1.1 The experimental set-up of the ridge joint

The experimental set-up of the ridge joint consisted I-shaped modules sized 250 mm for the mobile
hinges supports in the joint’s end sections and, respectively for the stabilizer placed at the center of the joint. The
lateral stability was ensured by braces made of CHS-profiles sized 80 mm. The mobile hinges of the ridge joint
were made of pins with the diameter of 50 mm. In the vicinity of the mobile hinges, a lateral support made of hot
rolled profiles was provided to block lateral displacements. The displacements of the ridge joint were captured
with devices placed as follows (see Fig. 1): (i) Dvert,s – the displacement on the vertical direction, on the top
flange, (ii) Dvert,j – the displacement on the vertical direction, on the bottom flange, (iii) Dor,st – the displacement
on the horizontal direction, on the left side of the joint and (iv) Dor,dr – the displacement on the horizontal
direction, on the right side of the joint. The devices measured the absolute displacements of the ridge joint.

Fig. 1. The experimental set-up of the ridge joint and joint failure mechanism [20]
2.1.2 The experimental set-up of the eaves joint
As in the previous case, the experimental set-up of the eaves joint consisted in I-shaped modules sized
250 mm which were used as supports for the hinges at the joint’s end sections and, respectively for the lateral
supports placed at the center of the joint. Also, similar with the case of the ridge joint, the lateral stability was
ensured by braces made of CHS-profiles having the size 80 mm. Unlike in the experimental set-up for the ridge
joint, in case of the eaves joint at one end section, in the vicinity of the mobile hinge, a lateral support made of

hot rolled profiles was provided to block lateral displacements, while on the other end section the support was
designed to allow only rotations. The displacements of the eaves joint were recorded with devices placed as
follows (see Fig. 2): (i) Dor,p – the horizontal displacement the actuator area, (ii) Dor – the horizontal
displacement of the center of the eaves joint, (iii) Dvert – the vertical displacement of the center of the eaves joint
and (iv) Dlat – the lateral displacement of the profiles. The devices recorded the absolute displacements of the
eaves joint.

Fig. 2. The experimental set-up of the eaves joint and failure stage during test [20]

Both experimental set-ups had devices that recorded the following relative displacements: (i) Drel1 – the
relative displacement on the top flange, left beam, (ii) Drel2 – the relative displacement on the bottom flange, left
beam, (iii) Drel3 – the relative displacement on the top flange, right beam and (iv) Drel4 – the relative
displacement on the bottom flange, right beam.

2.2 The experimental test

The specimens were subjected to monotonic loads using an actuator that consisted in a manually
operated hydraulic press. The force was applied downwards in the case of ridge joint and on horizontal direction
(i.e. from right to left) in the case of eaves joint. In the case of eaves joint, the actuator was placed in a U-shaped
element. The test procedure was in displacement control.
Four experimental tests were performed on the two types of joints from which the load bearing capacity
and the stiffness of the joint resulted. The same specimen was subjected to experimental tests two times. The
force, the vertical displacements, the horizontal displacements, the lateral displacements of the joint’s center and
the rotations were recorded at every 10 kN. All the graphs and the numerical results determined from
experimental data were calibrated to the force Fact measured in the cell of the actuator and to the strain of the
specimen measured in the origin of the applied load.
The following instruments were used for the experimental tests: (i) a manually operated hydraulic press
to apply the load, (ii) a cell force sized 500 kN, (iii) displacement transmitters sized 100 mm to measure vertical
and horizontal displacements, (iv) the MGCPlus recording system and (v) Catman software to store the
experimental results. Besides the instruments mentioned previously, the displacements were also recorded with
electronic micro-comparators. These devices were installed on the upper and lower flange of the Sigma-profiles
and recorded the displacements used to calculate the rotations of the specimen.

3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

During all four experimental tests the failure was caused by the local buckling of the cold-formed
Sigma-profiles. The following paragraphs describe in detail the results and the observations of the experimental
tests for each type of cold-formed steel joint.

3.1 The experimental results for the ridge joint

In the case of ridge joint, in the first experimental test, failure occurred in the upper flange (i.e. in the
compressed area) of the Sigma-profile due to its local buckling. First, the local buckling of the upper flange was
noticed, and then the stress concentrations were transmitted to the Sigma-profile’s web. After the local buckling
of the upper flange, the value of the force stopped increasing. At the moment of failure, the force applied by the
actuator reached Fact=129.9 kN and the load bearing capacity of the joint was recorded. The vertical
displacement recorded was 82 mm. In the second experimental test, failure occurred as in the first case, but this
time the resulted load bearing capacity was Fact=127.1 kN and the vertical displacement recorded was 78 mm.

The force-horizontal side displacement curves from Fig. 3 show that the left side and the right side of
the joint did not move symmetrically. The recorded displacement on the right side of the ridge was larger than
the displacement of the left side. However, the failure occurred on the left side of the ridge.

Fig. 3. The force-horizontal side displacement curves for the ridge joint as follows: a) left side, first RW test, b)
right side, first RW test, c) left side, second RW test and d) right side, second RW test [20]

The bearing effect of the bolts plays an important role in the overall stiffness of the joint. According to
the experimental results, the elongation of the bolt hole in the compressed flange (upper flange) was 2.5 mm,
while in the tensed flange (lower flange) was only 1.2 mm. Also, the elongation of the bolt holes on the lower
part of the web was about 1.4 mm.
The stiffness of the ridge joint resulted from experimental test was Sn,ini=2978 kNm/rad. The ridge joint
was classified according to EN 1993-1-8 [19], Chapter 3, Section 3.2. as semi-rigid joint.
Fig. 4 presents the moment-rotation curves of the ridge joint resulted from the two experimental tests.
The difference between the two curves is due to mismatch of the positions of the bolt holes between the elements
of the sub-assemblies. Before the first ridge joint was assembled, some bolt holes from the Sigma-profiles had to
be elongated. Due to this modification, the wedging of the bolts was different between the two tests. In the EXP
RW1 curve one can observe that the stiffness up to the force of 50 kN has lower values than in the EXP RW2
curve until the bolts wedge in the hole’s wall. After the wedging of the bolts, the value of the stiffness increases
and the resulted load bearing capacity and strain are similar between the two specimens. The moment resistance
of the ridge joint is: (i) from the first experimental test is Mcap,n=116 kN and (ii) from the second experimental
test is Mcap,n=114,3 kN.

Fig. 4. The moment-rotation curves of the RW joint resulted from the two experimental tests [20].

3.2 The experimental results for the eaves joint

In the case of eaves joint, for the KW configuration, failure occurred in the lower flange (i.e. in the
compressed area) of the Sigma-profile due to local buckling. The local buckling of the lower flange was
observed first and then the concentrated stresses transmitted to the Sigma-profile’s web. After this process, the
force applied by the actuator stopped increasing. At the moment of failure, the force applied by the actuator
reached Fact=72,6 kN and the load bearing capacity of the KW joint was recorded. The horizontal displacement
recorded was 94 mm.

In the case of KWP configuration, failure occurred similarly with the previous case. Unlike the KW
configuration, the force applied by the actuator was Fact=82,1 kN at the moment of failure. The horizontal
displacement resulted from the experimental test was 110 mm.
In the force-side displacement curves at the center of eaves joint from Fig. 5 one can observe the
buckling behavior of the joining element and the distinct mechanical behavior of the KW and KWP
configurations. In the KW configuration, the local buckling of the haunch’s web occurs at a force of 10 kN,
while in the KWP configuration, where the T-section joining element becomes an I-section, the local buckling of
the haunch’s web occurs at a force of 30 kN. The load bearing capacity of the KWP joint doesn’t decrease, its
value continues to raise.

Fig. 5. The force-displacement curve at the center of the eaves joint: a) lateral displacement of KW joint
and b) lateral displacement of KWP joint [20]

As in the previous case, the bearing effect of the bolts was observed. Unlike the ridge joint where the
axial force has low values, in the case of eaves joint, the value of the axial force had significant values leading to
the elongation of the bolts in both compressed area and tensed area. According to experimental results, the
elongation of the bolt hole was on average 1 mm in the compressed area (lower flange) and 1.4 mm in the tensed
area (upper flange).
Due to the presence of axial force, the stiffness of the eaves joint resulted lower from experimental test:
(i) for KW configuration Sn,ini=2062 kNm/rad and (ii) for KWP configuration Sn,ini=1929 kNm/rad. According to
EN 1993-1-8 [17], both joint configurations were classified as semi-rigid. Fig. 6 shows the moment-rotation
curves of the KW joint, respectively KWP joint. The moment resistance of the eaves joint was not affected
significantly: (i) for the KW joint resulted Mcap,n=102,2 kN and (ii) for the KWP joint Mcap,n=116,7 kN.

Fig. 6. The moment-rotation curves for the a) KW joint and b) KWP joint [20]

4 CONCLUSIONS
According to the experimental results, the following conclusions can be traced:
(i) In the case of ridge joint, failure occurs due to stress concentrations in the compressed flange of the
Sigma-profile where local buckling occurs close to the joining element.
(ii) In the case of eaves joint, failure occurs as in the case of ridge joint, but the joining element also
suffers from local buckling. Stiffness was affected by the axial load (around 25% lower) and the load bearing
capacity also decreases due to stability loss in the Sigma-profiles’ joining element.
(iii) The load bearing capacity of the KWP eaves joint is by 12% higher than the load bearing capacity
of the KW joint due to the welded plate on the lower part of the T-shaped joining element. The extra welded
plate in the joining element leads to a delay in the amplification of the second order effects in the joint subjected
to lateral displacements outside the loading plane.

(iv) In all four experimental tests, the elongation of the bolt holes was observed, a fact which influences
the overall stiffness of the joint. The presence of axial force in eaves joints reduces the joints’ stiffness and load
bearing capacity by amplifying the second order effects.
(v) All the analyzed joint configurations resulted as semi-rigid.

REFERENCES
[1] Lee, Y. H., Tan, C. S., Mohamad, S., Tahir, S., Shek, P. N. (2014). Review on Cold-Formed
Steel Connections. The Scientific World Journal, pp. 1-11.
[2] Komara, I., Wahyuni, E., Suprobo, P. (2017). A Study on Cold-Formed Steel Frame Connection:
A review. The Journal for Technology and Science 28(3), pp. 83-89.
[3] Lim, J. P. B. (2001). Joint effects in cold-formed steel portal frames, PhD Thesis, University of
Nottingham.
[4] Dundu, M., Kemp A. R. (2006). Strength requirements of single cold-formed channels
connected back-to-back. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62(2006), pp. 250-261.
[5] Kwon, Y.B., Chung, H. S., Kim, G. D. (2006). Experiments of cold-formed steel connections and
portal frames. Journal of Structural Engineering 132(4), pp. 600-607.
[6] Ahmed, H., Mahendran, M. (2010). Bolted beam-column moment connections between cold-
formed steel members. 21st Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and
Materials (ACMSM 21), Victoria University, Melbourne.
[7] Lim, J. B. P., Nethercot D. A. (2003). Ultimate strength of bolted moment-connections between
cold-formed steel members. Thin-Walled Structures 41(2003), pp. 1019-1039.
[8] Nagy, Zs., Stratan, A., Dubina, D. (2006). Application of component method for bolted cold-
formed steel joints. Proceedings of the international conference in metal structures: steel – a
new and traditional material for building, Poiana Brasov, Romania, pp. 207-210.
[9] Chung, K. F., Lau L. (1999). Experimental investigation on bolted moment connections among
cold formed steel members. Engineering Structures 21(1999), pp. 898-911.
[10] Öztürk F., Pul, S. (2015). Experimental and numerical study on a full-scale apex connection of
cold-formed steel portal frames. Thin-Walled Structures 94(2015), pp. 79-88.
[11] Chung, K. F., Ip, K. H. (2001). Finite element investigation on the structural behavior of cold-
formed steel bolted connections. Engineering Structure 23, pp. 1115-1125.
[12] Yu, W. K., Chung, K. F., Wong, M. F. (2005). Analysis of bolted moment connections in cold-
formed steel beam sub-frames. Journal of constructional Steel Research 9, pp.
[13] Wong, M. F., Chung, K. F. (2002). Structural behavior of bolted moment connections in cold-
formed steel beam-column sub-frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 58, pp. 253-
274.
[14] Chung, K. F., Lau, L. (1999). Experimental investigation on bolted moment connections among
cold formed steel members. Engineering Structure 21, pp. 898-911.
[15] Dundu, M., Kemp A. R. (2006). Strength requirements of single cold-formed channels
connected back-to-back. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62(2006), pp. 250-261.
[16] Ho, H. C., Chung K. F. (2006). Structural behaviour of lapped cold-formed steel Z sections with
generic bolted configurations. Thin-Walled Structures 44(2006), pp. 466-480.
[17] European Committee for Standardization (2003). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part
1.1: General rules and rules for buildings. EN 1993-1-1.
[18] European Committee for Standardization (2006). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part
1.3: General rules – Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting. EN 1993-1-3.
[19] European Committee for Standardization (2003). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures: Part
1.8: Design of joints. EN 1993-1-8.
[20] Fodor, R. (2014). Teză de doctorat. Studiul comportării nodurilor cadrelor realizate din profile cu
pereți subțiri formate la rece de tip sigma. Universitatea Tehnică din Cluj-Napoca.

Durability Assessment as Cumulative Damage

using Modern Tools Software

Omer I.1, Popa M.1

1
Ovidius University of Constanta (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The study realized by the authors starts from their interest for use the modern tools software in order to
solve some laborious problems such as maximum maximorum bending moment given by a train of loads,
required for the fatigue checking. The motivation is that, in addition to other requirements, in order to achieve
the lifetime objectives and durability, a very important role is played by fatigue checking. The fatigue
phenomenon develops over time and it is generated by range stress occurrence at the same point. Typically,
structural elements are subject to random variable loads and the durability can be expressed by cumulative
damage. For such an analysis, besides the fatigue resistance curves, it is necessary to know the stress-range
spectrum. Stress range assessment for different events - different positions for a train of loadings, as is the case
of road bridges - is a complex and very laborious task, for which the advantages of using modern computing
programs is incontestable.

Keywords: cumulated fatigue damage, fatigue load model, train of forces, stress range spectrum.

1. Durability and fatigue verification for structures

In the modern society, we aim to achieve sustainable structures, with a long lifetime, with the possibility
of adapting to the changes imposed by the environment, in the conditions of reasonable resources consumption.
The importance of knowing and studying the fatigue phenomenon for ensure the durability is highlighted by
several regulations, such as the following: [1]
 the safety of structures such as the road bridges is closely linked to a rigorous inspection and maintenance
program and for those items where inspections are not feasible, the fatigue checking is required;
 the required fatigue life of the structure and its components should be attained by the fatigue design;
 taking into account what is stipulated in SREN 1993-1-1, 4 (3), it is important to identify the elements
susceptible to the fatigue in order to ensure a satisfactory inspection and maintenance during the lifetime of
the structure.

The fatigue is a complex mechanism, characterized by a general reduction of the structural resilience
due to repeated loading of a large number of times during the lifetime of the structure. The technical literature
appreciates that the metal structural elements can yield at a stress value of approx 50% lower than in the static
conditions, if this stress is applied a large number of times. Breaking is the result of cracks formation and
propagation due to variable tensions. [2].
The structural fatigue can occur when the load and the bearing mode of an element leads to the situation
where, at a fixed point, the unitary effort varies from a very large number of times between two limits (max…
min).
The stress variation, from a value to the same value and the same direction, is a cycle for stationary
loading. The fatigue strength curves are given for the constant values of stress range =max - min = ct. If the
loads produce the variable stress range , a linear cumulative damage with Palmgren-Miner rule must be used
[3]
Depending on the material type and the structure specificity, the fatigue design and verification have
certain particularities. The reductions of the material strength or the product resistance to be considered resulting
from the effects of repeated actions are given in EN 1992 to EN 1999 and can lead to a reduction over time of
the resistance due to fatigue.

As a method of calculating fatigue, in section 3 of SREN 1993-1, the damage tolerant method and the
safe life method are recommended. The both methods aim to make the structure behave satisfactorily throughout
its life. The distinction refers to the requirement of an inspection and maintenance program that detects and
corrects degradation from fatigue.

2 Train of loads issues - regulatory design codes and software approach

The fatigue occurs when the load and the support mode of an element leads to the situation in which, at
a fixed point, the unitary effort varies from a very large number of times between two limits (max… min).
For example, in the structures field, this phenomenon can be identified in the case of a mobile force that
runs through a three span beam. In the case of the road bridges, the identification of these variations, called stress
range, noted by , is not an easy task; the stress range is the effect of crossing the bridge by a train of loads that
is defined as a succession of concentrated forces located at invariable distances one from another.
For such loads one of the problems is determining the worst (most unfavorable) position of the train of
forces for a certain effect in a given section. To identify the maximum effect, the train of loads must be applied
so that the largest force is located in the proximity of the section corresponding to a peak of the influence line.
That's why the first step in the trains of forces analysis (even if using modern software tools) is to draw the
influence lines. The influence lines are built for a unitary mobile force. The influence line shows the sectional
effort variation (or other effect) in a fixed section, when a mobile force moves on the structure. Figure 1
exemplifies this observation. The influence line is related to the static scheme of the structure and is determined
independently of the forces acting on the structure.

Fig. 1. Influence lines for bending moment for the highlighted sections (SCIA results)

The influence lines show that a particular sectional fiber can be stretched or compressed, depending on
the position of the unitary force; it indicates that the fatigue failure is possible if this stress range occurs by a
large number of times.
An example of the fatigue loads is represented by the traffic loads for bridges described in SR EN 1991-
2. Section 4.6 shows 5 types of fatigue load models for the road bridges. The authors made the diagram in fig. 2
to show how to use the types of load models for the fatigue verification.
For the fatigue checking, the estimated number of trucks per year must be considered. This is indicated
in table 4.5 (n) of SREN 1991-2 for different traffic categories.
The rules for the fatigue calculation of steel bridges, as well as the definition of specific terms, are
found in SREN1993-1-9, and for composite bridge in SREN1994-2, section 6.8.
In 7.1 section of SREN1993-1-9, the fatigue resistance curves (known in the literature as the curves
S-N) are given, expressing the quantitative relationship between the stress range (algebraic difference between

the two extremes of a particular cycle of stress extracted from a tension time history) and the number of the
loading cycles up to fatigue for the particular details categories. The detail categories are presented as execution
details and are designated by a number which represents, in N/mm2, the reference value for the fatigue strength at
2 million cycles. For each detail categories the description and the requirements are given in tables 8.1 to 8.10.
[2, 4]

Fig. 2. Using fatigue load models for verification

The rule for damage summation is shown in fig. A-1 by SR EN 1193-1-9 and requires knowledge of the
stress range spectrum. The stress-range spectrum is the histogram of the occurrences number for all stress ranges
of different magnitudes recorded or calculated for a particular loading event. “The stress spectrum depends on
the geometry of the vehicles, the axle loads, the vehicle spacing, the composition of the traffic and its dynamic
effects.”[5]. The authors schematized in Fig. 3 how to reach to cumulative damage.

Fig. 3. Damage summation (Palmgren-Miner rule)

To solve the above issues accurately and effectively, the first stage of the study focused on identifying
some procedures and solutions provided by the modern computing programs to obtain the critical positions for
train of loads and the stress range due to the different positions of the train of loads. The numerical modeling was
done by the structural engineering software SCIA Engineer, student license, made available by SCIA
Nemetscheck Romania. The Mobile Load module provides a specialized support for step-by-step analysis,
starting with the influences lines analysis and ending with the identification the normal, tangential and fatigue
stress for the section fibers, for different positions of the train of forces.

Initially they will be input a “track” and a mobile unit load, needed to calculate the influence line. The
representation of the lines of influence provides results to evaluate the different effects of unit load (eg My, Vy,
etc.) available in the individual sections of the track; the critical location of the mobile force can be identified for
each section of track. After calculating the influence line can be defined various “load systems” which shapes the
train of forces. The load cases are generated for different load systems positions (for example for the sections in
the critical points proximity, two load cases can be created - for Mymax and Mymin). Based on these load cases the
envelope of load cases is generated. The envelope represents a fictive load case that shows the found extremes.
Using the envelopes thus obtained, the extreme effects for each defined train of forces can be obtained.
The stress range required for the fatigue analysis can be displayed as results in the form “stress on member”
Among other types of stress (“normal+”, “normal –“, “shear”, ”von misses”) is available and the one called
“fatigue”, defined as “the stress variation between the maximum and minimum stress in each fiber for the
selected load cases or combinations" [6].
The identified procedure for a train of forces applied to a statically determinate beam was validated by
comparing the results with those obtained by classical structural calculation methods presented in [7, pg 180-
181].

3 Analyzes and results

Using the modern computing tools provided by SCIA Engineer, the paper’s authors this calculated the
cumulative damage expected per year for a three-span bridge corresponding to several categories of traffic.
A bridge with three span continuous superstructures (40 m, 60 m, 40 m) has been schematized,
consisting of two steel beams connected with a concrete plate. The web height and thickness are constant (2400
mm, respective 20 mm), the upper flange width (500mm), the bottom flange width (800mm), are also constant.
The sections highlighted in the fig. 4 are distinguished only by the upper and bottom thickness flange of the steel
beam (40, 60, 100 mm) [8]. Simplified, the width of concrete flange is considered constant (5400mm) and to
take into account the cracking of the concrete above the intermediate support, in the corresponding sections, the
concrete flange did not consider.

Fig. 4. Simplified model - P1, P2 – intermediate support

The following procedure was used to obtain the stress range spectrum corresponding to fatigue load
model 4 (set of equivalent Lorries):
The five types of trucks that make up the fatigue load model 4 have been defined by the number of
axles, the axle spacing and the equivalent load of each axle, as they are given in Table 4.7, SREN 1991-2004, as
suggested in Fig. 5.

Fig.5. Modeling a lorry by a LOAD SYSTEM in SCIA MOBILE LOADS functionality

Each standard truck is considered to cross the bridge in the absence of any other truck, and the stress
range for different section and fiber can be obtained. This step is very laborious, but the facilities of the computer
programs make it much easier. The extremes of stress variation in the upper and lower fiber of the steel beam are

shown in fig. 6 for each particular event represented by the passage of individual Lorries (LS1 … LS5) on the
bridge.
Load systems  for first and mid of second span (MPa)

upper
fiber

LS1
lower
fiber

upper
fiber

LS2
lower
fiber

upper
fiber

LS3

lower
fiber

upper
fiber

LS4
lower
fiber

upper
fiber

LS5
lower
fiber

Fig. 6. Range stress for particular loading event: LS1…LS5 - types of vehicles that define fatigue load model 4
(set of standard Lorries)

Depending on the traffic type (long distance, average or local traffic) and the percentage indicated for
each type of trucks in Table 4.7 of SREN1991-2, the stress range spectrum was obtained - this is shown by
displaying the stress range in descending order and of the associated number of cycles (fig. 7 and fig. 8).
Next, the figure 9 shows a spreadsheet for the cumulative degradation determined for detail category 80,
according A1 recommendations by SREN1991-2 and using the fatigue strength curves for direct stress ranges
(fig. 7.1 SREN 1993-1-9) for this detail category and its numerical expression through the relations 7.1. (3).

Fig. 7. Stress range spectrum for lower fiber Fig. 8. Stress range spectrum for upper fiber

Fig. 9. The cumulative damage for detail category 80 per year; C - reference value of the fatigue strength at 2
million cycles; D fatigue limit for constant amplitude stress ranges, L cut-off limit for stress ranges
It is noticeable that a dramatic traffic increase, corresponding to the transition to a higher traffic
category, leads to a significant multiplication of the cumulative degradation. The most dramatic degradation
increase is in the case of switching from the local traffic category to the medium distance category.

4 CONCLUSIONS
For the structures with a long service life, such as the road bridges, in the galloping development
conditions of the society, there is the possibility that during the exploitation period the traffic category will
increase, which leads to a significant growth for the fatigue failure. In addition, for the slender elements, the
fatigue loads from the wind action should also be considered and the durability assessment should be done as
cumulative damage. Whether the analysis refers to the elements identification subject to fatigue or a complex
analysis, the stress range assessment is a complex problem and can be solved relative quickly if modern
structural software is used. In order, to use the fatigue analysis software, a thorough theoretical knowledge is
required to solve aspects such as: to establish the correspondence between the specific theoretical terms and the
multitude of functions and results provided by the software; to identify the steps for which the critical analysis
can be substituted by the automated functions.

REFERENCES
[1] SREN 1993-2 Design of steel structures - Part 2: Steel Bridges.
[2] Joavină R., Popa M., Ţepeş-Onea Fl. (2017). “Fatigue failure probability evaluation for truss structures –
MIRA-Fatig computing program” in Conference Proceedings „Modern Technologies For the 3rd Millenium”
23-24 March.
[3] C. Dalban, S. Dima, E. Chesaru, C. Serbescu (1997). Construtii cu structura metalica, Editura Didactica si
Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 1997.
[4] SREN1993-1-9 Design of steel structures - Part 1-9: Fatigue.
[5] SREN1991-2: Actions on structures - Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges.
[6] SCIA Engineer – tutorial Mobil Loads.
[7] Al Gheorghiu (1960). “Statica constructiilor” , Editura Tehnica, pp. 180-181 Bucuresti.
[8] Rezumat teză de doctorat – “Studii de optimizare a structurilor de poduri rutiere cu grinzi metalice în
conlucrare cu plăci din beton pentru deschideri medii (40...100 m)” UTCB - Ing. Marian Catalin Mitoiu,
coordinator Nicolae Popa, Bucuresti, 2014.

Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Historical

Group of Buildings in Timisoara City

Onescu E.1, Onescu I.2, Mosoarca M.2, Ion A.1

1
Politehnica University of Timisoara (ROMANIA)
2
Centre for research and sustainable development for Timisoara city, Politehnica University of Timisoara
(ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Earthquakes represent a risk for each city located in a seismic area, with a high level of uncertainties.
Timisoara is the biggest city in Banat seismic area, which is the second most important seismic region in
Romania. The seismicity of the area is characterised by shallow earthquakes of crustal type, whit small focal
depths and a peak ground acceleration of 0.2g.
Considering the fact that Timisoara was selected to be the European Capital of Culture for year 2021,
there is highlighted the opportunity of creating the most probable seismic scenario in order to serve as
knowledge base for the local authorities for the development of prevention and intervention strategic plans.
Many of the cultural events that will happen starting with year 2021 will be hold in the historical areas of the city
due to the specific atmosphere and character of the places.
Previous studies in the filed have shown the fact that the bearing capacity of a historical building is
different if the building is surrounding by other similar historical buildings than if it is isolated. That is why this
paper studies the seismic vulnerability of an entire group of historical buildings, formed of 8 buildings with
similar characteristics and from the same period of time.
This paper has the aim of highlighting the influence of the adjacent buildings over the seismic
vulnerability of historical buildings, using modern European methodologies. The understanding of the structural
balance between the units that form an aggregate could provide important information for further modern
technologies for consolidation and rehabilitation.
Keywords: earthquake, vulnerability, modern, methodology, bearing capacity.

1 CASE STUDY AREA

The case study area is located in Timisoara, in one of the three historical areas of the city, Iosefin
historical district. The district is located in the south-western part of the city and began its development back in
19th Century, as presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Iosefin historical district location

1.1 Seismicity of the area

Timisoara represents one of the most important cities of Romania, located in the western part of the
country, in Banat seismic region.

The earthquakes in this area are shallow earthquakes of crustal type [1], with magnitudes that doesn’t
exceed MW = 5.6 [2]. Most of the earthquakes registered in the area didn’t have the epicentre in Timisoara city,
as shown in Fig. 2a [2], but the existence of two seismic faults in the western part of the city (Fig. 2b) [3]
highlight the possibility of having a seismic event were close to the city centre.
According to the Romanian Design Code, the peak ground acceleration is considered 0.20g [4]. Based
on this peak ground acceleration, together with Eq. (1) [5], there was determined the most probable
macroseismic intensity for Timisoara as IX EMS-98, as presented in Fig. 3 [6]. The seismic vulnerability
scenario for the case study buildings will be performed considering this most probable macroseismic intensity.

ln (PGA) = 0.24*I EMS-98 – 3.9 (1)

a) b)
Fig. 2. Seismicity of the area: a) location of registered epicentres in Banat seismic area; b) location of seismic faults in
Timisoara city

Fig. 3. The correspondence between peak ground acceleration ag and macroseismic intensity EMS-98

Iosefin historical district is compressed in the 5km influence area of the active seismic faults present in
Timisoara (Fig. 4), which makes it one of the most vulnerable historical districts of the city in case of an
earthquake event caused by one of the two seismic faults.

Fig. 4. Timisoara’s seismic faults influence area

1.2 Case study buildings analysis

Iosefin district developed during last 120 years, in Secession and Art Nouveau architectural styles. At
first, there was kept a strategic defence distance from the city centre, but in time the two historical area merged
together [7]. The urban soil type represents an important factor in the process of assessing the seismic
vulnerability [8], so the position of the district is very important. Most of the buildings are part of historical sites,

in protected historical areas or even monuments, as presented in Fig. 5a. Due to the lack of proper maintenance
along time, most of the buildings present severe decay and need rehabilitation work, as shown in Fig. 5b.

a) b)
Fig. 5. Iosefin district urban analysis: a) protected historical area; b) conservation state

The buildings are usually made in masonry, with massive perimetral walls and one structural wall
parallel with the main façade. In most cases, the transversal walls are not structural, only in the stair house area,
and there isn’t a good connection between perpendicular walls. There can be found masonry vaults above the
basement and wooden floors above the rest of the floors, as shown in Fig. 6. The roof is usually made from
heavy wooden framework, while the height of the levels is between 3.40-4.40 meters for the ground floors and
3.20-3.80 for the upper floors. The height regime starts from buildings with basement and ground floor until
buildings with basement, ground floor and two or even three levels above in some rare cases.

a) b) c)
Fig. 6. Height regime of historical buildings from Iosefin historical district: a) height regime map; b) typological section
through buildings
The case study buildings form one important aggregate for Iosefin district, located in Mocioni square,
from 8 structural units, as shown in Fig. 7. The group of historical buildings is related to two important streets of
Timisoara, namely Boulevards King Carol the 1st and 16th December 1989, forming a closed triangle with an
interior yard. The most important building is the one that relates with Mocioni square, Elite Palace that
represents an urbanistic and cultural attraction point for the city. All buildings are made in masonry, with
masonry vaults above basements and wooden floors for the other levels, 6 of them presenting basement + ground
floor + 2 levels above and just two having only one level above ground floor. The aggregate is homogenous,
with buildings made in the same period of time using similar materials and technologies.

a) b)
Fig. 7. The case study aggregate: a) aerial view; b) number association for each structural unit

2 SEISMIC VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

2.1 Methodology
The seismic vulnerability assessment was performed based on empirical modern Italian methodology,
which is easy-to-apply and simplified. At first, the methodology was proposed by Benedetti and Petrini [9] for
10 parameters that considered each building as individual isolated structural unit and later was developed by
Mazzolani and Formisano [10] for 5 more parameters, considering also the influence of the adjacent buildings.
The methodology uses a simplified vulnerability form that is fulfilled based on visual inspection, leading to a
vulnerability index obtained through Eq. (2) [11] for buildings as isolated and Eq. (3) [12] for buildings in
aggregate, indexes that are then got in the range 0-100.

(2)

(3)
where: Wi represents the weight associated to each parameter and Si represents the class score.

Based on the vulnerability index, there are further determined the mean damage grade and furthermore
most probable damage states for each macroseismic intensity, from 5 till 12, following Eq. (4) [13]. The
correlation between the mean damage grade and the most probable damage state is presented in Table 1 [14].

(4)

where:  is considered 2.3 for residential buildings [15] and V is the normalized vulnerability index
following Eq. (5) [16].

V = 0.58 + 0.0064*IV (5)

Table 1. Correlation between mean damage grade and most probable damage states
µD Damage state Most probable degradation level
0.0-1.5 D1 Slight (no structural damage, slight non-structural damage)
1.5-2.5 D2 Moderate (slight structural damage, moderate non-structural damage)
2.5-3.5 D3 Substantial to heavy (moderate structural damage, heavy non-structural damage)
3.5-4.5 D4 Very heavy (heavy structural damage, very heavy non-structural damage)
4.5-5.0 D5 Destruction (very heavy structural damage)

2.1 Results
The seismic vulnerability was assessing at first for only 10 parameters that consider the building as
individual isolated structural unit. Based on Eq. (2), Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) there were defined the vulnerability
curves for each building, as presented in Fig. 8a together with the medium vulnerability of all 8 buildings,
determined based on the average values of the mean damage values for each macroseismic intensity. A
vulnerability range was determined also based on the possible variability of damage (V MEC mean – 2σ; V
MEC mean– σ; V MEC mean + σ; V MEC mean + 2σ), where the value of σ was determined as the standard
deviation equal to 4.50 for all 8 buildings for 10 parameters, as shown in Fig. 8b. The results have shown a
medium vulnerability for macroseimic intensity IX EMS-98 and a most probable D3 damage state.

a) b)
Fig. 8. Seismic vulnerability curves for 10 parameters: a) for each of the 8 buildings; b) mean vulnerability range

The seismic vulnerability was further assessed for all 15 parameters that consider the building in
aggregate. Based on Eq. (3), Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) there were defined the vulnerability curves for each building, as
presented in Fig. 9a together with the medium vulnerability of all aggregate, determined based on the average
values of the mean damage values for each macroseismic intensity. A vulnerability range was determined also
based on the possible variability of damage (V MEC mean – 2σ; V MEC mean– σ; V MEC mean + σ; V MEC
mean + 2σ), where the value of σ was determined as the standard deviation equal to 3.28 for all 8 buildings
for 15 parameters, as shown in Fig. 9b. The results have shown a medium to low vulnerability for
macroseimic intensity IX EMS-98 and a most probable D2 damage state, at the upper limit, just before D3.

a) b)
Fig. 9. Seismic vulnerability curves for 15 parameters: a) for each of the 8 buildings; b) mean vulnerability range
The results have shown a reduction of the seismic vulnerability when the influence of the adjacent
buildings is considered with 11%, leading to the change of the most probable damage state from D3 to D2. This
significant reduction occurred due to the homogeneity of the aggregate and the good structural and mechanical
similarity between each structural unit. A direct comparison between the vulnerability curves for 10 and 15
parameters is presented in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Comparison between seismic vulnerability curves for 10 and 15 parameters
The comparison between the vulnerability indexes obtained just by fulfilling the vulnerability form have
shown the fact that the index is significantly decreasing when the presence of the adjacent buildings is
considered, as presented in Fig. 11. The vulnerability indexes of all 8 buildings are similar due to the
homogeneity of the case study aggregate.

Fig. 11. Comparison between vulnerability indexes for 10 and 15 parameters for all 8 buildings

3 CONCLUSION
Assessing the seismic vulnerability of a historical area, located in a seismic region represent an
important step for protecting the heritage, as a preliminary study that could be used by local authorities either for
prioritization rehabilitation lists, either for prevention and attenuation plans.
The results have shown the fact that the influence of the adjacent buildings could lead to a reduction of
the seismic vulnerability in case of homogeneous aggregates, so any further consolidation methods should
consider the bearing capacity of the entire aggregate, with modern technologies.

The Italian methodology that was applied represents only a first and quick step, but for more accurate
results, there is recommended to perform also numerical analysis and complete site inspection reports.
The most significant vulnerability index reduction between 10 and 15 parameters is observed at the
buildings that are in line position, having two of the four perimetral walls in contact with other buildings of the
same height. The less vulnerability index reduction or even vulnerability index increasing can be seen at the
buildings in a corner position, which are considered to be the most vulnerable and at those that have nearby
smaller buildings.
As a further research direction, there should be performed nonlinear analysis both for buildings as
isolated and in aggregate and a comparison with the empirical methodology should be made.
Overall, the mean seismic vulnerability of the 8 investigated historical buildings is a medium one,
highlighting the most probable damage state D3 when the buildings were considered as isolated structural units
and D2 when the buildings were considered in aggregate. Even if the damage state doesn’t show expectance of
significant structural damage, the non structural damages could highly affect the architectural-artistic elements
that are characteristic to buildings in historical sites and should be considered in further studies.

REFERENCES
[1] I. Apostol, M. Mosoarca, V. Stoian (2017). Modern Consolidation Solutions for Buildings with
Historical Value. Part I : Reinforced Concrete Structures, in: Mod. Technol. 3rd Millenn.
[2] E. Oros, M. Popa, I.A. Moldovan (2008). Seismological database for banat seismic region
(Romania)-part 1: the parametric earthquake catalogue, www.storing.ingv.it/es_web (accessed
January 8, 2019).
[3] M. Mosoarca, I. Onescu, N. Chieffo, E. Onescu, B. Azap, M. Szitar-Sirbu (2019). Seismic
vulnerability assessment for historical areas of Timisoara city, Romania, in evaluation, Eng.
Fail. Anal.
[4] Romanian Design Code P100-1/2013, in Romanian (2013).
http://www.mdrap.ro/userfiles/reglementari/Domeniul_I/I_22_P100_1_2013.pdf (accessed
January 28, 2019).
[5] M. Kostov (2005). Site specific estimation of cumulative absolute velocity.
[6] N. Chieffo, A. Formisano (2019). The Influence of Geo-Hazard Effects on the Physical
Vulnerability Assessment of the Built Heritage: An Application in a District of Naples, Buildings.
9 (2019) 26. doi:10.3390/buildings9010026.
[7] I. Apostol, M. Mosoarca, N. Chieffo, A. Keller, D. Bocan, C. Bocan, R. Bradeanu (2018).
Solutions for improving seismic vulnerability of historic masonry buildings, in: Mod. Technol.
3rd Millenn., pp. 131–136.
[8] C.B. Vilceanu, S. Herban, C. Musat (2017). NoTime Structural Behaviour of Buildings
Monitored by Topographic Technologies, in: Mod. Technol. 3rd Millenn., pp. 99–104.
[9] D. Benedetti, V. Petrini (1984). On the seismic vulnerability of masonry buildings: an evaluation
method (in Italian), L’Industria Delle Costr. 149 (1984) 66–74.
[10] A. Formisano, F. Mazzolani, G. Florio, R. Landolfo (2010). A quick methodology for seismic
vulnerability assessement of historical masonry aggregates, COST Action C26 Urban Habitat
Constr. under Catastrophic Events, doi:10.13140/2.1.1706.3686.
[11] N. Chieffo, M. Mosoarca, A. Formisano, I. Apostol (2018). Seismic vulnerability assessment
and loss estimation of an urban district of Timisoara, 3rd World Multidiscip. Civ. Eng. Archit.
Urban Plan. Symp. 7 (2018) 1–10.
[12] A. Formisano, N. Chieffo, M. Mosoarca (2017). Seismic vulnerability and damage of a historical
centre in the seismic vulnerability and damage of a historical centre in the district of Caserta (
Italy ), in: 3rd Int. Conf. Prot. Hist. Constr. PROHITECH’17.
[13] R. Vicente, S. Parodi, S. Lagomarsino, H. Varum, J.A.R. Mendes, D. Silva (2008). Seismic
vulnerability assessment, damage scenarios and loss estimation. Case study of the old city
centre of Coimbra, Portugal, in: 14th World Conf. Earthq. Eng.
[14] Azap B, Apostol I, Mosoarca M, Chieffo N, Formisano A. (2018). Seismic vulnerability
scenarios for historical areas of timisoara, in: Mod. Technol. 3rd Millenn., pp. 149–154.
[15] M. Munari, M.R. Valluzzi, G. Cardani, A. Anzani, L. Binda, C. Modena (2010). Seismic
vulnerability analyses of masonry aggregate buildings in the historical centre of Sulmona (Italy),
in: 13th Int. Conf. SFR.
[16] R. Maio (2013). Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Old Building Aggregates, PhD Thesis,
Universidade de Aveiro.

Transdisciplinarity in Earthquake Architecture

Promoted by Architect Victor Vlad

Opriţa R.
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Faculty of Architecture and City Planning (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This study concerns the polyvalent personality of professor, architect and engineer Victor Vlad, putting
in the forefront the transdisciplinarity dimension of the conceptual systems of operating in Earthquake
Architeture, based on multidisciplinary training and complex professional expertise. Architect Victor Vlad
occupies an important place in the architecture in Banat region, actively contributing to the definition of National
Style and to the formation of a school of Civil Engineering and Architecture. From the natural combination of
engineering sciences and architecture, specific to the principles of Earthquake Architecture, he develops a
structural intuition that proves to be valid over time. Its works of remarkable aesthetic and environmental value
are both complex structural systems that resist the demands generated by seismic forces. His pedagogical
vocation and his work in society and in professional organizations once again demonstrate the civilized spirit and
his polimath personality.
Keywords: architecture, engineering, academic vocation, transdisciplinarity, earthquake architecture,
Neo-Romanian style.

Introduction
Victor Vlad, architect, engineer and professor, is one of the outstanding exponents of the Romanian
architecture during the Interwar Period. He had a major influence on the creation of an architecture with a strong
national identity, which was sought after at that time, with the purpose of finding an own national identity; and
defining an academic and social environment in Banat.
Victor Vlad was born in Lugoj on the 8th February 1889 in a modest family in an environment where
honesty, truth, craftsmanship and Christian and traditional values were something natural. He followed a sinuous
school route, for reasons external of his will, leaving Lugoj to Beius and then to Brasov. Thus, he has the chance
of a formation through the medium of exceptionally erudite teachers, in prestigious high schools. He graduated
with the mention "very good" at the famous Romanian High School "Andrei Saguna" in Brasov. On the
recommendation of his teachers from the Brasov high school to continue his studies in an engineering field, he
enrolled in 1908 at the Faculty of Architecture of the Upper Technical School in Budapest. Due to economic
difficulties, he had to interrupt his studies and "get into production". He took up the academic courses again, 2
years later, at the Faculty of Bridges and Highways in Budapest. In 1917 he passed the bachelor's examination
by obtaining the diploma of engineer - architect (since at that time there was no clear distinction between the two
fields) with the main specialization - architecture. After graduation, he returned to the country, and following his
belief in national values and instigated by the moment of the Union of December 1, 1918, he enters in the service
of the Conducting Council in Sibiu to contribute to the restoration and development of the new, modern
Romania.
In 1920 he returned to Banat, settling permanently in Timisoara, and joined the group of intellectuals
led by the engineer Traian Lalescu, who worked for the establishment of a higher technical school in Timisoara.
In the same year the Polytechnic School of Timisoara is founded, Victor Vlad being one of the founding
members. He is appointed substitute professor at the Department of Descriptive Geometry, the definitive title
being awarded to him by Royal Decree in 1926.
In 1941, he succeeds after an effort of more than 12 years to establish the Faculty of Civil Engineering,
where he is appointed as dean. A professor of broad intellectual, spiritual and special erudition, Victor Vlad was
education professional endowed with pedagogical grace and with a remarkable practical intelligence. [1] In 1962
he received the title of "Professor Emeritus".
In the professional area, he works within his design office, “Arhitectura” Building Office [2], and in
various specialized committees: Authorizing Committee of Banat Region (regulations in the field of new

constructions), Union of Architects in Romania, Banat Branch (regulations in the professional field), and the
Commission for Historical Monuments Section for Banat (regulations in the field of patrimony protection).
The works of architect Victor Vlad cover various architectural programs: administrative, ecclesiastical,
secular and urban planning. In his work, he materializes: structural and constructive solutions, aesthetic values
and functional solutions harmoniously combined in universally recognized and appreciated architectural works.
Through his work, the architect Victor Vlad is a prominent exponent of the Neo-Romanian National
Style, and through his educational vocation he is one of the founders of Modern Romanian society.

1 Transdisciplinarity
Of the entire professional and social experience of the architect Victor Vlad, his work transcends,
emulates and demonstrates a natural preference for the principles of transdisciplinarity.
"As the prefix" trans "indicates, transdisciplinarity concerns what is between disciplines, across disciplines and
beyond. Its goal is the understanding of the present world, of which one of the imperatives is the unity of
knowledge. Disciplinary research concerns, at most, one and the same level of Reality; moreover, in most cases,
it only concerns fragments of one level of reality. On the contrary, the transdisciplinarity concerns the dynamics
generated by the action of several levels of reality at once. "- Basarab Nicolescu [3]
In the vision of Nicolescu, one of the three axioms raises the problem of the included third. The logic of
the included third, compared to the aristotelian vision of the excluded third, recognizes a three-dimensional
system where two dimensions are of reference and the third one transcends them, unites them and creates
complex realities. [4] For architect Victor Vlad, architecture and engineering represent physical realities,
materialized and corporealized, while his spirit and his vocation is the area of non-resistance and intellectual
relationship with the society.
The systematization and assimilation of disciplines in the classical system is - in an evolving society with an
explosion at the technological revolution level, insufficient and in extremis said, irrational, irrational because the
diversity and the complexity of the current knowledge can no longer be maintained within a unidisciplinary
system. Information and knowledge is no longer systematized in a linear system of arborescent or encyclopedic
kind. The 'black box' from which ideas emerge is characterized by non-linearity, rhizomic systems, connections
between different disciplines, and neural network juxtaposition. Understanding reality and operating within it,
goes beyond the limits of disciplines and forces them to merge. [5]
This is precisely the aspect which is observed in the architect Victor Vlad's heritage, preparation and
evolution. Resolving problems in the professional life harmoniously combines these aspects and leads to
competent and complex solutions, whether it is about the craftsmanship and sensitivity learned in relation to the
traditional ornamentation and the national and Christian values; whether it is about the multidisciplinary
education gained through academic effort; whether it is about the complexity of architecture programs
(administrative, secular or ecclesiastical) deigned or coordinated.

2 Earthquake Architecture
Earthquake architecture is defined as an interconnection of any kind, visual or conceptual, between
seismic engineering concepts and architectural concepts that include the requirements of building resistance to
earthquake. [6] Earthquake Architecture is a relatively new field, but its foundations, principles and concepts to
which it refers are perennial. It is a transdisciplinary domain because it is in the non-resistance area of the two
fundamental areas: architecture and structural engineering.
From the point of view of the art of construction, which primarily involves architects and structural
engineers - because they are the ones who materialize the shape of the buildings, (as there are also other
engineering domains which participate in the process of complex design) Earthquake Architecture has the role of
the Included Third between the Realities of Architecture and in the Realities of Engineering.
Before the increasing of complexity and the defining and independently studying of the two domains,
they coexisted in the person of an architect with a large knowledge and in his sacred role in conforming and
ordering space. Only when their ontological separation appears, their natural "trans" dimension disappears and is
to be reinvented out of necessity in the contemporary. Earthquake Architecture means the interconnection of
Architectural concepts with those of Earthquake Engineering. It means to mitigate the seismic risks by co-
operating of two realities on the one hand and by mutually understanding their values and their specific concepts
on the other.
The need for beauty, the need for stability and the need for utility are the three points of the construction
principles in the Vitruvian definition. The concepts have not changed much over the years, just their content.
Until the great "schism" of the two domains, the knowledge was in the same place, held by the same person, and
the information was transited as in the "black box" principle. Now the fields work independently and the non-

proliferation of a connection, of a dialogue can lead to a form of professional "autism". The arkhi-tekton person,
the first builder, the one who orders the form and the matter, possessed the knowledge and keys of both fields.
From this point of view, by turning to the essence, we can refer to Victor Vlad, as we do with other
universal architects: A. Gaudi, L. Sullivan, P. L. Nervi, F. Khan or E. Torroja; as belonging to Earthquake
Architecture. [7] His multidisciplinary academic education in the fields of architecture and structural
engineering, his technical abilities and calling towards drawing, his traditional aesthetic values acquired during
childhood by craftsmanship, highlight the character of an architect with a various knowledge. His work is
characterized by a simple spatial conception, naturally framed in the urban landscape, by structural intuitions that
prove to be sustainable in time and by a clear ornamentation specific to the Neo-Romanian style (in the defining
of which he actively participated).
Pier Luigi Nervi, in his book "Costruire correttamente" says: "We assign everything to calculation,
while the intuition, the highest faculty of our spirit, which led the old ones to the work that contemporaries owe
admiration to, was excluded from our thinking. "
It is precisely this intuition that makes Victor Vlad's architecture able to resist the time and forces of
earthquakes. Especially in the ecclesial buildings he builds, where due to the architectural program large spaces
and large spans are required, we can deduce the intuitive power, the technical knowledge, the ability to model
space and the structural conformation in complex assemblies combining massive and skeletal elements
generating supple and ductile construction systems, resistant to seismic forces In the case of the cathedrals he
designs, by placing towers often containing helical stairs in the key points of space, it strengthens the resistance
of the structure and at the same time creates mechanisms for taking over and dissipating the torsion generated by
the vaults. Also, the juxtaposition of rigid cores in relation to curved apses or solid brick walls doubled by
colonnades creates intercept and dissipation springs in the structure plane.

3 Pedagogical vocation
The pedagogical dimension of architect Victor Vlad’s personality, which was initially manifested out of
need during his studies in Budapest, is outlined, we can say, with the formation of the modern Roman state.
When he finishes his studies, he returns to the country and serves the construction and development of the
modern state, being driven by the intrinsic values in him-faith, honesty and justice.
Driven by the resistless desire to set up a Civil Engineering Faculty within the Polytechnic School of Timisoara,
he undertakes a sedulous activity of documenting the need for this faculty in Timisoara as a pole of development
in the West Zone and leads for more than 12 years the Circle of Initiative for the Establishment of the Faculty of
Civil Engineering. In 1941, and more than two decades after the founding of the Polytechnic in 1920, he
succeeded in setting up the Faculty of Civil Engineering, where he was appointed as a dean, his merits and his
diligence thus being honored.
His didactic activity is carried out with pedagogical discernment, as he is continuously preoccupied with
the preparation of the future engineers. He had taught the Descriptive Geometry Course for a long time, but with
the founding of the Faculty of Civil Engineering he assumes, thanks to his trainer's spirit and his complex and
multidisciplinary education, the teaching of matters necessary for the formation of the students and which could
not be filled by other specialists. Thus, over time, he had taught the disciplines: Civil Engineering, Urbanism and
Rurality, Constructions, Processes in Construction, Architecture, Territory Planning,
As in his design activity, in pedagogical activities he creatively combines the knowledge of architecture
and engineering and inspires its students to assimilate the principles of Earthquake Architecture. The dedication
with which he carries out pedagogical activities, committing, body and soul, to the growth of the Polytechnic
School of Timisoara, by means of didactic, scientific and cultural activities, once again demonstrates his
civilizing vocation and his innovative and progressive spirit. He actively participates in the organization of the
Engineering Congresses; he takes part in the Polytechnic School’s delegations, in cultural and scientific events in
European universities in view of developing the Timisoara institution, and sets the basis for the sports training of
the students by setting up the Sports Society of Students of the Polytechnic School of Timisoara.
The permanent interest of architect Victor Vlad was the development of the academic environment, of
the academic basis - by designing specialized courses for the preparation of students, platforms for the research
and dissemination of scientific researches and the cultivation of professional values in society, emphasizing thus,
once again, and the shaping dimension of his personality.

4 Professional activity
For the architect Victor Vlad, the construction act signifies first of all a vocation, a materialization of
professional and aesthetic consciousness, a civilization gesture and a civic responsibility.
Together with the architects Duiliu Marcu, Ion Trajanascu and Adrian Suciu, took part in the creation of
National Style in Banat. [8] National Style, or Neo-Romanian architecture, emerges from the necessity of

defining a new national identity representing the new spirit of the modern state. Carmen Popescu writes: "Great
Romania makes of its national style its architectural symbol, at the same time, the emblem and means of
propaganda of the state." [9]
The professional design activity of architect Victor Vlad is complex and achieves a wide range of
architectural and engineering dimensions, urban planning and patrimony protection. The project repertoire
contains over 200 projects, art works and edifices, mainly in Banat and Transylvania.
In the architecture area he distinguishes himself by administrative buildings: the Administrative Palace
(Prefecture) of Timisoara, the Facade of the Timisoara City Hall, the Timisoara Institute of Hygiene, Fig. 1; the
Resita State Commerce Building and the religious buildings: Orthodox cathedrals in Timisoara - Mehala and
Iosefin, Orthodox cathedrals in Targu- Mures, Fig. 2; Brasov and Resita, Orthodox Churches in Anina, Jimbolia,
Ghiroda and other, all buit in Neo-Romanian style.

a) b) c)

Fig. 1. Administrative buildings in Timisoara: a) Administrative Palace; b) City Hall;

c) Institute of Hygiene

b) c)

Fig. 2. Orthodox chatedrals in : a) Timisoara, Mehala; b) Timisoara, Iosefin; c) Targu-Mures

In the urbanism area, systematizes the university "fortress" in Timisoara, creating an overall project of
the platform of the Polytechnic School in Timisoara, which groups the buildings necessary for the preparation of
the students, in a pavilion type system. Based on the layout designed by the architect Victor Vlad, the architect
Duiliu Marcu realises the projects for the Faculty of Mechanics, Student Housing and the Cafeteria (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The layout of the Politehnica School Campus

In the heritage protection area, he works in order to save and protect the regional cultural heritage by
elaborating dozens of studies, revealing and recording the architectural values, especially the wooden churches’
in the Banat Zone (Margina Fig. 4, Bucovat, Partos, Duboz, Butin etc.).

Fig. 4. Wooden orthodox church in Margina

He was one of the first restorers of historical monuments in Banat and the promoter of the scientific
restoration. [2]

5 Conclusions
A study of professional evolution, with the context of each stage, raises the polyvalent dimension of the
architect's personality and demonstrates the importance of the junction between architecture and seismic
engineering. The mediatisation of the works of personalities that design in the spirit of Earthquake Architecture
is important for the dissemination of the relevance of the domain in contemporary times. Earthquake
Architecture represents a level of superior Reality, a high level of awareness of the importance of a logical
spatial configuration and the structural conformation to the dynamic actions of the earthquake.
Subsequent research will include a structural spatial investigation and a non-linear analysis of the
structures of the cathedrals built by the architect Victor Vlad to highlight the structural conformation qualities.

REFERENCES
[1] De Sabata, C., & Munteanu, I. (1993). Remember: Profesori ai Şcolii Politehnice Timişorene.
Timişoara: Helicon, pp. 68-81.
[2] Rosiu, L. (2007), Din activitatea arhitectului Victor Vlad pentru conservarea bisericilor de lemn
din Banat, Coloana infinitului, anul X vol. IV (nr. 63), pp. 35-38.
[3] Nicolescu, B. (2002), Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity, translation by Karen-Claire Voss, SUNY
Press, USA.
[4] Dinca, I. (2012). Transdisciplinaritatea- în definiţia riguroasă a lui Basarab Nicolescu, Revista T
nr.1, Colegiul National "Moise Nicoara" Arad.
[5] Tatar, A. (2018). Abordarea inter- şi transdisciplinară în aria curriculară matematică şi ştiinţe,
Analele UCB seria Litere si Stiinte Sociale,Targu Jiu, pp. 149-155.
[6] Slak, T. & Kilar, V. (2008). Simplified Ranking System for Recognition and Evaluation of
Earthquake Architecture, Proceedings 14th World Conferenceon Earthquake Engineering, China.
[7] Oprita, R. (2013). Structural form as ornament. Structures and Architecture,Guimaraes,
Portugal pp.812-816.
[8] Szekely, G. (2016). Arhitecti Creatori ai Stilului Neoromanesc in Zona Banatului, Patrimonium
Banaticum, VI, Timisoara, pp.235-246.
[9] Popescu, C. (2004). Le Styl National Roumain, Construire une nation a traversl’architecture
1881-1945, Bucuresti.

Restoration and Preservation - An

Interdisciplinary Concept

Pericleanu B.D.1, Pericleanu M.1, Grămescu A.M.1

1
Ovidius University of Constanta (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Conservation and restoration of heritage buildings is a complex activity both in terms of preserving the
historical substance and of the intervention measures to be taken to ensure structural and functional safety.
Historic monument buildings must meet the performance requirements comparable to the ones of our existing
structures that we currently use. The paper aims to present shortly the evolution of conservation measures in
Romania and the international practices adopted.
Keywords: restoration, preservation, historical monument.

1 Introduction
Historical monuments are a temporal dimension that highlights certain features of a society (economic
development, political stability, high level of creation). The notion of historical monument includes both the
isolated architectural creation and the urban or rural settlement that brings the testimony of a particular
civilization, a significant evolution, or a historical event. Also, the notion of historical monument extends to
modest works that have gained cultural significance over time.
Historical monuments are defined, according to Law 422/2001, as "real estate, constructions and lands
located on Romanian territory or abroad, properties of the Romanian state, significant for national and universal
history, culture and civilization". Historical monuments are an integral part of the national cultural heritage and
are protected by law. Historic buildings are recognized in Europe as having positive, not only cultural, but also
economic value - in terms of tourism, social status and commercial efficiency. Many historic buildings are
monitored to protect their unique qualities and the features that give them their architectural, cultural and / or
historical value. With the recognition of heritage values, the interventions on the built-up fund pay more
attention to the protection of these values. Because the heritage values of historical bearing structures are not
unambiguously recognized even today, the protection of these values in interventions on bearing structures is not
a self-evident requirement.
Conservation and restoration of heritage buildings is a complex activity both in terms of preserving the
historical substance and of the intervention measures to be taken to ensure structural and functional safety [4].
Romania has numerous historical buildings that, besides the physical wear caused by the passage of time,
suffered a series of degradations under various actions - landslides, earthquakes, fires, floods, etc. This state has
been aggravated by the almost total lack of maintenance, transformations and unfortunate structural
interventions, and, especially in the last half century, by the aggressiveness of the environment, a result of
excessive industrialization. Many of the historical buildings have a special value, being on the list of historical
monuments.
Historic monument buildings must meet the performance requirements comparable to the ones of our
existing structures that we currently use. Performance level is the value expression of parameters that are
associated with performance criteria. In the case of old buildings, performance levels, as well as specific
methods of determination, are no longer foreseen in the technical regulations in the field, as we can see in new
buildings. As an international practice, interference with the performance levels set for new buildings is admitted
for existing building interventions.

2 Conservation concept in the world

In the rehabilitation of historical buildings, the main goal is to preserve and valorize the characteristics
of unrepeatability, rarity, originality [3]. Even in terms of seismic risk, in the case of historical buildings, a
nuanced attitude is observed in international practice. From this point of view, the recent approaches in the world

correlate the safety check in the current state with the knowledge of the technological features that have allowed,
at one time, meeting the safety requirements. From this perspective, the structural logic and resistance
mechanisms of the construction are considered characteristics that must be preserved and exploited by
intervention measures.
In Italian law, for example, two types of possible intervention for historical buildings are explicitly
distinguished: adaptation and improvement. Improvement interventions differ from those of adaptation in that
they aim to increase safety against seismic actions, without imposing rigidly the problem of passing the test of
quantitative assessments made in the technical expertise. Structural interventions for the reduction of seismic risk
are usually those that mark the most the construction, through direct implications on the matter of the built
object, with decisive role in its authenticity and cultural value, but also in the cost of intervention and practical
possibilities to achieve it.
History of the conservation and heritage assets was superimposed over time with the evolution of
concerns for storage and thesaurus of human creations. Since ancient times, there have been concerns to preserve
and convey to the descendants the multitude of material and spiritual testimonies. Thus, a first testimony is
found in the Book of Kings, in which the prophet Isaiah records that King Ezekiel showed to the messengers of
Babylon the house of precious objects to Babylon and all that was found in his treasures. The Kings of
Pergamum have gathered in their capital known works of art as well as copies after them that they cherished as
much as the original ones. Here is also the first guide of the art connoisseur, the Pergam Canon, which included
critical studies on the works of great classics.
The golden age of the Roman Empire will also mean an era of great acquisitions of artistic values. In
Rome, architect Vitruviu recommends in his architectural treatise that the edifices where pinacotheque are
housed are to be built to the north to avoid sunlight, and the libraries are sunrise to benefit from sufficient light.
For the Romans the technology for the restoration of votive paintings was not unknown, Greek-based
technologies based on resins. During the time of Carol the Great, the great treasures are made that could compete
in value with those of the Byzantine emperors. In the cathedral of Bayeaux, northern France, there was a 12th-
century hall, where the charter of the monastery, also called the "charter treasure," were preserved.
Following the Byzantine tradition, cores and art collections formed around monasteries such as those
from Tismana, Bistrita, Curtea de Arges, Putna, Sucevita, Moldovita, Dragomirna, etc. Starting with
Renaissance, authentic collectors of objects appear, with outstanding artistic and historical value, who is
concerned with their storage and preservation. Since 1335, an antique cabinet has been mentioned in Italy. Pope
Paul II builds an imposing palace in Rome - Palazzo Venezia - in which he collects his various valuable items.
Popes are great arts collectors and are concerned about the preservation of objects, for which they issue laws
prohibiting their export as well as the use of ancient constructions as stone or marble quarries. Rafael Sanzio of
Urbino - named architect of the edifices in Rome, draws a topographic plan of Rome with the revelation of all
the ancient monuments.
The notion of museum has been penetrating social and cultural preoccupations since the 15th century.
In the 18th century, museums of art and history are opened throughout Europe. Great royal collections are
created in England, Sweden, Poland and Russia. Owners of such objects increasingly raise their issue of keeping,
preserving and investing. During this period in Naples, Florence, Venice, Bologna, Paris, Dresden restoration
workshops are build where specialized craftsmen work.
Except museums, a number of specialized institutions in the field of investigation and preservation of
heritage objects were established: the Royal Artistic Patrimony Institute in Brussels, the International Center for
Restoration in Rome, the Institute of Pathology of the Book in Rome, the Central Laboratory of Moscow, the
Central Conservation and Restoration Laboratory in the United Kingdom, etc.

3 Conservation principles
If the school for the restoration of mobile heritage was born towards the end of the second decade of the
century. XX, the restoration of the real estate appears in the context of the preservation and restoration of mobile
components.
Restoration is a complex process of techniques, materials and methods that are based on some
principles:
- the principle of rehabilitation at any cost of the form and initial appearance;
- the principle of non-intervention;
- the principle of complete cleaning (removal of traces of degradation by aging, subsequent interventions, etc.)
The Venice Charter (1964) formulates the following principles of restoration:
- no restoration work should damage the immovable property;
- any intervention should be preceded by an analytical investigation;
- in establishing the restoration treatment will collaborate with the museographer (conservator), the art
historian, the analyst of the institution that performs the intervention;

- any intervention will be recorded analytically and chronologically;

- the integrity of the patrimony property will be respected;
- re-filling and filling in the missing parts will only be performed if there are original references or
analogies can be made;
- readability of the intervention;
- restoration interventions must respect the technical, artistic and chromatic features and forms;
- any restoration work must be reversible;
- materials and methods of intervention must be compatible with the original materials and techniques.
Regarding the restoration of the historical monuments, some clarifications are required. Old buildings
that have experienced degradation, demolition, unconscious human action, neglect must be restored or rebuilt
[5]. In such situations, the principles based on social, ideological conditions are used.
Such problems in the world have led to the development of new directions in preserving and
conservating old historic sites and traditional buildings with historical value, especially in Europe and North
America. These have been correlated with the processes of cultural and social exchange that have affected strong
industrialized nations.
The term integrated conservation defines the planning strategy and the scientific methods that are used
for conservation, both at the macro-social level and at the local level, by the community. Integrated Conservation
means a conscious effort for interdisciplinary cooperation, especially when it comes to disciplines that can
provide a direct knowledge of the environment: social history of architecture, anthropology and sociology,
human geography, materials science, chemistry and microbiology, as well as technological experience and
architectural, relevant to maintaining buildings and promoting cultural development. The concept of integrated
conservation was accepted in 1975 by the Amsterdam Declaration.
Conservation and restoration, from a technical point of view, were closely related to crafts and
traditional or contemporary building practices [2]. This means that the problems have been solved within the
limits of existing knowledge and possessed by craftsmen, architects and owners. From a historical point of view
this can be considered the primary stage of the development of the concept and the field of monument
conservation. The next phase could be considered the scientific approach, under the influence of natural sciences
and technology developed during industrialization.
The School of Scientific Conservation was, however, too limited during the last decades of the 20th
century to provide valid methods of observation, explanation and valid treatment proposals to counter the
complex mechanisms of degradation, deterioration and demolition. At present there is no longer an issue of
projects that are necessary for the rehabilitation of the affected buildings, but it is necessary to provide some
general measures and measures, by which the deterioration processes can be slowed, with the elimination of the
negative effects. We can therefore speak of a third phase in the development of conservation and restoration:
protection and monitoring.
One of the principles of modern conservation and restoration requires the preservation of the patina,
considered to have an authentic documentary value of great importance, being a testimony of the cultural and
historical preservation. Correlated with another principle, which aims at the reversibility of methods and
materials applied in restoration or active preservation, this means that surfaces that present time patina and
values (moving goods and buildings) in use cannot be treated without respect even after treatment is over.
The stylistic restoration, considered to be the set of actions meant to give the object the state it had at a
certain historical level - often the original one - consisted in technical reconstruction, independent of
restructuring, easily visible in their result, can be regarded as a primary model of restoration (basic model).
Contrary to this doctrine, the ethic of minimal interventions has developed, according to which
monuments and cultural property should not be subjected to operations, which can only be motivated by
guaranteeing their survival over time. This trend opposes the concept of restoration, which aims to preserve the
historical substance in combination with modernization. Do not understand that such a doctrine means
negligence or lack of any decision, which would be temporarily more favorable to the owner / administrator of
the building or monument.
In contrast to these two recognized theories, the modern theory of preservation and restoration targets
the constructive components of the monument, trying to provide the optimal solutions to solve the problems that
arise by involving the most appropriate techniques and materials. Old buildings that have experienced
degradation, demolition, unconscious human action, neglect must be restored or rebuilt. In such situations, the
principles based on social, ideological conditions are used.
A very important role in this respect has also the set of measures to prevent and reduce the rate of
deterioration and degradation. That is why, in the scientific management of cultural heritage, special emphasis is
placed on the inspection of historical sites and buildings.

4 Conservation concept in Romania

In Romania, the first attempts to establish museum nuclei appear in the eighteenth century in order to
support the national idea. The first collections are made up of books and appear in Sibiu. Art objects are
preserved at monasteries. The first legal projects for the protection of monuments occurred in 1871 and later in
1874 by the establishment of the Honorary Commission for Monuments. The first measures for the protection of
historical monuments occur in Romania in 1871-1874, when the Honorific Commission for Public Monuments
is established - based on conceptual systemization and conceptual currents that emerged after 1860.
In 1892 a law was drafted (promoted by Gr. Tocilescu and V.A. Urechia) "Law on conservation and
restoration of public monuments", covering all aspects of cultural goods. In 1913, a new law improved the
relationship between research and restoration of the monument, insisting on archaeological research. The 1919
law supplements the regulations on protection, conservation and restoration. This law introduces the notions of
"protection area", "expropriation in case of major interest", "collective methodical activity", regional museums
are being developed and the regional sections of the Commission are established. Among these, the
Transylvanian Commission is distinguished by the organization of large restoration sites, extensive researches in
the field of classical archaeology.
The Second World War brought a stagnation of the restoration and preservation activities, the territorial
cessions affecting the Romanian cultural policy. Against the backdrop of the economic crisis that followed, and
in parallel with the political changes, the Commission tried to cope with the precarious situation of historical
monuments. The last president of the Commission was C. Daicoviciu, because in 1948 the Commission ceased
its activity. After 1950, the Romanian society accepted models imposed by the new political situation. On March
15, 1951, the Scientific Commission of Museums, Historical and Artistic Monuments were created by the
Romanian Academy. The first restoration core was integrated into the State Committee for Construction,
Architecture and Systematization (C.S.C.A.S.). Under his leadership, the first sites were opened, gradually
forming a specialized group for the restoration of the architectural edifices and other works of art.
In 1959 the Department of Historical Monuments was created with the mission to protect the real estate.
By Law no. 63/1974 and through the creation of flexible institutions (eg the Central State Commission for
National Cultural Patrimony), the conservation and restoration work continued, although the political and socio-
economic conditions were unfavourable.
Numerous monuments suffered as a result of expropriation, nationalization, and were attributed to
institutions that have been exploited them improperly [1].

5 Conclusions
A very important role is the set of measures to prevent and reduce the rate of deterioration and
degradation. That is why, in the scientific management of cultural heritage, special emphasis is placed on the
inspection of historical sites and buildings. The conservation and preservation of historical buildings are two
concepts that are more and more in the attention of the authorities in Romania that hopefully will increase the
actualization of laws and technical regulations in this field in order to be in compliance with the international
rules and give more tools to the practitioners in heritage buildings rehabilitation field.

REFERENCES
[1] Grămescu A.M. (2017). Historical Properties Evaluation, part 1. MatrixRom Publishing House,
Bucharest, ISBN 978-606-25-0339-0.
[2] Pericleanu B.D., Grămescu A.M., Gomes Ferreira J., Pericleanu M. (2014). Studies and
experimental researches on the restoration of the patrimony buildings. Ovidius University Press
Publishing House, Constanta, ISBN 978-973-614-832-3.
[3] Grigorescu M., Mocanu R., Moldovan H.R., Moldoveanu K., Markovski I., Radu C., Stan S.,
coordonator: Derer H. (2007). About the preservation and rehabilitation of the built heritage -
from history to contemporary solutions and problems. “Ion Mincu” University Publishing House,
Bucharest.
[4] Crişan R. (2002). Recommendations on structural analysis, conservation and restoration of
architectural heritage. “Ion Mincu” University Publishing House, Bucharest.
[5] Grămescu A.M. Rehabilitation Projects for Historical Monuments – study cases.

Contributions Regarding the Analysis of

Moisture Influence in Time on the Resistance
Structure of Natural Stone Masonry Heritage
Buildings

Pericleanu M.1, Pericleanu B.D.1, Grămescu A.M.1

1
Ovidius University of Constanta (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Historical masonry often presents degradation due to causes other than mechanical (gravitational,
seismic, landslides, landslides, water retention, etc.). Even natural stone components are not unlimited in their
durability, knowing a degradation process, of course, of a very long duration. This complex phenomenon, also
found in masonry bricks (ceramic bricks), as well as in old masonry mortars, has been named by materials
specialists as "alteration". Starting from this finding, the authors of the present paper present a part of the results
of the researches carried out on the destructive factors that can be encountered over time at the constructive
structures made of masonry and exposed to destructive processes which contribute to the increase of the degree
of vulnerability by decreasing the mechanical resistances and modifying the behavioral properties of buildings.
Keywords: conservation and rehabilitation, efflorescence stone masonry, historical masonry, moisture,
natural stone, non-destructive investigation.

1 Introduction
Over the last decades, a new way of thinking has been imposed worldwide in all sectors to maximize
the use of existing resources, this phenomenon also being manifested in the field of construction, the existing
patrimony being considered as a usable resource [7]. According to the most recent population and housing
censuses in Romania, from the point of view of the used materials and with reference to the residential buildings
in the urban area, the brick, stone or replacement brickworks represent about 50% of the total building dwellings,
a the remarkable and desirable percentage considered by decision-makers. These arguments were the basis for
the consolidation / rehabilitation of the existing fund to make the most of this important resource.

2 Stone degradation processes

Conservation and restoration of heritage buildings is a complex activity both in terms of preserving the
historical substance and of the intervention measures to be taken to ensure structural and functional safety [1].
Structures made of natural stone are a special category, the use of stone frequently characterizing the oldest
dwelling and worship buildings in certain regions of the country.
Stone degradation processes are very complex, depending on the physical-chemical and mineralogical
characteristics specific to each type of stone, on the other hand, on the nature, intensity and frequency of the
aggressive factors and their possible interactions [9].
In order to take the best measures to consolidate these buildings [8] (especially those from natural stone
masonry), the processes of material degradation and the factors that generated these processes need to be very
well identified. The visible phenomena of material alteration, manifested at the level of the surface of contact
with the environment, constitute a first indicator of the state of conservation / degradation and can be:
- accumulation of matter (accumulation of substances or formation of crusts);
- deformation (loss of flatness of the surfaces);
- continuity interruptions (formation of cracks in the material);
- chromatic changes (variations in colour, tone or gloss of materials);
- creation of caverns by loss of material (material detachment);
- loss of original roughness.

These phenomena are caused by physical, chemical and biological processes.

From the category of physical processes there are:
- dilatations and successive contractions of the mass affected by thermal variations, generating internal stresses;
- mechanical actions of water, by changing the aggregation state;
- mechanical actions of crystallization of salts in aqueous solution;
- the abrasive action of the wind which produces the progressive erosion of the exposed surfaces.
Inorganic powders, unburned hydrocarbon molecules, carbonaceous particles, etc. which tend to store
and their accumulation with meteoric waters can cause various destructive, in homogeneously distributed effects
and alter the appearance of the outer surfaces. Airborne powders may contain salts or acidic substances whose
deposition, together with rainwater, may cause acid attacks [3]. The powders contain organic particles that can
generate microorganisms of different types, thus causing biological attacks.
To the above, add:
- physical, normal or premature wear, under normal or non-standard operating conditions;
- natural aging resulting in slow modification of the structure and certain properties of the materials.
Physical processes are very dangerous if they are associated with chemical processes. The chemical
processes are based on chemical reactions between the compounds present in the materials used in the water and
in various pollutant compounds that are in the water or in the atmosphere, reactions that lead to the formation of
salts with various characteristics and destructive effects within the masonry. In most cases they generate:
- solubility changes;
- crystallization process;
- colour change;
- volume changes;
- changes in the mechanical strength of the constituent materials.

3 Materials characterization
A fundamental feature of salts with implications in sanitation is the hygroscopicity that is the ability of
some salts to absorb atmospheric vapor and turn them into water (Fig. 1, 2, 3).

Fig. 1. Porta Nigra Trier Fig. 2. Cumulative effects - Târșor Monastery

Fig. 3. Hygroscopic effects – Cernavodă church [4]

From a chemical point of view, stone used in masonry has carbonate or silicate composition active
compounds in chemical reactions with influence on the stone. An eloquent example is stone brickwork subjected
to the action of heavy rain or rapid and turbulent water flows (as in Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Areas of masonry exposed to the rainwater infiltrations of Miclauseni

Castle

The process described above can be identified by light color, eroded surfaces and irregular roughness,
indicating a superficial degradation that may be as severe as that indicated by the "black crust." Recent research
has highlighted that the presence in the atmosphere of urban environments of carbonaceous particles resulting
from combustion plays a very important role in the processes of sulphation of plywood or masonry made of
limestone.
In porous limestone stones the water penetrates and the attack can progress. The acid attack causes
calcium carbonate to become soluble and removed with water, increasing the porosity of the stone and making it
more vulnerable to successive attacks (as in Fig. 5). If the stone is exposed to the wash, a progressive removal of
the material occurs, resulting in the eroded surface appearance, sometimes frequently in constructions made with
this type of stones or the sockets made in these solutions.

Fig. 5. In-depth transformation of carbonates

When the stone is not very exposed to washing or acid attack, degradation can also occur by
hygroscopic absorption. In these cases the carbonation transformation takes place, which is an evolutionary
process, progressively migrating towards the outside and tends to evaporate to the surface, where the salts
precipitate and crystallize in the pores, producing, by increasing the volume, the local disintegration of the stone
with the formation of fragile crusts.
Stains or trickles, but also deeper carbonaceous alterations can also be manifested by oxidation of the
pyrite. Diagnosis can be emphasized due to the colour change that appears on limestone stones exposed to the
atmosphere, on the exterior and inside of the building.
The study of the characteristics of the stone before the design and execution of an intervention work on
an existing structure (as in Fig. 6) is of great importance in understanding the behavior of the respective structure
on different scenarios (seismic action, extra weights, replacement of resistance elements, change of the way of
discharging, etc.).

Fig. 6. Old masonry and restored masonry areas Roman Thermae - Trier

4 Measures against moisture

It is very important to investigate by non-destructive methods and to take all the necessary data for a
calculation as close to reality as possible for the material.
Biological actions can be directly or indirectly caused by macro and microorganisms, of plant or animal
nature [5]. They produce mechanical pressures or direct acid attacks, produce crack or porosity enhancements,
activate chemical processes in inorganic compounds, cause chemical changes in organic compounds, cellular
degeneration of tissues, disintegration and loss of matter, etc.
Vegetable and animal microorganisms can be fungi, birds, parasitic insects (caries, termites), situations
found by the authors at Miclauseni Castle-Suceava. Vegetable and animal microorganisms: muscles and lichens,
bacteria, algae, moulds.
Frequently all three types of processes are present at the same time, having a specific evolution
depending on the physical and chemical properties of masonry and various environmental factors. But the main
factor is the moisture (as in Fig. 7) in favouring and altering the building materials of masonry.

Fig. 7. Trier Cathedral - The moisture of exposed stonework

The conservation and restoration measures of heritage buildings made of stone masonry are primarily
aimed at removing the factors that causes their disintegration. In order to remove the moisture that drifts through
the capillaries in the stone masonry, after removing the potential external causes, insertion of films, resins and
insulation of the foundations, the designing of air vents and the electrodraining are used [2].
Specialty literature defines the ascent index as the ratio of maximum height of humidity as well as the
thickness of masonry. Keeping it in lower limits is a major concern for restorers. It has been observed that the
highest ascension heights occur in brick walls with a high porosity in winter on the north exposed walls in a
moist or medium saline medium with saturated air or near saturation. The evaporation of water from masonry
depends on the drying coefficient characteristic of each type of masonry and which is proportional to its
thickness and quality, as well as to the parameters of the mortar.

Research to find degraded stone preservation procedures has so far not led to the development of safe,
reliable technologies. As a result, many solutions developed to conserve the stone have a limited applicability,
limited to the stone elements to be kept in specially conditioned spaces, as well as to some components of the
stone edges, reduced in size, which can be detached from their place, treated under laboratory conditions, and
then restored in the work (statues, bas-reliefs, elements of modernity) as in Fig.8 [6]. For construction, solutions
are much lower.

Fig. 8. Carol Mosque - Constanta

Restoration solutions across Europe are based on the application of crusts. In order to perform these
operations, choose the resin with the appropriate viscosity, depending on the nature and porosity of the stone. Of
the wide range of synthetic resins, experiments have been made with epoxy and polyester resins dissolved in
various organic solvents.

5 Conclusions
Humidity in building materials or buildings plays an important role in maintaining a climate favorable
to the function of human health and to ensuring the durability of buildings and building elements. Damage
caused by humidity influences the optical image of the building, strongly influences the constructive substance,
the room microclimate. Humidity problems in all the forms under which they manifest themselves do not have a
standardized, absolute solution, each case must be independently studied and solved by correctly identifying the
causes that have induced the pathology.

REFERENCES

[1] Crişan R. (2002). Recommendations on structural analysis, conservation and restoration of

architectural heritage. “Ion Mincu” University Publishing House, Bucharest.
[2] Frossel F. (2005). Drying of masonry and restoration of basements. Technical Publishing
House, Bucharest.
[3] Grămescu A. M., Mitroi A. ș.a. (2007). Influence of climatic warming on the behavior of
buildings, of historical, archaeological, architectural interest in the Black Sea Coast.
International Conference Disaster and Pollution Monitoring, Iasi, Performantica Publishing
house.
[4] Grămescu A.M. Rehabilitation Projects for Historical Monuments – study cases.
[5] Grămescu A.M., Barbu A.M.D. (2008). Repair and consolidation of buildings. Agir Publishing
House, Bucharest.
[6] Grămescu A.M., Pericleanu M., Sever S. (2018). History of the science and technique of
constructing the expression of Turkish-Tatars civilization in the Dobrogea area. MatrixRom
Publishing House, Bucharest, ISBN 978-606-25-0413-7.
[7] Grigorescu M., Mocanu R., Moldovan H.R., Moldoveanu K., Markovski I., Radu C., Stan S.,
coordonator: Derer H. (2007). About the preservation and rehabilitation of the built heritage -

from history to contemporary solutions and problems. “Ion Mincu” University Publishing House,
Bucharest.;
[8] Pericleanu B.D., Grămescu A.M., Gomes Ferreira J., Pericleanu M. (2015). Techniques and
solutions for the investigation and restoration of the patrimony buildings. Ovidius University
Press Publishing House, Constanta, ISBN 978-973-614-837-8;.
[9] Pericleanu B.D., Grămescu A.M., Gomes Ferreira J., Pericleanu M. (2014). Investigation,
analysis and diagnosis of patrimony buildings. Ovidius University Press Publishing House,
Constanta, ISBN 978-973-614-836-1.

Nomographic Chart for Assessing Shearing

Force
Pop T.M.1
1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Designing in civil engineering aims at creating structures that will fully meet the requirements of the
activity to be accommodated in the structures concerned, in compliance with all the norms and the technical
prescriptions in force at the date of the civil engineering project.
When designing nomograms for the assessment of the shearing force, we used the prescriptions of the
European Standards for the design of buildings (Structural Eurocodes).
Knowing the value of the effective shearing force, the value of the required reinforcement area can be
determined and vice versa.
The result consists of a chart with the same properties similar to the nomographic charts already in use.
They remain a recommended alternative for pre-dimensioning, in order to reduce design time and a
possible comparison term when this calculation is performed through a dedicated computer program.
Keywords: force, stirrup, angle, truss, hypothesis.

1. Introduction
By using lines or points listed, nomograms are a graphical representation of the plan of a relationship
between two or more variable sizes, with which one can quickly determine the value of a quantity, depending on
the known values of other quantities that enter into relationship considered.
Development of nomograms was a difficult process because of the large number of variables included
in computational relationships. I have been able to create several nomographic charts by imposing some values
and by testing some usual sections of the reinforced concrete beams. They can be used as a comparison term and
order of magnitude. The results are presented in the charts below.

2. Preamble

The calculation steps were based on setting the chart of shearing forces VEd, followed by making the
necessary adjustments to the chart considering possible reductions, calculating the bearing power of the concrete
section VRd,c along with the inequality check VEd,red ≤VRd,c .
If this inequality is met, the transverse reinforcements are chosen in a building-like manner.
But if VEd ˃ VRd,c, I calculated the bearing power of VRdmax compressed concrete charts depending on
the type of transverse reinforcement used.
The nomograms presented for the concrete beams were developed according to the frame girder model
and are based on the hypothesis that the fracture can occur either by collapsing of the stretched transverse
reinforcements (VRd=VRds), or by crushing concrete from compressed diagonal struts: VRd=VRd,max.
In order to ensure a ductile fracture, it is necessary to fulfil the equation:
VRd,s≤ VRd,max, where:
VRd - is the able shearing force of the element;
VEd - is the calculation value of the applied shearing force;
VRdmax - is the maximum able shearing force of the element for the minimum value of angle θ, when ctg
θ = 2.5
The values of angle θ are included, as follows:
21.8º ≤ θ ≤ 45º; (2.5≥ctg θ ≥1.0)
Depending on the inclination θ chosen, different amounts of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement
will result due to different stresses in diagonal struts and stretched bars (both stirrups and longitudinal bars).

Fig. 1. Nomographic chart for the shearing force calculation after SR EN

Applying in a simplified manner it could be considered the upper limits of θ = 45°, and ctg θ =1. In this
case it is obtained the maximum amount of transverse reinforcement. This solution is not recommended.
The role of the design is to optimize ctg θ in the manner of leading to a minimum total amount of
transverse reinforcement.
In Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 are shown nomographic charts which are developed by imposing values for ctg θ.
We have set an example that for a 96 mm2 transverse reinforcement area, the effective shearing force is
105 KN, having a ctg θ = 2 for a 300x450 mm. concrete beam
It can be used for concrete beams sections of: 250x300mm to 300x450mm, with shearing force values
ranging between 30KN and 180KN represented on the abscissa. On the ordinate line there are represented the
reinforcement areas corresponding to the transverse reinforcement with values ranging between: 0.5·102 mm2
and 1.60·102 mm2.
Nomographic charts for concrete beams sections are shown by continuous line, namely: 250 x 300 mm;
250x350mm; 250x400mm; 300x450mm and a ctg θ value of 1.75.
For identical concrete beams sections and a ctg θ=2.00 I used a dotted line. The able shearing force of
reinforced elements is given by the following equations:
VRd,s=Asw/s · z · fywd · ctg θ (1)
where:
Asw – reinforcement area in the transverse direction.

2.1. Example of using Chart Nomogram presented in Fig. 1:

We picked a beam with cross section: 300x450 [mm]; VRd,s=105 KN

VRd,s=Asw/s · fywd · z · ctg θ (2)
105· 103= Asw/150· 415· 204· 2; results Asw=93.01mm2 (0.93·102mm2)

In this formula:
VRd,s =105KN - Able shearing force [KN] (Fig. 1)
Where: s =150 – distance between stirrups [mm]
z = 0.9d; result z =415 mm – lever arm of internal forces
Asw=93.01mm2 – reinforcement area
fyk=0.8·255N/mm2 = 204N/mm2 – flowing limit
ctg θ =2

Watching Fig. 1, the difference between the calculated value and the chart determined value is 3 mm2,
meaning 96 mm2 (0.96·102mm2).

2.2 Example of using Chart Nomogram presented in Fig. 2:

Fig. 2. Nomographic chart for design of reinforced concrete beams: 250x300mm;

ctg θ =2

We picked a beam with cross section 250x300mm; value for ctg θ =2; distance between stirrups
150mm.
For a value of a sharing force of 105KN the stirrups reinforcement area coming out of the chart is
1.45·102 mm2
Using the formula:
VRd,s=Asw/s · z · fywd ·ctg θ (3)
3 2 2 2
105· 10 = Asw/150· 204· 265· 2; results Asw=145.67mm = 1.45·10 mm
VRd,s = 105·103, s = 150 mm, fywd = 204 N/mm2, z = 265 mm, ctg θ = 2;
The result is Asw=145.67mm2. Commimg back to the chart the value is 148 mm2.
The difference is 2.32 mm2.
The next nomografical chart, as an example we used a beam with cross section.

2.3 Example of using Chart Nomogram presented in Fig. 3:

For the next nomografical chart, as an example we used a beam with cross section: 250x350mm;
Value for ctg θ =1.75; distance between stirrups 150mm.
For a value of a sharing force of 105 KN the stirrups reinforcement area coming out of the chart is
1.50x102 mm2
Using the formula:
VRd,s=Asw/s · z · fywd ·ctg θ (4)
105· 103= Asw/150· 204·310· 1.75; results Asw=142.31mm2(1.42·102mm2).
VRd,s = 105·103 , s = 150 mm, fywd = 204 N/mm2, z = 310 mm, ctg θ = 1.75;
The result is Asw=142.31mm2.
Coming back to the chart the value is 150 mm2.
The difference is 7.69 mm2.

As we can see, the difference between the values arises from the calculus using the formulas and the
results coming out of the charts are not significant and for a structure predimensioning it is very useful.

Fig. 3. Nomographic chart for design of reinforced concrete beams: 250x350mm;

ctg θ =1.75

3. Conclusions
The age we live in abounds in computing programs for civil engineering structures. Unlike such
computer programs, nomograms have the advantage of providing us with the necessary information very quickly
and they do not require the input of data and a special knowledge for using computer program.
The nomographic charts for concrete beams were developed using Mathcad 15 Program.
They are useful for fast evaluations and reduce calculation errors.

REFERENCES
[1] Cadar I., Clipii T., Tudor Agneta (1999). Beton armat, ediţia I-a, Ed. Orizontul Universitar
Timişoara.
[2] Cadar I., Clipii T., Agneta Tudor (2004). Beton armat, ediţia II-a, Ed. Orizontul Universitar
Timişoara.
[3] Forde, Mike, Freg (editor) (2009). ICE – Manual of Construction Materials, Institution of Civil
Engineers.
[4] Gambhir, M.L. (2004). Concret technology, Third edition.
[5] Găman, Viorel , Florea, N. (2007). Influenţa aditivilor superplastifianţi asupra betonului, Editura
Societăţii Academice „Matei-Teiu Botez”, Iasi.
[6] Georgescu, Dan Paul (2001). Îndrumar de proiectare a durabilităţii betonului în conformitate cu
Anexa Naţională de aplicare a SR EN 206-1 – Clase de durabilitate, Tipografia Everest,
Bucureşti.
[7] Ionescu, I., Ispas, Papăescu, A. (1999). Betoane de înaltă performanţă, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti.
[8] Ionescu, I. (2007). Ghid tehnic pentru proiectarea compoziţiilor betoanelor de înaltă rezistenţă,
Editura Tehnică, Iaşi.
[9] Kiss Z., Oneț T. (2008). Proiectarea structurilor din beton armat după SR EN 1992-1, Ed. Abel, Cluj
-Napoca.
[10] Tertea I., Oneț T., Păcurar V. (1985). Proiectarea betonului armat, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică
Bucureşti.
[11] STAS 10107/0-90: Construcţii civile şi industriale – Calculul şi alcătuirea elementelor structurale
din beton, beton armat şi beton precomprimat.

The Staircases of the Art Nouveau Buildings of

Oradea

Pop Maria T. 1, Lepădatu Dan 1

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture, Department
of Civil Engineering,, 4 B.St. Delavrancea St., 410085 Oradea (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

The paper presents the staircases of several buildings in the center of Oradea, a city situated in
North-Western Romania. The architectural style of these buildings is Art Nouveau.
Although the current reached maximum affirmation between 1892 and 1902, the first clear signs of the
Art Nouveau style and movement could be recognized as early as the 1880s. Several wrought iron works or
certain textile designs inspired by nature and often used in design in the late Victorian age are among the best
illustrations of this artistic movement. The name "Art Nouveau" stems from the name of a Parisian store,
“Maison de l'Art Nouveau”, whose owner, Samuel Bing, exhibited and sold art objects.
In the city of Oradea, the popularity of the style was correlated with the changing tastes of the
inhabitants and their desire for functionality. Specifically, the new inhabitants of Oradea were in search of
housing that was both modern and able to reflect the social status of the tenants. Ultimately, this appetite for
novelty and beauty combined helped erect several Art Nouveau buildings. A defining feature of these structures
were the staircases – i.e., sets of stairs that serve to connect either one level to the next (creating a vertical link)
and/or a sidewalk to the interior of a building. Supple and attractive, the staircases of the Art Nouveau buildings
of Oradea represent the focus point of this work.

Keywords: step, counter-step, height, balanced, spiral.

1. Introduction

Staircases: important considerations

The purpose of staircases.
Whether main or service, indoor or outdoor, staircases are designed to ensure both the access as well as
the rapid evacuation of people situated either inside or outside of buildings in case of earth-quakes or fire.
Art-Nouveau staircases are typically equipped with handrails that might be made entirely out of cast
iron and which might feature designs inspired by nature – e.g., branches and leaves or handrails that symbolize
vines climbing to the upper floor. The entrances into the stairway are not treated superficially either. In Art
Nouveau they might feature mosaic drawings that resembles an inviting and beautiful entrance rug (door carpet).

The optimum pitch of a staircase is calculated using a specific formula – i.e., the so-called Blondel stair
formula. The latter considers the dimensions of the thread and the riser of a staircase. The optimal ratio for a
staircase according to this formula is 60 ÷ 66 cm, on average 63 cm. It follows that a comfortable staircase
corresponds to the below formula:
2 x height (riser) + width (thread) = 63 ± 3 cm

Most Art Nouveau staircases in the buildings of Oradea have a step height (riser) that is less than 16.5
cm (typically 14 cm), which puts them in the low staircase category by current standards. Some typical
measurements are as follows:
Stair height (riser) = 14 cm
Stair width (thread) = 28-30 cm
Compared to the staircases of the Art Nouveau buildings, modern staircases today are higher as they
serve to facilitate the access in buildings with more than four floors, in general schools, kindergartens, maternity
hospitals, homes as well as parks.
Related to the number of walking flows the width of the stairs vary, being within two and three
walking flows, starting with 1,10 m and up to 1,60 m.
Some (not all) of Art Nouveau staircases are balanced. To construct them, engineers used the semicircle
method (this graphical construction method is still in use today). The handrail of the staircases is placed on the
free side of the ramp to ensure safety. All handrails in historic Art Nouveau buildings are decorative and are
fitted with a variety of metal embellishments/ decorations, while their height is typically 80 cm. By comparison,
today engineers will consider horizontal loadings when designing handrails. Additionally, handrails in Art
Nouveau have also been modified over time due to wear and tear. Some of them might be made out of iron and
plated with wood.

2. Examples of staircases reflecting the Art Nouveau style

In the early years of the 20th century (1900 onward), the streets of Oradea gained identity thanks to a
few important buildings that embraced the Art Nouveau style. One such example was the building belonging to
the Fuchsl brothers. Additional examples include the Courthouse (erected in 1901), the Astoria Hotel (whose
construction began in 1902) as well as the 1st and 2nd Adorjan houses (erected between 1903 and 1905).
The following sections offer a more detailed overview of additional such buildings as well as the
specific features of their staircases.

2.1 The Roth House (Casa Roth)

The building of the Roth House( Figure 4), located on Vasile Alecsandri Street No.3 in Oradea and
representing the former property of merchant Roth Henrik, was authorized (according to the archives) on May
8th, 1912. The construction works were executed by entrepreneur Incze Lipot and followed the plans of architect
Mende Valer. The building served as both a home (on 3 levels) as well as a commercial space (the ground floor).
Thus, the building was registered as such. [9]
The staircase of the Roth House was executed using a mixture of cement and marble. This mixture was
also reinforced. Each step cantilevers out and is encased in brick masonry up to 25 cm thick. The size of the
reinforcement in Figure 2 below is 8 mm in diameter.
The above prescriptions are still used today for the building of reinforced concrete steps. More
specifically, modern buildings follow the prescriptions of the EC (Euro Codes) and feature 0.8% reinforcement
for concrete plates reinforced on one direction, minimum thicknesses for the plates as minimum concrete classes
to be used in the construction.
It is worth noting that over 100 years ago, builders did not have such an advanced understanding of
staircase building.

Fig. 1. Interior staircase at the Roth House (Casa Roth)

Fig. 2. Stairs at the Roth House (Casa Roth)

2.2 The Moskovits Palace (Palatul Moskovits)

The Moskovits Palace is located on Republicii Street no. 13 in Oradea, and was the property of merchant
Moskovits Mor. The palace was designed by architect Rimanoczy Kalman and was executed in 1905. A special
method utilized during the construction, a true novelty of its time, involved the use of reinforced concrete ribs
for the casting of the floors. This method followed the prescriptions of the (French) Hennebique method, while
the supporting engineer was Zielinsky Szilard in Budapest. When on a visit to Oradea, Zielinsky himself
inspected the construction site and declared himself pleased with the execution work. [11]

Fig. 3. Details of the Moskovits Palace (Palatul Moskovits) staircase

2.3 Sourcing the building materials for the staircases

The building of Art Nouveau staircases was facilitated by the growing construction material business of
the time. In the early 20th century, the Romanian "Melocco" establishments, for example, produced cement
products, reinforced concrete elements for pavements and sewage pipes as well as a variety of other construction
materials. [1]
A particularly important producer of building materials in the early 1900s was "Izso Rosenberg". This
organization started its activity in 1902 and produced industrial cement, asphalt and cement stalls. After a
sustained activity of 10 years, its owner managed to secure a solid foundation for his enterprise; specifically, the
enterprise won 1st place in a competition attended by many cement factories in the Central-Eastern region of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. In parallel, this successful business played an important role in the constructions that
began in Oradea and more broadly Bihor County.
Equipped with modern, power-operated hydraulic presses, the Izso Rosenberg factory produced over
the year’s ornamental cement and marble plates for exterior and interior paving. The Rosenberg-led factory also
helped increase the number of private real estates and private houses in Oradea, most designed by university
professor Szilard Zielinsky. [7]

2.4 Rapid developments

Fig. 4. The Roth House (Casa Roth)

The rapid development of buildings in the city of Oradea - for example, the Weiszlovits, Darvassy,
Sonnenfeld and Apollo palaces, the Fodor, Markovits-Matheser and Roth houses, and the Gendarmerie School –
prompted the creation of a new brick factory. In other words, the city saw a need to establish a factory to meet
increasing demand for materials. [7]
Hence, on August 19, 1911, the first brick and sand brick factory in Oradea opened its doors. Over time,
this factory proved to be a successful competitor on the market with its cheap and quality products. In addition to
white or colored bricks, including decorative ornamentation, it also produced tiles of different types for roofing,
as well as paving slabs, sills, stairs, cornices and sewer pipes.
Another important factory of the time was the „Aerolith” factory. This corporation was founded on
January 10, 1912, while its goal was to obtain the right to manufacture and use the so-called "building stone"
patented by Jeno Ris. The corporation also sought to manufacture this stone out of concrete or other plastics, as
well as to produce and use an artificial stone called "Aerolith". The corporation’s board of directors included
Imre Darvas, owner of La Roche and Darvas Forestry, Miklos Moskovits, owner of the Moskovits and Sons
spirit factory, and Jozsef Koszeghy, chief engineer of the city of Oradea [7].

.
Fig. 5. Handrail of an Art Nouveau staircase (detail)

3. Conclusions
While over 100 years old, the Art Nouveau staircases of the buildings in Oradea remain well-preserved
and elegant. Made of materials that we no longer use today, constructively reinforced even without proper
calculations, they maintain their resistance. In addition to beauty, these staircases remain functional and endure
together with the building itself.
Today, the most commonly used material for staircases is monolithic and precast concrete. The ramp is
a thin plate that can be executed at the same time as the stairs. Alternatively, the stairs can be added later. It is
worth admiring the builders of the last century for the efficiency of these elements.

REFERENCES
[1] A.N. D.J.Bh. (Arhiva Națională Departamentul Județean Bihor). Fond fabrica de ciment”
Melocco”,Oradea, inv.750/1935-1948 f.1
[2] Bărbulescu, C. (2002) .Integrare tehnologică în arhitectura contemporană.Presa Universitară
Clujeană, Cluj Napoca.
[3] Brand, S. (1994). How Buildings Learn.Wiking Penguin.
[4] Bussagli, M. (2003). Să înțelegem arhitectura, Giunti.,trad. Sauciuc,G., București, Enciclopedia
RAO.
[5] Cardas, M. & co. (1983). Lexicon ilustrat al noțiunilor de sistematizare. Editura Tehnică, București.
[6] Curinschi, V. G. (1982). Istoria Universală a arhitecturii, vol. II. Editura Tehnică, București.
[7] Hochhauser, Ronald (2010). Contribuții la o istorie a industriei de fabrică la Oradea în perioada
1848-1948, Editura Muzeului Țării Crișurilor, Oradea.
[8] Joja,C. (1981). Sensuri şi valori regăsite. Eminescu Publishing House. Bucharest, pp.181.
[9] Zoltan, Peter I. (1998). Monumentele arhitectonice ale Oradiei ,Editura Convex RT, Oradea.
[10] Zoltan, Peter I., Oradea (2008). 900 de ani de trecut și moștenire,Editura Noran, Budapest.
[11] Marian, Daniela Georgeta (2011). Semantica ornamentului 1900 în arhitectura din Crișana și
Banat, Editura Matrix Rom, București.

The Jewish Funerary Art in Oradea and its

Surroundings

Pușcaș C.
1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper aims at capturing not only the complexity and diversity of the Jewish art and funerary
monuments from Oradea, but also to present and amplify the aesthetic abundance and beauty of this artistic
sector.
The funerary art, be it Christian, Muslim or Jewish, can have remarkable artistic values. This paper will
illustrate a very large, extremely interesting and complex chapter of the Jewish funerary art of Oradea.
Keywords: Judaism, Art Nouveau, heritage, Menorah, Tree of Life.

Fig. 1. Jewish Orthodox cemetery in Velența (1) Fig. 2. Jewish Orthodox cemetery in Rulikowski
– Oradea (Googlemaps.com) Cemetery (2) – Oradea and Jewish Neolog cemetery
in Rulikowski Cemetery (3) – Oradea (Googlemaps.com)

1 Introduction
In the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, after Budapest and Wien, Oradea
represented the largest Jewish community nucleus of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the mentioned period,
and including the first years of the World War II, in Oradea there were approximately 30,000 Jews [1], that is,
about 25-27% of the city population [2]. If we add to this fact the numerous testimonies regarding the economic,
political and cultural strength of this community, we can understand the wide-range and the importance of the
cultural influence that the Jewish inhabitants of Oradea had in the city [3].
Not only the seven synagogues still present in the city and the representative buildings, related
somehow to Jewish silent partners, builders or architects, bear witness to the economic and cultural impact that
the Jews had in Oradea, but also the impressive cemeteries that accommodate their remains. Orthodox
Synagogue, Sas Chevra Synagogue, Sion Neolog Temple, Ullman Palace with the menorahs guarded by lions,
Stern Palace, Deutsch K.I. Store, Moskovits Palace or Adorjan House [4] are only a few of the many pieces of
architecture, directly linked to the cultural heritage left by the Jewish community to Oradea.
The more famous the previously stated examples, the least known are the three Jewish cemeteries from
Oradea. As presented in the following pages, the beauty of the funerary monuments located in the premises of

the three cemeteries reaches artistic and aesthetic levels that match the beauty and harmony of the more famous
aforementioned examples.
A last introductory observation refers to the cemetery classification type, classification dictated not by
ritual elements, but by the rite type of the Jewish community that possessed the cemetery in question. Thus, as
already known, the Jewish communities from Transylvania and the Pannonian Plain geographic area were
divided into three different religious rites: Orthodox, Neolog and Status-quo-ante [5]. Similarly, the cemeteries
of these communities have also been organised and grouped based on the mentioned rites. For Oradea, where the
status-quo-ante community lasted a very short period (3 years), no cemetery belonging to this community was
founded. However, there are two Orthodox cemeteries and one Neolog cemetery.

Fig. 3. General view of the Orthodox cemetery in Fig. 4. General view of the Orthodox cemetery in
Velența Velența – the oldest part of it

Fig. 5. The obelisks graves in the Orthodox cemetery Fig. 6. Damaged tombs in the Orthodox cemetery
in Velența in Velența

7 8 9 10
Fig. 7 - 10 The Menorah, flowers and the Tree of Life [3], as decorative elements of the graves in the Orthodox
cemetery in Velența

2 General notions and classification

The first and oldest Jewish cemetery on the territory of Oradea is the Orthodox cemetery from Velența,
opened in 1800 [6] (fig. 1). Spread on an area of approximately 5 hectares, the cemetery is located in the
neighbourhood of Velența, between the East Railway Station to the west and Războieni Street to the south.
Known as the second Jewish cemetery of Oradea, this one is also the largest of the three. Impressive in number
(fig. 3, 4), this one includes both funerary monuments that are less remarkable from an artistic point of view and
extraordinary examples of funerary art carved in stone or marble.

11 12

13 14 15
Fig. 11 – 15. General view of the Orthodox Cemetery in Rulikowski Cemetery, and decorative details of tombs:
amphors, flowers and the Tree of Life

The second and most spectacular Jewish cemetery of Oradea is the Neolog cemetery (fig. 2) within the
Rulikowski Municipal Cemetery, located on its west side, towards Europa neighbourhood. With an area of only
2.8 ha, this is not only the most spectacular of the Jewish cemeteries, but most probably the most beautiful of all
the cemeteries of Oradea. The ledger, obelisk type monuments, veritable volumetric compositions or spectacular
pieces of ironware, they are all located in a much reduced area as far as the surface is concerned, but extremely
dense from the artistic point of view.
Lastly, the third Jewish cemetery, also located in the Municipal Cemetery premises, this time in its
central area, is the Orthodox cemetery (fig. 2), still used by the Jewish Community of Oradea. This one occupies
an area of 3.1 ha and, due to the fact that it is the most recent Jewish cemetery, it is also the least spectacular
from the artistic point of view.
Besides the artistic and aesthetic characteristics of the funerary monuments, which will be approached
in detail henceforward, what impresses the most, especially in the premises of the cemetery from Velența and par
excellence in the Neolog cemetery, is the great number of funerary monuments valuable from the artistic point of
view (fig. 10), regardless of whether these belong to simple Jews from Oradea or to key figures of the local
Jewish community. This simple ascertainment denotes not only the wealth of the community members, but also
the degree of culture and the desire for fine and durable constructions.
Regarding the type of these monuments, we have identified a few general volumetric models,
reproduced in various forms and with different particularities, both in what concerns the applied or carved
decorations and the texts carved in the stone or the marble they are made of.

The first ones, especially the ones from the cemetery of Velența, which judging by the wear of the
surfaces exposed to climatic factors or by the carved symbols and texts are also the oldest, are of ledger or
prismatic block type. Even if initially these were placed vertically, today, due to the degradations and lack of
maintenance (fig. 6), most of them are partially or completely overthrown and covered by a layer of vegetation.
Also, their degree of wear is so advanced that it is nearly impossible to distinguish the mortuary texts or the
possible ornamental symbols and elements. Moreover, dated chronologically between the end of the 18th century
and the middle of the 19th century, these belong to some representatives of the Jewish community from Oradea
from before the emancipation, and therefore before the period of maximum thriving for this community. In fact,
although large in number, this category of funerary monuments is valuable due to its old age attribute rather than
the artistic value of the tombstones.

16 17
Fig. 16, 17. New artistic approach in the Orthodox cemetery in Rulikowski Cemetery

The second category identified, not as large in number, but impressive by its monumentality and
visibility belongs to the obelisk type (fig. 5). With heights varying between 2.5 and 4 meters, these are made of
granite or, in most cases, of black marble. With carved religious texts and motifs, the obelisks are impressive
especially in the cemetery of Velența, where actually there are alleys of obelisks. Strung one after another, these
generate a sober and at the same time monumental atmosphere. In most cases, these are placed on pedestals of
carved stone, decorated and ornamented, or on horizontal ledgers that cover the actual graves. On one hand
imposing through their size, the obelisks are also impressive due to the delicacy of the stoneworkers who carved
the Jewish texts and symbols on their sides.
Another identified category of funerary monuments is the ledger type headstone placed on prismatic
graves, with a height of 60-90 cm from the ground. By analogy with the Christian graves these are the most
numerous and also the ones on which we have identified a significant quantity of decorative motifs and Jewish
religious symbols. Due to the diversity of this type of funerary monument but also to the possible analogies with
the funerary monuments from the Christian cemeteries, I will return to this category when presenting the detailed
repertoire and the decorative elements with which they are embellished. The frequency with which they are
found is comparable within the cemetery from Velența with the one in the Orthodox cemetery within the
Rulikowski cemetery, while in the Neolog cemetery they are missing almost completely. However, as already
mentioned, due to the fact that the Orthodox cemetery within the Municipal Cemetery is more recent, hosting
graves that are no older than 1928, their artistic elegance is far from the ones in the Velența cemetery (fig. 16,
17).
Finally, the fourth category, identifiable almost entirely in the Neolog cemetery, is represented by the
large number of funerary monuments having the most diverse shapes and decorations. Belonging to the
representatives of the Neolog community, the richest Jews of Oradea from the beginning of the 20th century, the
funerary monuments that decorate this cemetery are veritable artistic and architectural masterpieces (fig. 21, 22).
Dominated by the art Nouveau current, they propose both geometrical compositions inspired by the Vienna
Secession and compositions inspired from flowers and trees. Compared to all these, the ironware of some of the
fences of these graves are also masterpieces of the ironsmiths of Oradea from the above-mentioned period.
Besides the style or the type of ornaments with which they are decorated, it is highly important to highlight the
vertical balance and hierarchy of the volumetric compositions. As far as the construction materials are
concerned, noble materials such as white or black marble are also found in the case of the funerary monuments

of this category. In everything these architectural compositions represent, namely the degree of artistic
excellence, the quality of the materials and last but not least the religious symbolism, there are very few
examples of funerary monuments in the Christian area of this architectural program that equals the beauty and
the unicity of the ones found in the Neolog cemetery in Oradea.

3 Decoration elements and religious symbolism

From the point of view of the decorations and of the religious symbolism, we have identified some
preferred themes. As far as the decorative elements without symbolic - religious characteristics are concerned,
the most frequent refer to the biological world.

18 19 20

21 22
Fig. 18 – 22. Details of tombs in the most spectacular Jewish cemetery in Oradea: the Neolog Cemetery

Lilies (fig. 7), roses or rose garlands, olive branches [11], Tree of Life [7] (fig. 8), all presented in
different shapes and variants, enriching many of the funerary monuments of the three Jewish cemeteries in
Oradea. If we add the chromatic diversity and the tone variations of the white, dark red or black marble we will
obtain an image that is very close to the reality of these ensembles. The branches and rose bushes seem to spring
from the gross and cold material of the tombstones, covering and linking the ledgers carved with remembrance
messages dedicated to the deceased persons. The Tree of Life represented in tens of shapes and positions (fig.
12 - 15), either elegantly decorates the entire tombstone or is limited to being represented as a sculpture in bas-
relief on the tombstone. However, it never appears alone. The Tree of Life, as religious and also ornamental
symbol, is represented sculpturally, in alto relief (fig. 19), or discretely in bas-relief, but always in composition
with other decorative elements, usually with religious symbolism or alongside the texts on the tombstones.
Simpler, as far as the decorations are concerned, the obelisk type monuments propose a particular
sobriety, given even by the black marble of which they are made. However, the writing technique, the elegance
and last but not least the discretion of the texts that decorate them turn them into veritable artistic jewels.
Much simpler from the point of view of the decorative language, the geometrically inspired funerary
monuments display balanced (fig. 23, 24), restrained compositions but with architectural characteristics that are

closer to the construction field. Even though they bear fewer decorations, their beauty is given by balance,
monumentality and last but not least by execution details and discrete decorations (fig. 29), but which show a
good knowledge of the laws governing the architectural design field.

23 24
Fig. 23, 24. Geometric details at the graves in the Neolog Cemetery

25 26
Fig. 25, 26. Art Nouveau decoration applied on a grave in the Neolog Cemetery
However, independently from the style of the funerary monuments both the ones inspired by flowers
and the ones inspired by geometry often display some Jewish signs and symbols [12] (fig. 11, 18), either as
sculptural elements placed on the horizontal sides of the monuments (fig. 20) or as discrete decorative elements,
present as engravings on the flat surfaces of the tombstones. From this category, the Star of David [8] (fig. 9) is
probably the most important sign. Almost without exception, the symbol of the six pointed star is represented as
engravings or alto/bas-reliefs, placed on the flat surfaces of the tombstones. The second decorative element,
which is frequently found, is another symbol with highly religious and cultural connotations, namely the
menorah with seven arms [9] (fig. 9). It mostly appears as engravings, but there are also many situations in
which it materializes as an independent, carved object, placed on the upper side of the tombstone. From the
category of the sculptural objects it is mandatory to mention the significant number of urns that decorate the
upper edges of the tombstones. Most of these kinds of decorations are displayed as sculptural, individual objects
that enrich the tomb by their simple placement of the upper side of the ledger. Last but not least, the symbol of

the hands with separated fingers in the form of the Jewish letter Shin, the so-called Cohanim, respectively
“Priestly Blessing” is another decorative element frequently found on the Jewish tombstones.

27 28 29
Fig. 27, 28, 29. Eclectic and Art Nouveau wrought iron for fence design in the Neolog Cemetery [10]

Besides these decorative elements with symbolic and religious connotations, especially in the Neolog
cemetery, and mainly in the case of the geometrically inspired funerary monuments, there are many other
decorative elements with an aesthetic role, used exclusively to decorate and harmonise the sculptural
compositions of the graves.

4 Conclusions
The Jewish cemeteries of Oradea impress by not only their size and the quantity of the funerary
monuments, but also by the richness, the diversity and the beauty of the used decorative language (fig. 21, 22,
25, 26). Whether they are studied from the point of view of the artistic valences, or the analysis is focused on the
symbolic and religious repertoire, meaning that the human soul is returning to God [13], the craftsmanship of the
ironsmiths (fig. 27, 28) but especially of the stoneworkers reaches high levels rarely encountered in the laic
architecture.
Moreover, the isolation, and why not, even the obliviousness these premises were subject to, have not
only concealed them until now from being studied and from the admiration of the public but have also helped
their preservation. However, the warning signs related to the necessity of their restoration must be highlighted.
The abandonment of these monuments for a period of minimum 70-80 years has contributed to their physical
natural damage.
From this point of view a laborious inventory, research and documentation work is required followed by
the restoration and the capitalization of this unique and original artistic and architectural heritage.

REFERENCES
[1] Mozes, T. (1997). Evreii din Oradea, Editura Hasefer, București, pp. 229.
[2] Gyemant, L. (2004). Evreii din Transilvania, Institutul Cultural Român, Imprimeria ”Ardealul”,
Cluj-Napoca, pp. 94.
[3] Colectiv (2007). Istoria orașului Oradea, Editura Arca, Oradea, pp. 459 – 465.
[4] Pușcaș, C., Șapte sinagogi orădene, Editura Muzeului Țării Crișurilor, Oradea, 2017, pp. 49, 54.
[5] Moldovan, M. S. (2003). Sinagoga – Arhitectură a monoteismului, Editura Paideia, București,
pp. 186.
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8.
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București, vol. I, pp. 116.

[9] Streja, A., Schwarz, L. (2015). Sinagoga în România, Editura Hasefer, București, pp. 253.
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[11] Hârcă, R. (2014). Oradea. Forme ornamentale și simboluri în arhitectura Art Nouveau, Editura
Muzeului Țării Crișurilor, Oradea, pp. 24.
[12] Hârcă, R. (1998). Oradea 1900, Keysys, Oradea, pp. 4.
[13] Wigoder, G. (2016). Enciclopedia iudaismului, Editura Hasefer, București, pp. 461.

Structures Specific to Muslim Worship

Constructions in the Dobrogea Area

Suliman S.1, Grămescu A.M.1, Gelmambet S.1

1
Ovidius University of Constanta, Faculty of Civil Engineering (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The paper aims to make a structural and architectural analysis of the Muslim worship constructions
from Dobrogea, in the context of developing and improvement of the methods and techniques that are applicable
for their safety in the value context that led to the classification as historical monuments, conservation and
protecting heritage assets.
Such concerns are absolutely necessary in the current stage when more than ever the results of research
in the domain find their applicability in new techniques and methods of restoration. As it is known, religion from
ancient times to today has provided a vast, interdisciplinary arena of exhibiting valuable works of progress in
construction and architecture, of any artistic and spiritual concepts. In this context, the authors want to
disseminate the results of the researches performed, the criteria for the analysis of these special constructions.

1 Introduction
Dobrogea is known as the heaven of multiculturalism. Here we meet many ethnic groups such as
Romanians, Aromanians, Turks, Tatars, Greeks, Lipovians, Ukrainians, Italians, Jews, etc., with no interethnic
conflicts over time, despite the Russian-Turkish and Romanian-Turkish wars.
Even if these ethnicities in this land are separated as language, customs, religion and traditions, all of
them have found the strength to live together, to put their shoulder to optimize their lives.
The Muslim community, dominant in Dobrogea between the 14th-18th century built in every town,
village, hamlet, or smaller or larger places worship, called mesgids or mosques, which are still found today in the
same place and listed as historical monuments.
The Mosque is the place where Muslims pray and meet for the religious education scopes. The mosque
components are the normal building and minaret.
The minaret is a tower linked to the actual construction where muezzin calls his believers to pray, and
also offer a remote image of the Muslim presence.
Architecturally, mosques adopt Ottoman Islamic elements architecture, an architecture that cannot be
independent of spirituality and wisdom but also adopt architectural elements in the areas in which they are built.

2 Methodology
The methodology for obtaining the results of this study was carried out in two stages: comprehensive
analysis of the references, and field study.
The first stage was to identify the mosque history, to identify the years of construction and the years of
restoration despite the lack of technical documentation.
Also in this stage, was obtained informations about the significance of the mosque components and we
identified the most important mosques from Dobrogea, framed as historical monuments.
The second stage was to identify the building materials used in the architectural and structural elements
and their dimensions, as well as the mosque compartments and the destination of each compartment.
The current structure analysis was carried out by non-destructive methods on the Muslim worship
places, listed as historical monuments (Table 1).

Table 1 Historical Monument Mosques

Edification
Position Mosque name
year
1 Esmahan Sultan Mosque from Mangalia 1573
2 Gazi Ali Pasa Mosque from Babadag 1610
3 The Mosque from Isaccea 1771
4 Sultan Mahmut Mosque from Harsova 1815
5 Sultan Abdul Mecid Mosque from Medgidia 1856
6 Mestan Aga Mosque from Macin 1860
7 Aziziye Mosque from Tulcea 1863
8 Hunchiar Mosque from Constanța 1868
9 Carol I Mosque from Constanța 1913

3 Results
The specific architecture of the mosques in Dobrogea is ottoman architecture but also with Byzantine
architectural influences. The role of architecture is to provide comfort, climate, serenity and optimal safety to the
prayers.
The ensemble of mosque consists the mosque yard, the building of mosque, the minaret, spaces for
prayers washing, the fountain, and other constructions, which have the destination of sleeping rooms for the
imam or visitors. The building of mosque consist one or more rooms, and is rectangular. The main room is the
prayer hall, and the size varies from one mosque to another one depending on the size of the city where it is
located, which may be preceded by another room which is followed for women prays or room where the prayers
are taking off the shoes. Before the prayer hall can be found also the balcony, which is found in older mosques
(Fig. 1). Other rooms found in the actual building can be designed for the Imam Archive or office. The basement
at Dobrogea mosques does not exist, except the Carol mosque, which is the newest.

Fig. 1. Mosque with balcony

Except the Carol I Mosque that adopted Byzantine architectural elements through the presence of the
domes and the shape of the windows, the other mosques adopt architectural elements with wooden roofs and
rectangular or arched windows. An important element inside the mosques is the presence of arches. Beautifully
finished ceilings with batten or painted represent the sky in the Islamic architecture, and the floor represent the
earth. Another element in the architecture of mosques is the mihrab, which is the place where the Imam sustains
its services, and is noted by the presence of niche, which is signaled through arches and domes, and has the role
of improving the pray acoustics and positioned to the sacred city of Muslims, Mecca. The wall on which the
mihrab and niche are placed is called the qiblah wall, as opposed to the wall where access is made to the prayer
room (Fig. 2). The niches decoration elements vary, so each mosque have a different niche.

Fig. 2. Niche and mihrab

The resistance structure of the mosques is made of stone masonry or brick masonry with wooden pole
and belts. The wall thickness of the stone masonry mosques reaches 85cm, and the brickwork walls thickness are
approximately 40cm. The foundations are made of stone or reinforced concrete. At Carol I Mosque, the dome is
reinforced concrete and the siliceous stone cover. In the rest of the mosques, the ceiling and the roof are made of
wood and the tiles cover. From the point of view of the finishing elements, the exterior of the walls are plastered
and painted, without plaster and plated with batten, without plaster and with the stone masonry polished to the
outside (Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6).

Fig. 3. Mosque with stone masonry

Fig. 4. Mosque with brick masonry and wooden poles and belts

Fig. 5. Carol I Mosque with plastered walls

Fig. 6. Mosque with batten platen

An important element on the outside is the crescent, which is on the top of the mosque and minaret (Fig.
7). Inside the walls are plastered and painted and the ceilings are plastered and painted or are made of a batten.
Part of the prayer room is divided into two levels; the resistance structure of this division is made of wooden slab
and wood poles, the wooden slab and stone poles, or reinforced concrete slab and brick masonry (Fig. 8). Inside,
the mosques are decorated with brightly colored mosaics so as to give the believers the power to create their
divine power inside.

Fig. 7. Crescent

Fig. 8. Prayer hall with 2 levels

Other elements inside the mosque are the small pulpit (kursi) and the big pulpit (minber) (Fig. 9). The
material from which they are made is the wood, beautifully carved giving specific forms of architecture. The
kursi is the place where the imam keeps its preach. It is located on the left side of the qiblah wall. The minber
has the shape of a sharp tower with steps from where the imam preaches on Friday and the two holidays, and is
located on the right side of the Qiblah wall. The dimensions of these two components are not standard; they vary
according to the size of the mosque.

Fig. 9. Kursi and minber

On the walls we found clocks with specific shapes, inscriptions with the name of Allah, Prophet
Muhammad, and other prophets and other prays from Qur'an (Fig 10). It is forbidden in Islamic religion the
presence of pictures with faces. In the mosques yard we found fountains or places where people have to wash
and then to enter from praying. The prayer halls are without tables and benches to contain as many Muslims as
possible (Fig.11).

Fig. 10. Wall from inside the mosque

Fig. 11. Inside of mosque

The lighting of the prayer rooms is made naturally by the presence of a large number of windows
arranged on at least two levels. Their dimensions vary according to the complexity of the mosque and are found
in circular, rectangular forms. Window frames unfortunately have not been preserved, the vast majority of them
having PVC carpentry but also wood or iron. Another method of illumination is artificial, by using electric
current. In the mid of prayer rooms are large chandeliers and have forms that fit perfectly into the architecture of
prayer rooms (Fig 12).

Fig. 12. Chandeliers from mosque

The minaret is a high tower, connected to mosque. Its form on the base is rectangular and from the
minimum height of approximately 2 m it takes the tronconic form. The height of the minarets varies depending
on the importance of the mosques, the importance of the site and their age (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13. The minaret Heights

The walls have varying thicknesses so from up to down the size decrease from 50 to 30 cm. Inside is the
screw scale and the central pillar. The central pillar is made of wood, reinforced concrete or stone (Fig. 14). Its
thickness decreases from bottom to top, and stairs of stone or reinforced concrete stairs have heights of between
15-20 cm and widths, at the outer part between 25 and 40 cm. The resistance structure of the minarets is usually
stone masonry, except the Carol I Mosque that is reinforced concrete. The roof is made of reinforced concrete or
wood, and the sheet metal cover. At the top of the minaret, there is a balcony where the muezzin called people to
pray.

Fig.14. The inside of minaret

4 Conclusions
Studying in detail the history of each mosque from construction to the present day leads to the
knowledge and discovery of all environmental effects such as extreme weather phenomena, saltwater rich salt
waters, underground waters, uneven landscapes, landslides, the seismic action, but also the effects caused by
man through wars, the construction of other nearby buildings that damage the ground on which the mosque
foundation is located, the unsatisfactory maintenance, in order to understand the ways of their degradation.
The restorations are made taking into account the normative acts of the present period, but as much as
possible the originality of the constructions must be keeping, by knowing all the architectural and structural
components. This study represents a first step for the correct selection of restoration materials and methods.

REFERENCES
[1] Gramescu Ana Maria, Pericleanu Mihaela, Suliman Sever (2018). History of construction
science and technology expression of Muslim civilization in the Dobrogea area. Ed. Matrix Rom
[2] Nuredin Ibram (2007). Muslims from Romania. Ed. Golden.
[3] Mehmet Ali Ekrem (1994). From the history of the Dobrogea turks. Ed. Kriterion București.
[4] Andreșoiu B., Bărăcescu C., Maxim M., Nicolau S., Bonciocat Ș., Artenie C. (2012). Mosques.
Minarets in the sky of Dobrogea. Ed. Igloo Patrimoniu.
[5] Architecture, Chicago. University Chicago Press, March 2017.
[6] Maria Barbu (2012). Semiotics of architecture or architecture as a philosophy of freedom –
Official Gazette RA, ISBN 978-606-93015-2-4.
[7] Bibliography from the National Heritage Institute – Historical Monument Sheets.
[8] List of historical monuments – Constanta County Department of Culture.
[9] Mehmet Ali Ekrem (1981), Turkish Civilization, Ed. Sport tourism.
[10] Pirnia, MK, (1369). Architectural Styles. Teheran: Institute of Art Publishers.
[11] Mictat A Garlan (2011), Methodology of Ethnopsychological Research, Ed. Lumen Iasi 2011.

[12] Design code for masonry structures, Indicativ CR 6-2013.

[13] NE 012/2-2010 – Normative for the production of concrete and the execution of works in
concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.
[14] www.wikipedia.org, viewed at 22nd February 2019.

On the Influence of FEM Modelling Approach

upon the Analysis Results for RC Structures
Modelled using Two Distinct Software
Packages

Teodorescu A.1, Floruț S.C.1, Todea V. 1, Popescu D.A.1

1
Politehnica University Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The present paper introduces a study that aims to identify the similarities and differences generated by
applying various approaches within two distinct Finite Element Method (FEM) software packages used in order
to model the structural response and seismic behaviour of a Reinforced Concrete (RC) structure. For the present
study ETABS from Computers and Structures, Inc. and AxisVM from InterCAD Kft software packages were
chosen. The parameters that vary from one model to another are related to the type of finite element, type and
configuration of mesh and approach in considering seismic action. The structure chosen for the study is a 6
storey office and residential building with high horizontal irregularity. The results obtained by performing the
analyses are discussed through the perspective of a series of important parameters, such as: stiffness, modal
shapes, seismic force distribution, displacements, stress distribution and stress values. The results of the study
are interesting and can be useful for structural engineers.
Keywords: ETABS, AxisVM, FEM modelling, seismic analysis.

1 Introduction
Nowadays software plays an important role in almost all aspects of daily life and so in civil engineering
too. The benefits of using such software can be unlimited the most important residing in the high accuracy,
workload and time efficiency that software provide when modelling and designing structures. However,
drawbacks cannot be neglected, and there is a growing concern that relying on software to solve engineering
issues has created several flaws in the process starting with abandoning the fundamentals of engineering theories
to the lack of supplementary checks and validation of the results of computer run analysis and designs.
In modern Finite Element Method (FEM) software packages, the capacities and possibilities of users to
model the behaviour of designed structures are quite large and numerous. However, no software developer really
provides detailed guidelines for the optimal approach on the structural behaviour modelling of each type of
structures. Even if theoretical information is provided, users which are not completely familiarized with detailed
theory of FEM could approach the model in various ways which could seem correct, but could also often lead to
inaccurate results [1].
Alongside simple analytical checks, one of the best available methods is to model the same structure in
different software that sometimes have a different approach to the solution. Obviously these things are dependent
on the engineer’s experience. However, in this way the chance of a human error in the analysis process can be
drastically reduced. For this paper, it was chosen to compare the results of two software: ETABS developed by
Computers and Structures, Inc (CSI) and AxisVM developed by InterCAD Kft with the aim of identifying and
discussing similarities and divergences that result in the design process, the modelling approached varying in
terms of type of Finite Elements (FE), mesh configuration, use of constraints or shells.
Founded in 1975, CSI is recognized globally as the pioneering leader in software tools for structural and
earthquake engineering. Software from CSI is used by thousands of engineering firms in over 160 countries and
based by more than four decades of research. ETABS has been developed specifically for multi-storey
commercial and residential building structures such as office towers, apartments, hospitals and so on [2].
On the other side, founded 16 years later, InterCAD started development of one of the world’s first
native 3D structural analysis and design software based on FEA methods. Used by over 4500 civil engineers,
AxisVM rapidly became known as “.the easiest to use and the easiest to learn”. Moreover, in 2000 it became the

first structural engineer software to enter into the BIM workflow. It represents a structural analysis software that
is intuitive and graphically driven so it is exceptionally easy to use and truly easy to start. It provides the users
with possibilities of linear, nonlinear, buckling, vibration, seismic and dynamic analyses for truss, beam, rib,
membrane, plate and shell two dimension and three dimension structures. Response-spectrum, pushover and
time history analysis as well as code checking and design modules for steel, concrete and timber materials are
available [3].

2 Description of the modelled structure and modelling approach

As mentioned previously, the structural system of a 6 storey height building was modelled using 2
distinct FEM software packages. A general view of the 3D model is shown in Fig. 1. The plan configuration of
the structure has the shape of a parallelogram with sides equal to 22 meters and 22.7 meters. First storey has a
height of 4.1 meters while the rest of the storeys have a height of 3 meters. The vertical structural system
consists of reinforced concrete walls combined with reinforced concrete frames that are distributed on the
contour of the building, on all four sides. The horizontal structural system is represented by simple reinforced
concrete flat slabs (i.e. beamless slabs without drop panels or column heads). The model does not consider the
infrastructure, all vertical structural component (walls and columns) being fully fixed at their base (all degrees of
freedom are restrained considering virtual infinite translational and rotational stiffness).

2.1 ETABS modelling

The frames on the perimeter of the building were defined as straight frame elements. Frame object is a
line which connects two nodes and generally uses three-dimensional, beam-column formulation (see Bathe, K.J.
and Wilson, E.L. - 1976). Biaxial bending, torsion, axial deformation and biaxial shear deformations are all
accounted in this formulation which characterizes frame behaviour. Intermediate joints are automatically
generated where other members intersect the frames to ensure finite element connectivity [4].
The slabs were defined as thin shell area objects in order to have bending stiffness. Therefore an object
defined like that will resist a part of the load through flexural deformation and as a result, fewer loads will be
transferred to the elements supporting it. In this way the model is brought to a more realistic behaviour.
Moreover there were assigned rigid diaphragms that simulate infinite in-plane stiffness property. This option
does not affect plate-bending (out-of-plane) behaviour. In other words, a diaphragm constraint creates links
between joints located within a plane such that they move together as a planar diaphragm. Using one of the latest
feature of ETABS, general quadrilateral meshing floor areas, a fully connected network of line elements was
created. Knowing the fact that those virtual lines are connecting with the other elements through joints, the walls
are divided into rectangles of about 300x300 millimetres. In this way we created several joints at the intersection
of the walls with the horizontal elements and so there is a higher accuracy of the results.

2.2 AxisVM modelling

Models can be built from several type of finite elements. All element types can be used for static, first
order vibration or buckling analysis. The frames on the perimeter of the building were defined as rib line
elements. The Timoshenko type (3-node, quadratic, isoparametric element) Rib model - is based on Timoshenko
beam theory; it incorporates a first order correction for transverse shear effects and the cross-sections do not
remain perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during deformation. Thus, the main differences of Rib elements in
comparison to Beam elements resides in the fact that Rib elements account for transverse shear effects and the
cross-sections do not remain perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during deformation. Rib elements may be
used independently or in conjunction with surface elements (plates, membranes and shells). When used
independently, the Ribs can model frame structures in a similar way to the Beam element, but supplementary it
can take into account the shear deformations. When used attached to surface elements, the Ribs can be connected
centrically or eccentrically to the surface elements to model ribbed surface structures also. Rib elements are
isoparametric, three node, straight elements with constant or variable (linearly changing) cross-section properties
along the Rib length, and with quadratic interpolation functions. A reference point or vector is required to
arbitrarily orient the element in the 3D space but the properties of the corresponding surface elements are also
used to orient the element (to define the local x-z plane). As in the case of Beam elements, three translational and
three rotational degrees of freedom are defined for the nodes of the element while three orthogonal internal
forces and three internal moments are calculated at each node of each element. However, in the situation of
eccentrically Rib elements modelled in conjunction with surface elements another flexural internal moment is
calculated (MyD). The variation of the internal forces within an element can be regarded as linear [1], [5].
When a horizontal plate-type element or a wall-type vertical element is defined as a shell and it’s
assigned with the specific supports, AxisVM automatically identifies this and considers it as a domain. This

facilitates further modelling so loads can be applied directly to those domains. Also if the slab is defined as a thin
shell the software assigns by itself a rigid diaphragm. As in ETABS, using diaphragms means simplifying the
model where the relative position of the element nodes remains constant in a global plane.
In theory, using diaphragms leads to an important simplification of the model. Diaphragms are special
rigid bodies for which the relative position of the element nodes remains constant in a global plane. They can be
defined as plates totally rigid in their planes. Diaphragms considerably reduce the amount of required calculation
and it can be of great advantage when running vibration analysis of large models [1].

Fig. 1. Model of the 6 storey building structure (ETABS – on the left, AxisVM – on the right)

2.3 Loads
Vertical (gravity) loads have been defined identically in both structural software and they are divided
into three categories, permanent loads (P), live loads (L) and snow load (S). These values can be seen in Table 1.
The self-mass load was calculated automatically by both software. Seismic load had a different approach and it
is shown in the following sub-subsections.
Table 1. Vertical (gravity) loads
P [kN/m2] P [kN/m] L [kN/m2] S [kN/m2]
Storey 6 5.8 4.0 0 1.2
Storey 5 4.3 12.0 2.0 0
Storey 4 4.3 12.0 2.0 0
Storey 3 4.3 12.0 2.0 0
Storey 2 4.3 12.0 2.0 0
Storey 1 4.3 12.0 2.0 0
Notes regarding Table 1:
- loads defined as kN/m2 unit are applied on the floors;
- loads defined as kN/m unit are applied on the perimeter beams.

2.3.1 Defining loads in ETABS

Static lateral loads are calculated automatically by defining the base shear coefficient and the storey
range. The coefficient multiplied to the building weight gives the lateral seismic base shear in the specified
direction. A 5% additional eccentricity was defined that is applicable to all diaphragms. Considering the location
and the geometry of the structure, the base shear coefficient was calculated according to Romanian Seismic
Design Code P100-1/2013 [6]. Taking into account the above assumptions, 4 different seismic load cases will be
considered, as presented below in Table 2. Two more cases were defined using the gravity loads (subsection 2.3)
and they are presented in Table 3. In order to simulate a complex behaviour of the structure under seismic and
gravity loads, several combinations (LC) were defined, as presented below in Table 4.

Table 2. Seismic load cases

SXP X direction + ecc. on Y direction
SXN X direction – ecc. on Y direction
SYP Y direction + ecc. on X direction
SYN Y direction – ecc. on X direction

Table 3. Gravity load cases

C1 P ∙ 1.0 + L ∙ 0.3 + S ∙ 0.4
C2 P ∙ 1.35 + L ∙ 1.5 + S ∙ 1.5

Table 4. Load combinations

LC Load cases LC Load cases LC Load cases
LC1 C1 + SXP LC9 C1 + SXP + 0.3 ∙ SYP LC17 C1 + SYP + 0.3 ∙ SXP
LC2 C1 – SXP LC10 C1 + SXP – 0.3 ∙ SYP LC18 C1 + SYP – 0.3 ∙ SXP
LC3 C1 + SXN LC11 C1 – SXP + 0.3 ∙ SYP LC19 C1 – SYP + 0.3 ∙ SXP
LC4 C1 – SXN LC12 C1 – SXP – 0.3 ∙ SYP LC20 C1 – SYP – 0.3 ∙ SXP
LC5 C1 + SYP LC13 C1 + SXN + 0.3 ∙ SYN LC21 C1 + SYN + 0.3 ∙ SXN
LC6 C1 – SYP LC14 C1 + SXN – 0.3 ∙ SYN LC22 C1 + SYN – 0.3 ∙ SXN
LC7 C1 + SYN LC15 C1 – SXN + 0.3 ∙ SYN LC23 C1 – SYN + 0.3 ∙ SXN
LC8 C1 – SYN LC16 C1 – SXN – 0.3 ∙ SYN LC24 C1 – SYN – 0.3 ∙ SXN

2.3.2 Defining loads in AxisVM

The seismic loads are taken into account according to the Response Spectrum Analysis method. This
method requires a previously calculated number of undamped free vibration frequencies and the corresponding
mode shapes. Based on these vibration mode shapes, AxisVM generates equivalent static loads (for each
vibration mode shape) which are then applied to the model in a static analysis. The internal force results obtained
for each mode shape are summed using the method described in design code specifications [5]. For this
particular model, the seismic analysis was based on Romanian Seismic Design Code P100-1/2013 [6] which is
integrated in the software database. Moreover AxisVM can calculate extra torsional moments due to
eccentricities of masses and check the sensitivity of stories to second order effects [5]. Seismic load
combinations are generated automatically based on design code that is selected. The rest of them can be also
generated by the software, but with user input of some factors (in this case 30% in the direction perpendicular to
the main seismic action).

3 Results
The first parameters that are compared in order to assess the convergence of the two models and the
accuracy of structural definitions are the shapes of vibration modes and the values of corresponding fundamental
frequency and periods as well as the mass of each storey and the participation mass ratio for each mode. The
participating mass ratio for a Mode provides a measure of how important the Mode (M) is for computing the
response to the six acceleration loads in the global coordinate system [4].
The participating mass ratios corresponding to translational acceleration along the positive X and Y
axes, denoted UX and UY, respectively the rotational acceleration loads about the Z axes, denoted RZ, are given
in the following tables (Table 5 - results provided by ETABS - left and results provided by AxisVM - right).

Table 5. Modal periods [s] and Modal Participating Mass Ratios [%]
Period UX UY RZ Period UX UY RZ
M1 0.607 0.36 2.5 77.33 M1 0.707 0.10 3.00 n/a
M2 0.415 37.17 39.29 0.55 M2 0.471 25.10 50.00 n/a
M3 0.393 39.16 35.77 2.39 M3 0.441 51.20 24.20 n/a
M4 0.169 0.05 0.43 14.2 M4 0.193 0.00 0.40 n/a
M5 0.107 3.07 13.61 0.26 M5 0.123 2.40 13.30 n/a
M6 0.101 14.71 2.62 0.32 M6 0.115 13.10 2.10 n/a
Sum M1-6 94.52 94.22 95.05 Sum M1-6 91.90 93.00 n/a
Sum M1-12 98.63 98.45 99.98 Sum M1-12 93.00 93.40 n/a
Note: Sum M1-6, Sum M1-12 are the sums of the modal participating mass ratios for the modes M1-6, M1-12.

In order to compare the results obtained in the structural components of the perimeter frames (beams
and columns) two beams on each main direction were chosen (one above first floor and one above fourth floor)
as depicted in Fig. 2. These results are centralised inside Table.
Also three columns were chosen, columns within the same frames as the selected beams (two on the
transversal axis 5 frame and one column on the longitudinal/rotated F/H frame). For display purpose, readability
and clarity of the paper, only axial loads (N), shear forces (V), bending (M) and torsional (T) moments for the
selected beams and only N, V and M for the selected columns will be shown. The results are centralised inside
Table 9.

Fig. 2. Plan view – Perimeter frames and walls

Table 7. Perimeter beams above 1st floor

V [kN] M [kNm]
N [kN] T [kNm]
Direction Axes Software I-End J-End Positive Negative
ETABS 0 -8.06 26.07 101.81 -120.63 50.57
A-B
AxisVM -159.58 -21.57 32.32 121.67 -152.16 52.64
ETABS 0 -98.79 77.41 66.46 -170.71 77.39
B-C
Transversal

AxisVM -217.82 -96.40 72.20 87.41 -190.98 70.78

ETABS 0 -171.18 157.57 72.21 -220.28 52.68
C-D
AxisVM -247.51 -111.53 108.48 61.04 -211.87 76.71
ETABS 0 -89.98 90.48 58.86 -172.53 74.99
D-E
AxisVM -240.94 -103.88 93.84 71.85 -201.38 76.06
ETABS 0 -45.52 5.79 113.38 -144.21 51.69
E-F
AxisVM -185.89 -57.68 16.24 128.05 -174.44 69.78
ETABS 0 -164.84 102.81 73.35 -199.89 47.24
5-4
AxisVM -349.57 -148.46 88.67 109.17 -246.02 66.95
Longitudinal

ETABS 0 -89.26 45.95 50.95 -157.40 42.14

4-3
AxisVM -232.78 -66.66 53.96 67.85 -177.87 48.34
ETABS 0 -168.22 29.01 54.14 -160.51 37.71
3-2
AxisVM -306.34 -131.79 16.89 67.49 -226.13 49.03
ETABS 0 -36.63 76.25 53.01 -126.43 23.24
2-1
AxisVM -153.64 -6.84 66.53 63.51 -151.78 38.68
Notes regarding Table 7 and Table 8:
- Shear forces resulted from combination C1 (see Table 3)
- Bending and torsional moments resulted from an envelope combination of C2 + LC1 to LC8 (see Table 3 and
Table 4) and the maximum values are chosen (absolute values for torsional moments)

Table 8. Perimeter beams above 4th floor

V [kN] M [kNm]
N [kN] T [kNm]
Direction Axes Software I-End J-End Positive Negative
ETABS 0 -14.20 15.39 79.19 -93.59 44.86
A-B
AxisVM -128.92 -24.55 21.42 105.56 -120.80 49.17
ETABS 0 -107.34 68.78 85.85 -191.08 70.40
B-C
Transversal

AxisVM -220.58 -98.40 62.8 83.89 -194.87 63.08

ETABS 0 -174.92 152.90 73.66 -233.73 51.55
C-D
AxisVM -406.13 -178.32 165.09 68.28 -272.28 65.33
ETABS 0 -90.30 89.34 72.45 -185.33 75.91
D-E
AxisVM -300.66 -99.55 90.67 69.32 -208.83 79.00
ETABS 0 -47.95 4.19 100.18 -131.86 53.63
E-F
AxisVM -176.28 -45.01 14.32 106.33 -151.97 70.51
ETABS 0 -169.73 96.96 73.62 -204.01 53.01
5-4
AxisVM -277.96 -150.19 147.00 74.70 -258.41 47.48
Longitudinal

ETABS 0 -96.01 41.91 57.42 -163.66 40.56

4-3
AxisVM -259.57 -84.26 41.36 94.00 -195.05 50.81
ETABS 0 -176.57 28.59 54.14 -169.40 38.06
3-2
AxisVM -366.06 -153.64 16.97 68.11 -225.66 52.09
ETABS 0 -35.78 90.44 51.78 -133.21 21.67
2-1
AxisVM -155.59 -4.69 70.23 61.46 -156.54 34.52

Table 9. Columns
N [kN] M [kNm] V [kN]
ETABS -902.62 180.28 136.11
Storey 5
AxisVM -889.17 164.09 117.85
ETABS -1335.07 185.90 139.06
Storey 4
AxisVM -1249.35 195.18 123.04
ETABS -1772.52 178.40 131.51
Column C5 Storey 3
AxisVM -1709.71 170.02 118.00
ETABS -2216.15 174.36 121.55
Storey 2
AxisVM -2077.81 178.24 105.89
ETABS -2678.77 112.66 51.03
Storey 1
AxisVM -2558.41 177.60 72.29
ETABS -547.7 -89.69 -67.6
Storey 5
AxisVM -548.45 -83.65 -58.51
ETABS -797.27 -96.1 -71.3
Storey 4
AxisVM -732.22 -95.38 -61.20
ETABS -1046.4 -97.17 -71.1
Column F5 Storey 3
AxisVM -1007.20 -93.26 -62.46
ETABS -1296.26 -97.45 -68.26
Storey 2
AxisVM -1188.10 -96.38 -58.67
ETABS -1550.59 -60.09 -27.75
Storey 1
AxisVM -1462.31 -92.01 -37.72
ETABS -784.28 -120.03 -92.14
Storey 5
AxisVM -815.39 -134.30 -96.93
ETABS -1162.59 -129.68 -96.74
Storey 4
AxisVM -1191.33 -155.26 -99.76
Column ETABS -1546.57 -131.68 -96.7
Storey 3
F/G4 AxisVM -1627.70 -151.37 -103.70
ETABS -1936.77 -141.32 -96.45
Storey 2
AxisVM -2013.59 -157.71 -94.57
ETABS -2349.89 -96.88 -43.02
Storey 1
AxisVM -2474.62 -173.72 -69.42
Notes regarding Table 9:
- Axial force values resulted from combination C2 (see Table 3)
- Bending moment and shear force values resulted from an envelope combination of C2 + LC1 to LC8 (see
Table 3 and Table 4)
- Negative values of the axial forces represent compression, while positive values represent tension

Likewise, two shear walls were chosen, the ones designated as W1 and W2 and marked on the plane
view in Fig. 2. Table 10 collects results in terms of axial forces resulted from C2 (see Table 10) denoted N1,
axial forces resulted from seismic combinations (N2-minimum and N3-maximum value), in-plane bending
moments (M1) and in-plane shear forces (V1).

Table 10. Walls

N1 [kN] N2 [kN] N3 [kN] M1 [kNm] V1 [kN]
ETABS -1285.74 -1446.25 -282.21 -2136.68 2008.91
Storey 5
AxisVM -1363.56 -1767.22 7.06 -3128.41 2056.75
ETABS -1926.70 -2950.21 395.78 -6147.11 3075.60
Storey 4
AxisVM -2057.55 -3444.52 719.68 -7113.89 3107.64
ETABS -2557.79 -4871.09 1503.88 -11836.46 3982.51
W1 Storey 3
AxisVM -2724.10 -5596.49 2009 -12792.08 4026.28
ETABS -3174.20 -7045 2883.45 -19103.66 4640.39
Storey 2
AxisVM -3411.88 -8010.41 3534.40 -20034.37 4682.10
ETABS -3831.54 -9464.44 4441.95 -30505.76 4280.40
Storey 1
AxisVM -4115.70 -10999.4 5604.80 -31885.46 4497.08
ETABS -2264.33 -2264.33 -1403.09 -315.71 947.71
Storey 5
AxisVM -2134.65 -2164.47 -1157.36 -2519.76 887.54
ETABS -3355.86 -3355.86 -2020.08 -3796.75 1573.33
Storey 4
AxisVM -3349.10 -3390.25 -2481.30 -4902.72 1544.93
ETABS -4453.77 -4453.77 -2637.76 -9026.35 2146.70
W2 Storey 3
AxisVM -4564.42 -4607.76 -1843.79 -8180.39 2162.52
ETABS -5559.99 -5559.99 -3263.04 -16045.10 2702.43
Storey 2
AxisVM -5792.65 -5800.10 -2321.08 -16913.71 2789.33
ETABS -6754.77 -6754.77 -3969.17 -29579.11 3497.12
Storey 1
AxisVM -7285.46 -7285.46 -2340.62 -29667.89 3401.12
Notes regarding Table 10:
- N1 values resulted from combination C2 (see Table 3)
- N2, N3, M1, and V1 values resulted from an envelope combination of C2+LC1 to LC8 (see Table 3; Table 4)
- Negative values of the axial forces represent compression, while positive values represent tension

4 Discussions
As it may be observed, although the modal shapes are very similar in the two FEM software, all
vibration modes being identical in terms of translational mass contribution on horizontal directions, the values of
frequencies/periods record a divergence which is not necessarily negligible (around 15% maximum difference
between the two). The results show that the stiffness accounted for in AxisVM is inferior to that computed using
ETABS (i.e. in all vibration modes the periods being higher in AxisVM). The two software packages enable
distinct approaches, some of the features and parameters available directly in ETABS not being directly
available in AxisVM (see the case of modal participating mass ratios for the rotational acceleration around Rz).
The overall sum of participating mass is fairly similar in the two software when considering both first 6 vibration
modes and first twelve vibration modes.
Another interesting distinction is related to the approach for evaluation of seismic loads. AxisVM
considers vibration mode shapes to generate equivalent static loads (for each vibration mode shape) which are
then applied to the model in a static analysis, the intensity of the loads being dependent on the computed design
spectrum (spectral method). The ETABS model considered base shear coefficient method, the computed
coefficient multiplied with the building weight giving the lateral seismic base shear in the specified direction,
while also considering a 5% additional eccentricity. The results in terms of base shear are however quite similar,
probably due to the fact that the governing vibration modes are characterised by a period which locates the
structure on the plateau of the seismic design spectrum, the simplified approach enabled in ETABS being
applicable.
In terms of stress distribution, one of the most important distinctions between the approaches of the two
software refers to values of axial force in beams. As it may be observed in Table 7 and Table 8, relatively high
values of axial forces result in AxisVM, while zero axial forces are computed in ETABS. The high axial forces
computed using AxisVM can be most probably attributed to the Timoshenko Rib model applied for modelling
the beams and the eccentricity defined through it to the beams. However, this axial force is not to be used
directly when designing the beam, as it is only a conventional one, used in order to correctly compute the
bending moment of eccentric beams. In terms of bending moments and shear forces, further differences can be
observed with relatively strange distribution. If in some sections the computed values are distinct with a limited

percentage of 5-10%, there are some cross-sections where the values vary extensively, especially for the cross-
section at the end of the beams, in the area of beams-external column connection. Torsional moments on the
other hand present a high degree of similitude in both software solutions.
A fairly good convergence is identifiable in the stress distribution in columns. As it can be observed in
Table 9, axial forces, bending moments and shear forces reach quite similar values. Even with this high degree of
confidence, some local deviations appear, especially in columns located in longitudinal/rotated F/H frame.
Probably the best convergence is identifiable in the stress distribution in walls. As it can be observed in
Table 10, axial forces, bending moments and shear forces reach fairly similar values. This convergence was
reached despite the different meshing approach of the two software, in AxisVM a fine triangular mesh being
used while in ETABS large quadrangle finite elements being considered.

5 Conclusions
The results obtained by performing the analyses are discussed through the perspective of a series of
important parameters, such as: stiffness, modal shapes, seismic force distribution, displacements, stress
distribution and stress values. The results show relatively high convergence between the FE models created
using the two distinct software, local discrepancies being however observed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partially supported by research grant GNaC2018 - ARUT, no. 1353/01.02.2019,
financed by Politehnica University of Timisoara.

REFERENCES
[1] Florut S.C., Tokes K., Stoian V., Nagy-Gyorgy T. (2014). On the influence of FEM modelling
approach upon the seismic analysis results for RC framed structures modelled using dedicated
software, 3rd All-Russia (International) Conference on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete,
Moscow.
[2] Computers and Structures, Inc: https://www.csiamerica.com/about, viewed at
[3] InterCAD Kft.: https://axisvm.eu/axisvm_company_intercad.html
[4] CSI Analysis Reference Manual.
[5] AxisVM Manual.
[6] P100-1/2013 – Romanian Seismic Design Code (in Romanian).
[7] EN 1992-1-1 - Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings.
[8] EN 1991-1-1 - Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions.
[9] EN 1990 - Eurocode - Basis of structural design.
[10] EN 1998-1 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance.

Nonlinear Behaviour of Hybrid Steel-Concrete

Shear Walls with Central Openings

Todea V.1, Stoian V.A.1, Dan D.1, Floruț S.C.1, Popescu D.1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University of Timisoara, 2nd T. Lalescu, 300223, Timisoara
(ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
Structural steel-concrete shear walls with total or partial steel embedded profiles constructed from steel
welded plates or laminated steel profiles could represent alternative structural solutions to traditional reinforced
concrete elements. This system could establish the main structural lateral load resisting system for medium or
high-rise buildings placed in seismic areas, depending on requested structural performances or architectural
conditions. An issue that arises quite often in terms of structural design refers to situations that require the
existence of central or staggered openings in such structural walls. As these openings are required due to
architectural and functional demands, they lead automatically to elements with reduced stiffness and smaller
cross-sections thus having different structural behaviour. Moreover, this leads to the need of a higher sectional
strength of the affected elements. Considering these circumstances, in-depth studies are required in order to
correctly asses the performance of structural steel-concrete shear walls with central openings. The current paper
addresses this exact topic, presenting experimentally obtained results dedicated to the behaviour of shear walls
inside structures designed in seismic areas. The experimental program was developed at the Politehnica
University Timisoara, and the results presented within this paper refer to the seismic behaviour of two hybrid
structural walls with central openings. Specimens represent 1:3 scale steel-concrete composite elements which
were tested up to failure in a cyclic loading procedure, simulating the effect of an earthquake. The paper details
the configuration, test set-up, behaviour and performance of specimens.
Keywords: Steel-concrete shear walls, steel fibre reinforced concrete, structural walls, openings.

1 Introduction
Nowadays, architects design new buildings with a modern approach and controversial structural
geometry, out of seismic regions but also in high seismicity zones, many times with flat slabs as horizontal
structural surface elements and with limited dimensions of structural walls, considered as main vertical elements.
Openings with notable dimensions proposed in architectural plans, transform the full cross-section of walls into
coupled walls, with small coupling beams, decreasing the lateral stiffness, changing the seismic behaviour of the
modified elements and the bearing capacity. Also, in many cases the cross-sections of the elements can present
very complex shapes, and the structural design codes may cover only simplified models or other examples,
which are far from the case. Sometimes in high seismicity regions, in case of structural elements with various
shapes and irregular structural configurations, to limit the lateral displacements of the building, reinforced
concrete structural walls are being designed using high steel ratios for an increased bearing capacity, leading
automatically to an increased time of construction and high require for workmanship in construction stage. Steel-
concrete shear walls with steel embedded profiles can be alternative structural elements instead of the traditional
reinforced concrete walls, replacing the high ratio of traditional steel reinforcement/bars with steel profiles, this
partially solving some issues of cumbersome execution while enabling higher or similar seismic performance (as
a series of studies reported high ductility and high lateral stiffness for such specimens. However, the issue of
structural steel-concrete shear walls with central or staggered openings has not been thoroughly addressed before
and the seismic performance of this type of elements has not been extensively studied, research on this type of
topic being scarce. The main objective of the current research is to investigate experimentally the seismic
performances of two structural steel-concrete walls with central openings and different sectional configuration
under the effect of vertical and lateral forces, simulating seismic action.

2 Experimental program
Results presented hereinafter are part of an extended experimental research program, performed on hybrid
steel-concrete walls, with the intention of studying their seismic performances and behaviour in comparison to
that of similar reinforced concrete shear walls. Walls were design in accordance with existing eurocodes
Eurocode 2, Eurocode 4 and Eurocode 8 [1] [2] [3]. The study contains various hybrid steel-concrete shear walls
(CSRCW-20-CO - composite steel concrete shear walls with encased steel profiles and reinforced concrete with
central openings; CSFRCW-22-CO - composite steel fibre reinforced concrete shear walls made from steel fibre
reinforced concrete and encased steel profiles, also with central openings. Through this specific variation in the
design and detailing of the specimens, extensive assessment of the performance of the approached systems on
various levels has been made. The main objective of this research is to experimentally and theoretically study the
seismic performance of structural hybrid steel-concrete shear walls with central openings (large central openings
simulating 90x210 cm door openings, obviously reduced at 1:3 scale, as the entire specimens). The results
obtained by completing the experimental program on two specimens are presented within this paper.

2.1 Experimental specimens

Specimens are representing three storey and one bay structural shear wall, being reduced at a 1:3 scale.
Walls had 3000 mm height, 1000 mm width and 100 mm in thickness. The specimens were build-in a heavily
reinforced concrete foundation with 1500 mm length, 400 mm height and 350 mm width. The foundation block
has highly reinforced in order to avoid any circumstances regarding the failure at the level of embedment.
Specimens had steel welded profiles partially encased in concrete at their ends. The structural steel profiles were
connected with the concrete panels by headed shear stud connectors with 13 mm diameter and 75mm length
placed at every 150 mm on the height of the profiles. In Figure 1 are shown more details about sectional
configuration.

300
CSRCW-20-CO
I100x70x5 Studs Ø13
Vertical reinf. Ø8
1000
300x700 mm
Opening

700

CSRCW-20-CO
Studs Ø13
Vertical reinf. Ø8

300
100

100
70 280 300 280 70
70 280 300 280 70
1000
3000
1000
300x700 mm

1000 I100x70x5
Opening

700

CSFRCW-22-CO
I100x70x5 Studs Ø13
Vertical reinf. Ø8
CSFRCW-22-CO
Studs Ø13
300 Vertical reinf. Ø8
100
1000
300x700 mm

70 280 300 280 70

Opening

1000
700

I100x70x5

70 280 300 280 70

70 280 300 280 70 1000

Fig. 1. Details of experimental specimens – cross-section configuration of tested specimens

2.2 Materials
The partial encased steel profiles correspond to S355 (fyk= 355MPa) steel grade quality and were
constructed from welded steel plates (as can see in figure 2). Sectional parameters and steel shape of steel
profiles were described in table 1. The longitudinal and transversal reinforcements was produced from S500C
(fyk= 500 MPa) steel grade. Longitudinal bars had 8 mm diameter and the stirrups 6 mm diameter. In case of
disperse concrete, compressive class strength obtained from tested cubic and prismatic samples at the age of 28
days corresponded to C30/37 class (fck= 43.06 MPa; fct= 4.90 MPa). The mixing formula of the concrete used, on
each poured cubic meter was: amount of 320 kg of cement, 170 l/m3 water, 725 kg sand, 1087 kg of selected
aggregates, amount of 70 kg of filler and 3.5 l of special additives. For disperse reinforcement of the concrete,
hooked steel fibres were used with a minimum tensile strength of 1100 MPa, based on the supplier's data. Steel

fibres used in the mixture had 60 mm length and 0.8 mm diameter. Obviously, all vertical reinforcement and the
steel profiles were anchored in the foundation.

Fig. 2. Different stages during the manufacturing process

Table 1. Parameters of encased steel sections

Specimen label Steel shape Encasement level bf [mm] tf [mm] hw [mm] tw [mm]
CSRCW-20-CO 2 partial 70 7 70 7
CSFRCW-22-CO 2 partial 70 7 70 7

2.3 Test set-up and testing protocol

The specimens were tested under vertical load and quasi-static reversed cyclic lateral loads. The specimens
were anchored with steel bolts and connecting devices in the main reaction floor. The vertical force was
provided by a hydraulic jack placed at the top of the walls. The lateral loads were applied alternatively left-right,
using two hydraulic jacks placed at 400 mm below the top of the specimens (Fig. 3). The tests were performed in
displacement control mode. Minimum four cycles were performed before the elastic limit of the elements was
reached. For monitoring the behaviour of the specimens, displacement and pressure transducers were used.

+3.40

+3.00
25 0 20 0 15 0 1 00 50 0 0 50 10 0 1 50 200 25 0

Hydraulic
jacks
CSRCW
Specimen

Bolts

Reaction frame

Fig. 3. Reaction frame – test set-up

3 Experimental results

3.1 Hybrid steel-fibre reinforced concrete shear wall with central openings
CSFRCW-22-CO
In first steps of loading cycles (2.5 – 5 mm top displacement), first horizontal cracks appeared and were
concentrated near the edges of the coupling beams being associated with bending stresses. As the lateral force
was increasing to reach 7.5 – 10 mm of top displacement, cracks at 35-55° started to develop at the centre of the
coupling beams, being associated to shear force. At this loading stage, horizontal cracks were also observed
spread throughout the height of the piers, being concentrated in the lower 2/3 of the height of the walls. Cracks
developed in the edges of the coupling beams measure around 0.25 – 0.35 mm in opening at this level of
displacement. Lateral induced load when reaching this amount of lateral drift was 80.6 kN. While achieving 20-
25 mm top displacement for the wall, cracks developed even further in the coupling beams (both in number of
crack and crack width opening, reaching values of 0,4 – 0,5 mm near the edges of coupling beams. Moreover,
multiple cracks developed into the central area of vertical piers. Elastic limit was reached at a value of the top
displacement of 25 mm while at 42 mm of drift the specimen reached peak value of lateral load capacity (224.4
kN). Following the end of this loading step, the behaviour is characterised by increased displacements reached at
lower values of lateral load, this stiffness degradation being quite visible on the overall P-∆ behaviour curve.
Specimen reached a maximum of 64.78 mm lateral displacement at 201.6 kN value of lateral induced load, 11%
smaller than the recorded peak value. Figure 4 illustrate easier the overall behaviour of the specimen until failure
occurred. In Figure 5 could be observed level of damage reached in couple beams and piers at failure.

Fig. 4. Seismic behaviour – cracks developed on the CSFRCW-22-CO specimen

Fig. 5. Level of damage reached in piers and coupling beams at failure – CSFRCW-22-CO specimen

3.2 Hybrid steel-concrete shear wall with central openings CSRCW-20-CO

The behaviour of this element was fairly similar to that of the CSFRCW-22-CO specimen previously
described, at least for the first 8 cycles of loading, until the elastic capacity was reached. However, this specimen
showed a decrease in the overall rate of ductility. First cracks developed on the edges of coupling beams, with
crack width openings ranging between 0.25 – 0.35 mm at top displacements of 5 – 10 mm. Afterwards cracks
extended from the edges of the coupling beams under a branched form to the centre of vertical piers. Also shear
cracks at 35-55° was developed on the centre of the coupling beams. At the concrete-steel embedded profiles
interface, near every shear stud, horizontal cracks were visible, probably resulting from the transfer of stresses
from the concrete to embedded steel. This latter mentioned phenomenon was encountered much earlier, at a
lower level of lateral displacements compared to the specimen CSFRCW-22-CO. At 20 mm of lateral
displacement, more cracks had developed in the centre of piers’ cross section. At this stage, cracks near the
edges of coupling beams measure 0.45 – 0.50 mm in crack width. Lateral stiffness of the specimen is similar
with that described above until the elastic limit. Elastic capacity of the specimen was encountered at 25.16 mm
in drift. After this level of loading, the specimen developed a highly fragile behaviour, its stiffness dropped, one
more cycle of loading being performed prior to failure. Failure was triggered by shear-failure of coupling beams,
the concrete section lost its integrity and capacity, as it was crossed by highly dense and wide shear cracks (as
can see in Figure 6 and 7). As the failure was extremely fragile, the specimen was not able to withstand further
loading and thus no further loading cycles have been developed after the cycle in which the specimen reached its
elastic capacity.

Fig. 6. Seismic behaviour - cracks developed on CSRCW-20-CO specimen

Fig. 7. Failure mode of coupling beams - CSRCW-20-CO specimen

4 Conclusions
- Specimen CSFRCW-22-CO develop a significantly increased rate of energy dissipation, and a higher
ductility under lateral induced forces, simulating a seismic action, as can see in Table 2 (ductility
coefficient values) and in Figure 9, 10 on hysteretic curves developed by specimens.
- Even through an elastic design approach of couple beams, using values of behaviour factor q close to
one, couple beams under a seismic action, will suffer a lot of damage, according to the present
experimental study (Figure 10).

- In comparison with a full cross-section, the presence of architectural openings will reduce the level of
stiffness, bearing capacity and ductility of the modified specimens, about 2-3 times lower, and also the
overall structural behaviour [4] [5] [6].
- Presence of hooked steel fibres in the concrete mixture are visible in the hysteretic behaviour in case of
CSFRCW-22-CO specimen. Fibres assure a better confinement for concrete in compressed zone under
cyclic loads, increasing the ductility and bending capacity of couple beams.

Fig.8. Failure modes of tested specimens – CSRCW-2O-CO left; CSFRCW-22-CO right

250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50
∆ [mm]
∆ [mm]
0
0
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
-50
-50
-100
-100
-150
-150
-200
-200
F [kN]
F [kN]

-250
-250

Fig. 9. Hysteretic curves developed by both specimens under cyclic lateral loads – CSRCW-20-CO left;
CSFRCW-22-CO right

250

200

150

100

50
∆ [mm]
0
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
-50

-100

-150
CSRCW-20-CO
-200

F [kN]
CSFRCW-22-CO
-250

Fig. 10. Envelope curves on tested specimens

Table 2. Main parameters from hysteretic curves of tested specimens

First crack Elastic limit

Specimen Pcr Δcr Py Δy
[kN] [mm] [kN] [mm]
CSFRCW-22-CO 37,6 2,54 177,8 25,28
CSRCW-20-CO 36,8 2,67 169,6 25,16
Peak value Failure Ductility coefficient

Pmax Δmax P85% Δ85%

µ
[kN] [mm] [kN] [mm]

224,4 42,43 178,8 64,78 2,56

196,8 35,35 158 40,65 1,61

REFERENCES
[1] EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, part 1-1, general rules and rules for
buildings.
[2] EN 1994-1-1. Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures, part 1-1, general
rules and rules for buildings.
[3] EN 1998-1. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
[4] I.E. Boita, D. Dan, V. A. Stoian, S.C. Floruţ and V.C. Todea (2016). Composite Steel Fibber
Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls with Vertical Steel Encased Profiles, 16th National Technical-
Scientific Conference on Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium, Oradea, Romania.
[5] D. Dan, A. Fabian and V. Stoian (2011). Theoretical and experimental study on hybrid steel-
concrete shear walls with vertical steel encased profiles, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Vol. 136, pp. 26-35.
[6] V.C. Todea, V. Stoian, D. Dan, T. Nagy- György, S.C. Floruţ and E. Boita (2017). Hybrid steel-
concrete shear walls strengthened using high performance steel fibre reinforced composites,
Innovative materials and technologies for concrete structures - 12th European Congress on
Concrete Engineering, Tokaj, Hungary.

Seismic Behaviour of Precast Reinforced

Concrete Wall Panels Weakened by Cut-Outs

Toduț C.1, Dan D.1, Stoian V.1, Fofiu M.1, Diaconu D.1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University Timișoara (Romania
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
The current study presents a part of an experimental program developed to study the seismic
performance of precast reinforced concrete wall panels with and without cut-out openings. The investigated
specimen cut-out openings presented in this paper implied small door cut-out opening, wide door cut-out
opening, and balcony cut-out opening. The specimen characteristics were taken from a typical Romanian project
used widely since 1981 and scaled 1:1.2 due to the constraints imposed by the laboratory facilities. Important
structural characteristics have been analysed in the investigation such as the seismic performance, weakening
assessments and numerical analysis. In order to check upon the theoretical analysis and confirm the efficient use
of the numerical models, the authors performed a numerical analysis which showed that it is possible to predict
important result characteristics. The authors also intend to present the main seismic behavioural aspects of the
wall specimens having different types of cut-out openings and establish a relationship between them. Authors
expect to obtain a reduction in lateral resistance, proportional to the opening dimension increase for the analysed
specimens. Due to cut-outs performed in walls the overall response of the element is weakened, therefore
strengthening is required. Little guidance on strengthening walls with openings is available in the current design
codes. The effect of the FRP strengthening systems on the seismic response of the weakened members due to
cut-outs should also be evaluated. Having a large variety of strengthening materials and strengthening
techniques, research on this type of elements is strongly encouraged in order to reduce the vulnerability of the
existing buildings and to improve the seismic risk.
Keywords: earthquake, reinforced concrete, wall, cut-out, numerical analysis.

Introduction
The present paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation performed on precast
reinforced concrete solid wall panels having different types of cut-out openings. The analyzed specimens are part
of an experimental program developed at the Politehnica University Timisoara in which 17 specimens
with/without openings, called precast reinforced concrete wall panels (PRCWP), were proposed and laboratory
tested, and were presented in detail in [1, 2, 3]. A number of four specimens bring experimental evidence to the
current paper, where the investigation is focused on the weakening caused by cut-out openings.
Similar experimental researches are available in the literature. The seismic strength for a prefabricated
concrete structural wall system with windows and doors decreased on the average by 28% and 48%, whereas the
deformation capacity increased significantly [4]. Mosoarca M. investigated the seismic behaviour of reinforced
concrete shear walls with regular and staggered openings after the strong earthquakes between 2009 and 2011,
and found that the walls with staggered openings are more rigid, as for the same value of the seismic action, and
they record smaller top horizontal displacement than walls with regular openings. The walls with staggered
openings record cracks for smaller values of the relative displacement than those with regular openings. The
walls with staggered openings fail at higher seismic forces than the ones with regular openings, concluded the
author in [5]. Taleb et al. [6] showed that the shear strength of specimens can be estimated by combining the
shear strength of structural walls without openings, estimated using truss and arch mechanism equation and
Ono’s reduction factor. Dan et al. [7] performed a theoretical and experimental study on composite steel–
concrete shear walls with vertical steel encased profiles. The authors found that the investigated concrete walls
reinforced by vertical steel sections are recommended to improve the lateral resistance of buildings located in
earthquake regions. The authors also concluded that the deformation capacity of CSRCW recommends these
types of structural elements for buildings placed in seismic zones, where the dissipation of energy is very

important. The composite steel–concrete shear walls with encased profiles are more ductile in terms of
displacement ductility, compared to the common reinforced concrete walls.

1.1 Experimental specimens and test set-up

The present investigation is based on four near-full scale (1:1.2) elements, denoted PRCWP (1, 3, 5,
13). The investigated specimens are: PRCWP (1-S-T) – solid wall specimen, PRCWP (3-S/E1-T) – solid wall
specimen having a narrow door opening cut-out, PRCWP (5-S/E3-T) – solid wall specimen having a wide door
opening cut-out, PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T) – solid wall specimen having a balcony opening cut-out. The T suffix
comes from the testing in as-built condition (without strengthening), (see Figure 1). The dimensions of the
experimentally tested wall panels were 2150 mm height, 2750 mm width and 100 mm thickness. The dimensions
of the cut-out openings are given in Table 1. The characteristics of concrete and steel reinforcement were
established experimentally by Demeter and are given in [1] and Table 2. During the experimental tests, the wall
specimens were set between a foundation beam and a loading beam. The testing procedure involved quasi-static
reversed cyclic lateral loading - displacement controlled, with two cycles per drift, whereas vertical loads were
also considered. Detailed data related to the experimental program is given in [1, 2, 3].

PRCWP PRCWP PRCWP PRCWP

(1-S-T) (3-S/E1-T) (13-S/EL2-T) (5-S/E3-T)

Fig. 1. Investigated wall specimen’s layout

Table 1. Investigated specimens cut-out opening data

Experimental
Element No / cut-out opening type Opening dimensions [mm]
evidence
PRCWP (1-S-T) solid wall (S) - yes
PRCWP (3-S/E1-T) solid wall / narrow door opening (S/E1) 750 x 1800 yes
PRCWP (5-S/E3-T) solid wall / wide door opening (S/E3) 1750 x 1800 yes
PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T) solid wall / balcony opening (S/EL2) 750 x 1800 + 1000 x 1000 yes

Table 2. Properties of the concrete in the web panel specimen

Element No. of samples fcm (N/mm2) fck (N/mm2) Class of concrete

PRCWP (1-S-T) 3 11.80 8.90 C 8/10

PRCWP (3-S/E1-T) 3 11.80 8.90 C 8/10
PRCWP (5-S/E3-T) 3 19.00 14.30 C 12/15
PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T) 3 40.15 26.93 C 25/30

1.2 Numerical analysis

In order to check upon the theoretical analysis and confirm the use of the numerical models, the authors
performed a numerical analysis using the Atena 2D software. Taking into account the experimental specimens
and the software recommendations [8, 9], in terms of material constitutive models, mesh type, loading, analysis
type, monitoring points, the developed model considered the mesh in relation with the thickness of the element.
A monotonic type of lateral loading was introduced, by prescribing horizontal displacements in constant
increments of 0.2 mm. The vertical loads were applied according to the number of steps performed by the
analysis and the maximum value of the experimental load. The drift and reaction force were recorded using two
monitoring points. Detailed data related to the numerical analysis are given in [3].

2 Results
In order to evaluate the response characteristics of the investigated specimens, all the recorded data
were analysed and processed. The following important aspects were considered for the present investigation:
experimental vs. numerical force-drift ratio response, experimental vs. numerical failure details, and the
weakening effect produced in walls due to cut-out openings.

2.1 Force-drift ratio response

The behaviour of the tested specimens is presented in Figure 2a) as load-drift ratio curves, whereas the
comparison between the experimental and numerical specimens in terms of load – drift ratio is given in Figure
2b). The basic results of the investigated wall panels are presented in Table 3. According to Figure 2a), it can be
observed that the obvious reduction in lateral resistance accordingly with the increasing of the opening
dimension.

1400 1400
LOAD VS DRIFT RATIO ENVELOPE a) LOAD VS DRIFT RATIO ENVELOPE b)
1200 1200
Experimental PRCWP (1-S-T)
Experimental PRCWP (1-S-T)
1000 1000 Atena model PRCWP (1-S-T)
Experimental PRCWP (3-S/E1-T)
Experimental PRCWP (3-S/E1-T)
Lateral load [kN]

Lateral load [kN]

800 800
Experimental PRCWP (5-S/E3-T) Atena model PRCWP (3-S/E1-T)
600 600
Experimental PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T) Experimental PRCWP (5-S/E3-T)

400 400 Atena model PRCWP (5-S/E3-T)

Experimental PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T)

200 200
Atena model PRCWP (13-S/EL2-T)
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Drift ratio [%] Drift ratio [%]
Fig. 2. Load – drift ratio curves

Table 3. Basic results of the investigated specimens

PRCWP (S) PRCWP (S/E1)
Element
Experimental Numerical Δ [%] Experimental Numerical Δ [%]
Maximum lateral load,
1209.7 1054 87.13 581.8 451.4 77.59
positive cycle [kN]

Drift level corresponding to

0.6 0.3 50.00 0.60 0.37 61.67
the maximum lateral load [%]

PRCWP (S/EL2) PRCWP (S/E3)

Element
Experimental Numerical Δ [%] Experimental Numerical Δ [%]
Maximum lateral load,
338.5 381 112.56 317.7 263.8 83.03
positive cycle [kN]
Drift level corresponding to
0.60 0.72 120.00 0.90 0.79 87.78
the maximum lateral load [%]

2.2 Experimental vs. numerical failure details

During the experimental testing of the specimens, the front face of the walls was monitored for crack
distribution and development.
As observed in Figure 3 (pictures on the left side, column a), the specimens developed a significant
number of flexural and shear cracks during the experimental tests. Flexural cracks appeared at the pier-to-
reaction beams connection regions (mostly in the cast-in-place mortar). Few flexural cracks appeared along the
piers’ vertical edges (mostly between the web panel and unconfined wing) and in the spandrel beam. A
significant number of inclined cracks can be seen in the piers, parapet and spandrel beam. Concrete crushing was
observed at the pier-to-reaction beams connection regions.

According to the results obtained the numerical models developed are able to predict the evolution and
the position of the cracks (pictures on column b). The ultimate compressive strain state in the specimen is
represented in Figure 3 (pictures on column c). The ultimate compressive strain position in the model fits the
concrete crushing position of the experimental specimens.

a b) c)
)

Fig. 3. Experimental vs. numerical failure details

3 Weakening assessment
In order to evaluate the weakening produced in walls due to different types of cut-out openings, the
authors used a set of equations derived from the AIJ 1999 standard recommendation [3]:

(R)weak =(R)sound ∙ αp (1)

The standard defines (R)weak as the response characteristic of the weakened structural member in terms
of shear resistance, initial stiffness or energy dissipation rate. (R)sound is the response characteristic of the sound
(solid) wall in terms of shear resistance, initial stiffness or energy dissipation rate, and αp is the performance
ratio, given by:

αp = 1 – η (2)

The opening ratio η is given by:

η = P = √(Ao/Aw) (3)

where P is the peripheral ratio, Ao and Aw is the in-plane area of the opening (Ao) and the as-built wall (Aw).

The performance ratio indicates the response characteristic of the weakened element normalized to the
corresponding characteristic of the sound (as-built) reference.

Based on AIJ standards (AIJ 1999, AIJ 2010), the ultimate shear strength of a structural wall with
opening shall be computed by multiplying the shear strength of the structural wall without opening with a
reduction factor, on the condition that the opening ratio is less than 0.4 [10]. In the current investigation, the
above equation was verified for two peripheral ratios greater than the given upper limit, namely for 0.48, 0.63
and 0.73. Table 4 summarizes the response characteristic of the investigated specimens, where Rr stands for
response ratio. The experimental and numerical response ratio was obtained by dividing the response of the
weakened member to the response of the sound (as-built) wall. The experimental and numerical results regarding
the weakening effect of the door and balcony cut-outs on the seismic response of the as-built reference wall, in
terms of strength are presented in Fig. 4. The complementarily between the performance ratio and the cut-out
ratio is represented by the dashed line joining the unities of the two axes [1]. According to Fig. 4, one can
observe the experimental evidence on the complementarily between the strength performance and opening ratios.

Table 4. Response characteristic in terms of shear resistance

Rsound,exp Rsound,Atena Ratena Rexp. Rweak,exp Rweak,Atena P αp Rr,exp Rr,Atena

Element
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kN] [%] [%] [%] [%]

PRCWP (S) 1054 1209.7 0.00 0.00 1.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
PRCWP (S/E1) 451.4 581.8 629.0 548.1 0.48 0.52 0.48 0.43
1209.7 1054
PRCWP (S/EL2) 381 338.5 447.6 390.0 0.63 0.37 0.28 0.36
PRCWP (S/E3) 263.8 317.7 326.6 284.6 0.73 0.27 0.26 0.25

STRENGTH
1

0.8
performance ratio

0.6 S/E1
Rr,exp
0.4 Rr,Atena S/EL2
Rr,Atena
Rr,exp S/E3
0.2 Rr,exp
Rr,Atena
0.48 0.63 0.73
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
cut-out ratio (peripheral)
Fig. 4. The cut-out weakening effect on the seismic response

4 Conclusions
The paper presents a comparative study between the experimental and numerical analysis results
obtained on four precast reinforced concrete wall panels with/without cut-out openings. The main conclusions
that could be formulated, limited by the results presented above are:
- the force-drift ratio response of the specimens revealed an obvious reduction in lateral resistance,
correlated with the increasing of opening dimensions.

- the results of the numerical analysis performed shown that it is possible to predict important result
characteristics, such as maximum lateral load, displacements, crack distribution, and failure details
- the weakening effect of the cut-out openings was found to be in agreement with the predictions
provided by the AIJ standard, even if this was extended to higher peripheral ratio values.
- the complementarity between the strength performance and opening ratios is proved by the
experimental behaviour of investigated elements.

Further studies are needed to extend the conclusions presented above, focusing on the strengthening of
the elements using various opening types, dimensions and strengthening strategies, and also in terms of
theoretical and numerical estimations on the contribution of new performant materials e.g. FRPs.

REFERENCES
[1] Demeter, I. (2011). Seismic retrofit of precast RC walls by externally bonded CFRP composites.
PhD Thesis, Politehnica University Timisoara.
[2] Fofiu, M. (2017). Retrofitting the precast RC wall panels using externally bonded CFRP
laminates. PhD Thesis, Politehnica University Timisoara.
[3] Todut, C. (2015). Seismic strengthening of precast RC wall panels using FRP composites. PhD
Thesis, Politehnica University Timisoara.
[4] Pavese A., Bournas D. A. (2011). Experimental assessment of the seismic performance of a
prefabricated concrete structural wall system. Engineering Structures; 33:2049–62.
[5] Mosoarca, M. (2013). Seismic behavior of reinforced concrete shear walls with regular and
staggered openings after the strong earthquakes between 2009 and 2011. Engineering Failure
Analysis; 34:537–65.
[6] Taleb, R. and Kono, S. (2010). Shear behavior of multi-story reinforced concrete walls with
openings. Bulletin of IISEE, 45, 55-60.
[7] Dan, D., Fabian, A., Stoian, V. (2011). Theoretical and experimental study on composite steel–
concrete shear walls with vertical steel encased profiles. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research; 67:800–13.
[8] Cervenka V, Jendele L, J. Cˇ. ATENA Program Documentation. Part 1: Theory. Section 2.6.
[9] Cervenka V, Jendele L, J. Cˇ. ATENA Program Documentation. Part 3-1: Example Manual.
Section 2.10.
[10] Warashina, M., Kono, S., Sakashita, M. and Tanaka, H. (2008). Shear behavior of multi-story
RC structural walls with eccentric openings. Proc., 14th World Conf. On Earthquake
Engineering (14 WCEE), Beijing, China.

Experimental Determinations done on the

Foundation Soil of a Monument Building

Tudorica M.1, Ghemis M.-T.1, Bob C.2

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cadastre and Architecture, 4 B. S. Delavreancea Street,
Oradea (ROMANIA)
2
"Polytechnic" University of Timisoara, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Traian Lalescu Street, No.2, Timisoara
300233, Timis (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
An increasingly important issue in construction science represents the rehabilitation of structures placed
on difficult soils. This paper presents the results of the triaxial compression test which were made on the
foundation soil of a monument building, built in 1870, located in Arad County - Romania, placed on Revolution
Avenue No. 55. This construction is set on a shrinking and swelling soil and presents significant damage, as a
consequence of soil failure under a section of the building, as well as the structural weakness of the resistance
structure. To increase the bearing capacity and to decrease the deformation capacity it was necessary to
consolidate the foundation soil. Soil improvement consisted in injecting 144 points of a cement-bentonite
suspension under the existing foundations across the entire damaged part of the structure, but also in the
basement of the building.
Keywords: Soil Injection, Triaxial Compression Test, Cement, Suspension, Angle of Shear Resistance,
Cohesion, Shear Strength, Soil Improvement.

1. EMPLACEMENT OF THE ANALIZED BUILDING

The present paper has the main object to present the experimental investigations results of the triaxial
compression test on a difficult foundation soil strengthened by injection, on which is found a monument
building, realized from masonry, located in Arad county, placed on Revolution Avenue No.55, which shows
significant damage as a consequence of a strong soil failure under a section of the building [1].
According to the "Seismic Design Code - Part III - Provisions seismic evaluation of existing buildings,
Signs P100-3/2008" from the analysis of the building resulted that the damaged part of the building falls within
the RS I seismic risk class, characterized by a high risk of collapse due to seismic action. The presentation of the
main causes of degradation or the seismic structural design are not the subject of this paper, they are detailed in
the article [2].
In the speciality literature these types of soils (abbreviation in Romania language is PUCM) are defined
as difficult foundation soils [3].
These types of soils are known as shrinking fields, expansive or active soils, having the property to
exhibit large volume changes when their water content changes [4].
Shrinking and soil swelling, as well as the magnitude of swelling pressure of expansive soils is very
important due to the possible damage of structures constructed on that soil, such as building foundations [5],
phenomenon accompanied by the appearance of fissure in walls or cracks in masonry structural walls [6].
Soil stabilization has become one of the useful solutions to treat the soft soils to achieve the required
engineering properties and specification so that structures can be secure. The treated soil has greater strength,
reduced compressibility and lower hydraulic conductivity than the original soil [7].
Strengthening the foundation soil was done by injecting a cement-bentonite suspension under the
existing foundations, from inside in the building basement and outside across the entire damaged part of the
structure.
In the process of preparing the suspension for injections, it was used a special type of cement CEM
II/A-M (S-V) 42.5R having a minimum composition of 80% Portland cement clinker and up to 20% combined
mixture, a combination of blast furnace slag (S) and silicon fly ash (V). The injected solution will create a way in
the form of strips, which extend first horizontally, then vertically, creating lenses of hard material that increases
soil resistance and decreases its permeability [8].

2. SOIL SAMPLE EXTRACTION

The extraction of soils sample was performed by S.C. CENCONSTRUCT S.R.L. and it involved
making two boreholes on the investigated emplacement, from where 4 undisturbed samples were taken in order
to be the subject of the triaxial compression test.
Soil samples were extracted from the part of the construction affected by strong soil failure, below the
level of the existing structure foundations.
As shown in Fig.1, soils samples were extracted from 2 areas (first borehole Sd1 in front of axes E 1-2,
respectively second borehole Sd2 in front of axes 2 C-D).

Fig. 1. Position of geotechnical boreholes and layout of injection points

First borehole Sd1, located near the blind wall E 1-3, which is the most affected part of the building due
to soil failure, involved making a local excavation of the dimensions 2.25m x 2.40m at the level of -1.80m below
the natural ground.
The first soil sample was extracted from the immediate vicinity of the foundation beam GF1 30x50,
which binds the isolated foundations on the outline of the building, made in the infrastructure consolidation
phase. Due to the fact that injection was performed only on one side of the place where this sample was taken, it
is considered to be a partial consolidated soil sample.
The second soil sample was taken from a distance of 1.50m, distance measured horizontally from the
foundation beam GF1 30x50, being considered unconsolidated soil sample, because the injections were made
only under the base of construction foundations.
The second borehole was realized near the wall of the axes 2 E-D, assuming the local breaking of the
concrete slab from the building basement, in the area of the exterior staircase to the building basement (situated
between axes 2-3). Samples were taken from the immediate vicinity of axis 2.
Because the injection points were disposed on both sides of borehole Sd2 under the entire length of the
foundations of axes 2 and 3, both soil sample 3 and soil sample 4 are considered to be consolidated soil samples.

As shown in Fig.2, soil samples were taken from different depths.

Fig. 2. The levels from where the samples were taken

3. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION
The undisturbed soil samples thus obtained have been subjected to the triaxial compression test, their
analysis being made by the company S.C. PROIECT GEO 2003 S.R.L.
The triaxial compression test can be applied to any type of soil with different degrees of saturation; the
results can be used both in geotechnical design, as well as research studies and geotechnical modelling. Shear
tests should be directed as much as possible, so that modelling can be done as accurate as possible to reproduce
the state of tension from the loaded massive ground, its evolution over time, as well as the drainage conditions in
the foundation soil, thereby obtaining shear strength parameters [9].
The triaxial compression test was performed in Consolidated - Undrained System, noted in specialized
literature CU, test in which the soil sample is maintained under the compression effort until the end of the
consolidation process, when water draining is allowed, whereupon fast shearing is done where water drainage is
not allowed, thus determining both soil shear strength, as well as its properties (angle of internal friction and
cohesion).
In other words, the compressive load capacity of a soil it is given by its shear strength. Shear strength of
a soil is the maximum value of tangential tension which that soil can take [10].
The shear strength for cohesive grounds is expressed by Coulomb`s relationship:

    tg  c
f

where:  f  Shear strength of the ground

  Normal stress
  Internal friction angle
c  Cohesion

The triaxial compression test has been done on undisturbed soil samples of cylindrical shape, having a
height of 77 mm and a diameter of 38 mm, being wrapped in a sealed membrane with a thickness of 0.3 mm.
These soil samples were inserted into the triaxial cell and loaded up to rupture, the results obtained are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Results obtained from the triaxial compression test

Samples Cell Deviator Shear Strength Properties Shear

Sample Properties
Depths Pressure Stress Frictional Angle Cohesion Strength
No. Stage [m] [kPa] [kPa]  [degrees] c [kPa] τf [kPa]
Partial -3.20 m 150.9 kPa 259 kPa 130 kPa
1 12.71 ° 70.60 kPa
Consolidated -3.50 m 300.9 kPa 347 kPa 174 kPa
-2.50 m 150.9 kPa 245 kPa 122 kPa
2 Unconsolidated 10.55 ° 73.80 kPa
-2.80 m 300.1 kPa 311 kPa 156 kPa
-2.50 m 150.2 kPa 290 kPa 145 kPa
3 Consolidated 15.47 ° 69.05 kPa
-2.80 m 300.0 kPa 398 kPa 199 kPa
-3.20 m 150.2 kPa 355 kPa 178 kPa
4 Consolidated 18.32 ° 78.17 kPa
-3.50 m 300.0 kPa 490 kPa 245 kPa

4. CONCLUSIONS
From the experimental data obtained from the triaxial compression test it can be noticed that the
foundation ground provides good mechanical properties, which are specific to strongly plastic clays.
Comparing the result obtained between sample 2 of unconsolidated soil and sample 3 of consolidated
soil, both taken from below the base of the foundations at the depth of -2.50m, were registered considerable
differences between normal unitary efforts, the consolidated sample featuring greater load capacity with 27.97%,
a higher shear strength with 27.56%, respectively an increase of the internal friction angle from the value of
10.55 ° to 15.47 °.
Using the same principle between partial consolidated soil sample 1 and consolidated soil sample 4,
both taken from the depth of -3.20m below the base of the foundations, it is observed an increase in load
capacity of 41.21%, a higher shear resistance with 40.80% and a increase of the internal friction angle from
12.71 ° to 18.32 ° for the case of consolidated soil sample 4.
From the data obtained in the borehole Sd2, it can be seen that both shear strength value and the soil
loading capacity increase once with the depth. Weaker results were recorded for sample 1, taken from the part of
building that presented the biggest structural damage (normal effort σ =347 kPa and shear strength τf =174 kPa).
The most important conclusion is represented by the fact that 3 years after the execution of soil
consolidation, the construction did not register any other degradation.

REFERENCES
[1] Bob C. (2012). Expertiza tehnica pentru consolidarea imobilului din Bulevardul Revolutiei Nr.55
Arad (Technical expertise for consolidation of the building from Revolution Avenue No.55).
[2] Tudorica M., Bob C. (2015). The influence of foundation soils concerning the behaviour of
buildings, Journal of applied engineering sciences, Vol.5(18) pp.87-93.
[3] NP 126-2010. Normativ privind fundarea constructiilor pe terenuri cu umflari si contractii mari
(Standard on building foundations founded on shrinking and swelling soils).
[4] Ito M., Azam S. (2010). Determination of swelling and Shrinkage properties of undisturbed
explansive soils. Geotech Geol Eng, pp.413-422.
[5] Pruska J., Sedivy M. (2015). Prediction of soil swelling parameters, The World Multidisciplinary
Earth Sciences Symposium, WMESS 2015, pp.219-224.
[6] Popa A., Ilies. N. (2012). Consolidarea fundatiilor (Consolidation of foundations), Ed. UT Press
Cluj-Napoca.
[7] Sina K., Maassoumeh B. (2012). Review of soft soils stabilizaton by grouting and injection
methods with different chemical binders, Scientific Research and Essays Vol.7(24).
[8] Tudorica M., Bob C. (2017). Strengthening by injection of a shrinking and swelling soil, 15th
edition National Technical-Scientific Conference, Modern Technologies for the 3rd Millennium.
[9] Stanciu A., Lungu I. (2006). Fundatii (Foundations - Vol. I, Physics and Mechanical of
Structures), Ed. Tehnica Bucuresti.
[10] Roman F. (2010). Aplicatii de inginerie geotehnica (Geotechnical Engineering Applications), Ed.
Papyrus Print Cluj-Napoca.

Solving the Expansion and Rehabilitation of an

Existing Metallic Structure
Varga C.1, Ionescu Gh.C1., Varga A.2, Ionescu G.L.1
1
University of Oradea (ROMANIA)
2
S.C.Maxwell S.R.L. Apahida Cluj (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper deals with the modification of an existing building that was originally designed during 2005-
2006 and put into execution during 2006-2007 using the construction standards and norms that were available at
that time. The proposed expansion solution can be put into practice over the existing foundation of the existing
body of the building.
It is recommended that necessary longitudinal beams be introduced in order to insure the loss of
stability in the frame rulers according to the requirements of the standards and norms that are presently used.
Some elements of the building can and shall remain unchanged, such as the envelope.
The new body and the existing body will be realized as a structural ensemble in accordance with the
construction and technical standards and norms that are presently available.
Keywords: existing building expansion, weight bearing elements, rehabilitation

1. GENERAL DATA REGARDING THE BUILDING

The technical expertise of the real-estate "Expansion of existing building of type P + Ep, with a new
attached building wing of type P +Ep-" from the Matei Corvin 26th street, Oradea, Bihor county, in regards to
building expansion.
There are to be made no modifications to the existing building or interior non-structural walls. The intent
is to remove the D axis exterior wall and for the hall to be extended with another 12,40m opening. The main of
the extended hall will be located within the D row.
The building, after the intervention will be still of type P + Ep.
The existing building, built during 2006-2007 has a foundation of isolated type, made out of simple
concrete and non-structural walls made out of sandwich type panels, reinforced concrete flooring for the floors
area and folds of sandwich type.
The resistance structure is formed out of metallic transversal frames.

2. DATA REGARDING THE PHYSICAL STATUS OF THE BUILDING

The existing building has been designed during 2006-2007 and put into execution during 2006-2007 in
regards to the available construction norms and standards that were available at that time.
The building's foundations (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) are of isolated type under metallic pillars. The ruler is single
sloped and together they form a single opening frame.

3. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
E1, that resulted from the in-depth visual inspection of the structural elements, ruler to pillar joints etc
as outlined in Fig 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig, 6, Fig. 7, Fig.8 and Fig. 9. These joints are of articulated node type.
Walls – the wall rulers do not present defects or any other sort of visual damage.
The floor over the ground level is within a good state and does not showcase degradation or fissures.
The roof is also in a good state, lacking only vertical contraves and longitudinal beams from the roof's
plan.

4. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
E3 (E2A), has resulted from the simplified calculation for the evaluation of the capacity for resistance
and calculation by means of specialized calculus software.

Following the investigations the following results were made:

The insurance degree for the current building body is:
R=0,75 >Rmin= 0,65.
Expansion can be made over the existing foundation in the D row of the existing body.
The new body will be extended by means of merger with the modification of the transversal frame with
one opening and the ruler being theoretically considered as articulated on the pillar (partially embedded) within a
frame with two openings, with rigid nodes, static undetermined six times. The new body is extended between the
D-G rows and the 1-10 axi.

5. INTERVENTION MEASURES
At the existing construction (Body I) constructed during 2006-2007, out of steel, HEB 200 pillars and
HEB 220 rulers, the function is not modified. By transforming the transversal frame once static undetermined
into static undetermined six times the insurance degree will also increase and will thusly be R>0,80.
The marginal node (Fig. 11), between the ruler and pillar, will have an according increase in rigidity by
means of straight haunches at the interior with a T section return welded over the lower sole of the HEB 220
ruler and over the lower sole of the HEB 200 pillar. On the exterior, on the HEB 200 pillar sole and the end of
the HEB 220 ruler, another metallic strap shall be welded for consolidation purposes that is able to work on the +
moment on the node (exterior tension).
The HEB 220 ruler will have its rigidity increases on both sides by means of increased rigidity in front
of the lower sole's axis of the HEB 200 pillar. The welding of all the pieces will be done in Ψ fashion and
respectively for the exterior strap from the node with corner welding with a=0,6 tmin.
The central node, between the central pillar and the frame's ruler will have its rigidity increased by
means of straight haunches on both sides of the pillar, in the two openings and the HEB 220 ruler will have its
rigidity increased by both sides of the core, in front of the two soles of the pillar.
The capacity of the anchorage bolts (M cap) will be verified, reportedly to the pillar, for which the
existing pillar is:
R= 0,8 > Rmin= 0,65
For the existing structure, according to the P100 norm, this degree of insurance can remain. It is
recommended that superior quality and/or larger diameter anchorage bolts be used for the expansion.
In case the designer needs to raise the degree of insurance for the existing construction, the anchorage
bolts can be supplied by means of chemical anchorage with 4 pieces of bolts on the foundation and adapting the
base plate of the pillar's stump.
The vertical contraves between the transversal frame's pillars will be placed within the same bays as the
horizontal ones from the roof's plan, more precisely between the axis (1 and 2); (5 and 6) and (9 and 10).
It is recommended that the necessary longitudinal beams be introduced that are needed for insuring the
loss of lateral stability of the frame rulers according to the requirements of current norms.
The envelope will remain unchanged.
The new body and the existing body will be realized as a unitary structural ensemble in accordance with
the technical norms that for the standard at this present date as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig.1. Foundation plan

Fig. 2. Roof plan

Fig. 3. Axis 1 framework

Fig. 4. Axis 2-6 framework

Fig. 5. Axis 7 framework

Fig. 6. Axis 8-9 framework

Fig. 7. Axis 10 framework

Fig. 8. Axis 11, axis 12 framework

Fig. 9. Axis A, axis G framework

Fig. 10. Central modified node detail

Fig. 11. Marginal node detail

[10] SR EN 1992-1-1:2004/NB:2008 Eurocod 2: Proiectarea structurilor de beton. Partea 1-1: Reguli

generale şi reguli pentru clădiri. Anexă naţională
[11] SR EN 1993-1-1:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor din oţel. Partea 1-1: Reguli
generale şi reguli pentru clădiri. Anexa naţională
[12] SR EN 1993-1-10:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-10:
Alegerea claselor de calitate a oţelului. Anexa naţională
[13] SR EN 1993-1-11:2007/NB:2009 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-11:
Proiectarea structurilor cu elemente întinse. Anexa naţională
[14] SR EN 1993-1-12:2007/NA:2012 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-12: Reguli
suplimentare pentru aplicarea prevederilor standardului EN 1993 la mărci de oţel până la S 700.
Anexa naţională
[15] SR EN 1993-1-3:2007/NB:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-3: Reguli
generale. Reguli suplimentare pentru elemente structurale şi table formate la rece. Anexa
Naţională
[16] SR EN 1993-1-5:2007/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-5: Elemente
structurale din plăci plane solicitate în planul lor. Anexa Naţională
[17] SR EN 1993-1-8:2006/NB:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-8:
Proiectarea îmbinărilor. Anexă Naţională
[18] SR EN 1993-1-9:2006/NA:2008 Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oţel. Partea 1-9: Oboseala.
Anexa naţională.
[19] P 100-1/2013 Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I–Prevederi de proiectare pentru clădiri.
[20] P 100-1/2006; P 100-1/2006 completare Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I–Prevederi de
proiectare pentru clădiri, indicativ P 100-1/2006.
[21] P 100-3/2008; P 100-3/2008 completare Cod de proiectare seismică" Partea a III-a Prevederi
pentru evaluarea seismică a clădirilor existente.
[22] CR 0-2012; CR 0-2012 completare Cod de proiectare.Bazele proiectării constructiilor.
[23] CR 1-1-3-2012; CR 1-1-3-2012 completare Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea actiunii zăpezii asupra
constructiilor.
[24] CR 1-1-4-2012; CR 1-1-4-2012completare Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acțiunii vântului asupra
construcțiilor.
[24] GP 003-1996 Ghid pentru proiectarea antiseimică a halelor parter cu structură metalică.
[26] NP 012-1997 Normativ pentru calculul elementelor din oţel cu pereţi subţiri formate la rece.
[27] NP 042-2000 Normativ privind prescripţiile generale de proiectare. Verificarea prin calcul a
elementelor de construcţie metalice şi a îmbinărilor acestora.
[28] GP 078-2003 Ghid privind proiectarea halelor uşoare cu structură metalică
[29] GP 082-2003 Ghid privind proiectarea îmbinărilor ductile la structuri metalice în zone seismice.
[30] C 133-2014 Instrucţiuni tehnice privind îmbinarea elementelor de construcţii metalice cu şuruburi
de înaltă rezistenţă pretensionate.
[31] P 118-1999 Normativ de siguranţă la foc a construcţiilor.
[32] NP 046-2000 Normativ pentru verificare la foc a elementelor structurale ale construcţiilor din oţel
[33] P 118/2-2013 Normativ privind securitatea la incendiu a constructiilor, Partea a-II-a-Instalatii de
stingere
[34] P 118/3-2015 Normativ privind securitatea la incendiu a construcţiilor. Partea a III–a. instalatii de
detectare, semnalizare si avertizare incendiu
[35] NP 112-2014 Normativ pentru proiectarea structurilor de fundare directă.

The Distance at which the Variation of the

Groundwater Level Reaches the Desired
Elevation

Vorovei C.1
1
Technical University“Gheorghe Asachi”of Iaşi (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Groundwater level is a parameter of particular importance in the design and execution of constructions,
as well as an important factor in the field of environmental protection.
A level variation of a watercourse with makes the level of nearby groundwater to change with Δh. This
change can greatly affect the harmonious development of vegetation in the area.
In this article is presented a computation relation between two channels / rivers, for which the variation
of the groundwater level reaches Δh, induced by a change of the level with Δz. In the specialty literature, the
calculation of this distance is achieved by successive iterations, a procedure that can be difficult to apply if
different scenarios are being analyzed. The mathematical expression deduced in this work eliminates this
disadvantage.

Keywords: groundwater, infiltration, environmental protection, river level.

1 Introduction
Groundwater is an important factor to be considered both in the construction [1] and environmental
fields.
In the case of constructions, it is often the question of lowering the groundwater level with Δh required
for the proper execution of the work.
In the environmental protection field, the impact of a variation of the Δz level in the neighboring
watercourses is of particular importance, which will induce a lowering of the groundwater level, a factor that can
greatly affect the harmonious development of vegetation in the area. [2]

2 Content
We will consider two channels / rivers where the water level is relatively constant, located at the
distance L from one to the other. It is proposed to determine the distance x to channel 1, where the groundwater
level has decreased by at least Δh. After this point the variation is higher, it can become dangerous for
vegetation. Only one of the channels allows you to adjust the Δz level. (Fig. 1)

It starts from Laplace's equation for free aquifers in permanent mode [3]:

 2 h2  0
As can be seen in Fig. 2, the groundwater level is not rectilinear. It has a parabolic shape due to
infiltrations. In this case the equation becomes:

  h 
K h   q
x  x 
resulting:

d  dh 
K h   q
dx  dx 
where:
K – hydraulic conductivity [m/s];
h – the groundwater level, at the reference level [m];
q – water infiltration, which is the difference between average potential evapotranspiration and mean rainfall
[m/s].

Fig. 1. Calculation scheme

Fig. 2. The groundwater level between the two channels

The solution of the equation is:

q
h 2  x     x 2  ax  b
K
where:
a, b – the equation constants;

We will consider an orthogonal XOZ axis system. The abscissa (the axis of the lengths) is located on
the reference plane and the ordinate (the height axis) is located at the point where the water level in the channel 1
meets the shore.
In order to find the two constants a and b, edge conditions are placed next to channel 1 (x = 0),
respectively to channel 2 (x = L), for the two hypotheses: initial state and final state (water in channel 2 had a
variation Δz).

Case I - Initial state

In the initial state, the water level in channel 1 is at elevation z1 and in channel 2 at elevation z2 (Fig. 1
and Fig. 2).
q
hI 2  x     x 2  aI x  bI
K
For x = 0 result h1 = z1

q x 0
h 2  x     x 2  ax  b  bI  z12
K
For x = L result h2 = z2
q
z2 2    L2  z12
q xL
q K
h 2  x     x 2  ax  b  z2 2    L2  aI L  z12  aI 
K K L

Case II - Final state

In the final state, the water level in channel 1 is still at z1, but the level in channel 2 decreases with Δz
(Fig 1 and Fig 2).

q
hII 2  x     x 2  aII x  bII
K
For x = 0 result h1 = z1

q x0
h 2  x     x 2  ax  b  bII  z12
K
For x = L result h2 = z1-Δz

q
 z2  Δz 
2
   L2  z12
q xL
q K
h 2  x     x 2  ax  b   z2  Δz     L2  aII L  z12  aII 
2

K K L

By making the difference between the two levels hI and hII , we obtain:

hI  hII  h  h  hI 2  x   hII 2  x 
then:

q q
h    x 2  aI x  bI    x 2  aII x  bII
K K

but:

b = bI = bII = z12

The solution of the equation is:

q 
2h h 2   h 2  4 b   aI aII  b  aI  aII   h 2  aI  aII 
2

K 
x
q
 aI  aII   4 h 2
2

If there is no infiltration or neglect of this term (q = 0), then the groundwater level becomes linear, the
deducted relations maintaining its validity.

3 Conclusions
In the specialty literature, the calculation of this distance is achieved by successive iterations, a
procedure that can be difficult to apply if the various possible scenarios are to be analyzed.
The mathematical expression deduced in this work eliminates this disadvantage. At the same time, the
computational relations used for hI and hII can be used to trace the groundwater level.

REFERENCES
[1] Vorovei C., Giurma I. (2018). The boundary of separating the computing zones for an earth dam
with sealing mask, 17th edition International Technical-Scientific Conference Modern
Technologies for the 3rd Millennium, ISBN 978-88-87729-49-8, pp. 397-400.
[2] Giurma-Handley, R. (2006). Modele numerice de simulare a curgerii apelor subterane și
transportului de poluanți în acvifere, Editura Politehnium, Iași.
[3] Giurma, I., Crăciun, I., Giurma, C. R. (2009). Hidrologie și Hidrogeologie. Aplicații, Editura
Politehnium, Iași.

Judicial Technical Expertise in Civil Engineering

Construction

Grămescu A.M.1, Barbu D.2, Pericleanu M.1

1
Ovidius University of Constanta (ROMANIA)
2
Evaluation expert attested by Ministry of Justice (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Today, experts from across Europe are called upon to assess the continuous changing of economic and
social environments. In accordance with their position, experts must provide competence as true knowledge
holders in their specialization, while respecting legal contexts. The paper brings to the picture the mission, the
important role of the technical experts and the experts in the administration of the evidence for Romanian and
European courts, for institutions or judicial bodies, corroborated with the current European context, but also with
the mission of academic education. The paper presents the results of research by authors outlining techniques
and procedures applicable to demonstrating scientific truth.
Keywords: judicial expertise, research, role of the technical expert, technical expertise.

1 Introduction
Starting from the Latin expression "expertus, experior", the technical expert, through his specialist
knowledge, comes to try to prove a state of fact that is a means of proof in solving civil or criminal causes. When
it comes to clarifying facts or circumstances of the case it is necessary to have the opinion of specialists, so the
criminal investigative body or the courts of law orders the technical expertise at the request of the parties or ex
officio. The Romanian procedural law, both in civil and criminal matters, presents the technical expertise in the
"Samples and means of proof" chapter. Although the procedural legal provisions do not provide a hierarchical
value for evidence we can assume that technical expertise has a higher degree of objectivity compared with other
evidence both for being administered by a highly professional specialist but also because they base their
conclusions on their own scientific findings, on legal provisions in the field, bringing a contribution of the
highest degree to establishing the truth. Technical expertise has an old tradition. In antiquity, it was limited used:
in Roman law it was barely used in the beginning, but there is still evidence of the need for specialists to solve
judicial court cases. The Romans used technical expertise, mainly to solve border problems using the engineers
known as "mensores", graphological expertise and agricultural expertise. In the eighteenth century the technical
expert is increasingly used in criminal proceedings.

2 Romanian legislation in construction field

In Romania, technical expertise has an old tradition. The old Romanian law treats "Technical Expert
Institution", and we refer to the Code of Ipsilanti or at Caragea's Law, which contains notions regarding
valuations of goods contained in the Organic Regulation. In Romania the technical expertise is regulated by the
Civil Procedure Code, the Criminal Procedure Code, the Order no. 199/2010 of the Ministry of Justice on the
nomenclature of technical expert specializations and Ordinance no. 2/2001 updated. Registration of expertise in
the Code of Criminal Procedure demonstrates the importance they are granted by admitting them to judicial
probation.
Judicial technical expertise, as a research activity of some factual circumstances necessary to establish
the truth can only be carried out by technical experts certified by the Ministry of Justice and in some cases, in the
absence of certified experts in the required specialty, persons with special training in the field may be required,
with certified training of skills acquired from other ministries [10].
Legislative changes initiated and supported by the Ministry of Justice have brought essential changes of
major importance for making the technical expertise more efficient. Order No. 199/2010 of the Ministry of
Justice for the approval of the Nomenclature of Specializations in the Judicial Technical Expertise implements
new specializations frequently requested by the courts and other bodies with jurisdictional attributions.

In the settlement of civil cases, the Civil Procedure Code provides at art. 330 disposition of a technical
expertise. In order to resolve the technical expertise ordered by the Court aside the designated technical expert,
experts appointed by the parties as expert advisers of the parties may also participate. If there are differences of
opinion, separate opinions are recorded in a separate document from the technical expertise report.
In the settlement of criminal cases, the Code of Criminal Procedure provides in art. 118 the procedure
for performing the technical expertise. In order to resolve the technical expertise ordered by the Court or by the
criminal investigating body, experts appointed by the parties, referred to as recommended experts, may
participate in addition to the designated technical expert. If there are differences of opinion, separate opinions are
noted in the report or in an annex.
Because in technical expertise, experts use scientific data to prove and explain the facts, they are an
important guarantee of probation objectivity. The synthetically presented conclusions exert a favorable influence
on the activity of the judicial bodies, by their contribution to the quick and objective solving of the causes. In
many situations, in the settlement of civil or criminal cases, judicial bodies are confronted with a multitude of
problems whose nature is beyond the scope of science, requiring the consultation of specialists from several
fields, who draw conclusions in the same technical expert report. Thus, technical expertise has an
interdisciplinary character, known in the literature as "complex expertise".

3 A study case analysis

We mention that in the field of construction, unlike other fields of technical expertise mentioned in the
nomenclature, there is a special legislative support, which regulates the following offenses:
- the offense of carrying out some activities in construction without respecting the existing regulations on the
strength and stability of constructions;
- the offense of the continuation of the construction works carried out inappropriately;
- the offense of authorizing the execution of constructions, or,
- the offense concerning the authorization of intervention works on existing constructions.
An important fact is that, in most cases, for solving the cases are encountered complex situations by the
nature of interconnection between the situations, which are accompanied by specific offenses, namely:
- business-specific offenses (deception, unfair competition, misappropriation of funds, etc.);
- offenses against existing built patrimony, material and spiritual values (theft, fraudulent management,
deception, trust abuse, embezzlement, destruction, possession disorder, concealment, etc.) [12].
The first category of "business-specific offenses" is found in Law no. 10/1995 on quality in
construction. According to art. 31 of this law, the design, the expertise, the execution of a construction or the
execution of interventions on existing constructions without complying with technical regulations in construction
field to ensure its resistance and stability is an offense if these works would have one or more of the following
consequences: loss of life, serious injury to the bodily integrity or health of one or more persons, the total or
partial destruction of a building, the destruction and degradation of important installations and equipment, or
other particularly serious consequences.
In analyzing this aspect, we find, first of all, social relations that are initiated and developed in
connection with the legal framework regarding the quality of constructions and secondly, the social relationships
that develop in connection with the design, expertise and execution of buildings in conjunction with life, body
integrity, health, or the patrimony of the person. The material object is the construction, or in the case of
designing the expertise, the material object is the elaborated report [6].
A very important aspect in this last situation is the legal interpretation of the context, meaning that in
many situations the material object can be transferred from the designer to the issuing body of opinions and
agreements, if he did not respect Law no. 50/1991 completed and updated to date, accompanied by the
implementing rules. From this point of view, most of the guilt is at the border between the two laws - Law no.
10/1995 and Law no. 50/1991.
An eloquent example is the failure of a network of columns that support an electric cable. The
electrification work was carried out in 1962 after a type project valid at that time. After about 40 years, the
beneficiary wants to replace the existing electric cable in a modern, more durable version, but with a much
higher specific weight. The beneficiary requests an urbanism certificate and execution authorization from the
City Hall in which the investment is being executed. The designer engineer draws up the technical design that
has been verified for cable replacement work. The technical project is bid for execution. During execution, a
support pillar is broken, with one of the workers on it, causing him injuries and a degree of infirmity.
In the first stage, immediately after the event, the active subject targeted the constructor in violation of a
cable pull technology. Instead, the analysis of the circumstances that led to the event, in the given context,
corroborated with the legislation in force, led to the change of the active subject. The cause is completely
different. It is noted that the issuer of the urbanism certificate did not condition the issuance of authorization
certificate by the realization of technical expertise for the 40 years old trestle (with the service life expired)

which no longer provides the overall strength and stability needed to support the new cable that was at least 4
times harder, than the dismantled cable.
The fact that the issuing institution of notices and agreements did not imposed a technical expertise, and
the Order no. 1430/2007 of the norms for the implementation of the Law no.50 / 1991 up to date was violated,
was doubled by the lack of experience of the designer who did not alert the beneficiary to this obligation. This
last aspect leads to the conclusion that no matter what the firing technology was, the cable was broken because
its capacity was inadequate. Even if, under Law no. 50/1991, we do not find the material object of the offense,
expressly nominated for the above-mentioned case, however the offense subsists and is placed at the level of the
issuing body in terms of negligence or incompetence. In this situation, if the legal object are the social relations
in compliance with respecting the legal provisions regarding the authorization of the intervention works for an
existing construction, the material object is the violation of the norms for their application, by issuance of the
construction authorization (execution of the intervention works ) without the conditions imposed by Law no.
10/1995 regarding the quality in construction, conditions included in the methodological norms for the
application of Law no. 50/1991. The passive subject in general is the state as a guarantor and protector of social
values, and the case study presented introduces as a new active subject - the co-perpetrators of the deed - the
civil servants who checked and issued, as well as the project designer /project verifier who did not notify / warn
about this danger.
The material element of the deed cannot be established by the lack of technical expertise to show that
the service life of the support pillars had expired, but also the fact that they had a much lower bearing capacity
than the bearing capacity that had to be replaced by the electric cable - and in this context, we remind you that
the weight of the new electric cable - twisted-wire, was 4.3 times higher than the cable that was dismantled.
Therefore, the legal framework for execution under the authorization exists, but it was released without having
the analysis of the technical condition of existing construction, represented by the electric power trestle columns.
The causal link results from the very materiality of the act, and the fact that the technology applied by the
execution firm was not the most appropriate, becomes irrelevant because the context of producing the act and the
causality of the event is altogether different. Regardless of the technology applied by the execution firm, the
columns would have ceded.
From this point of view, we can state that this case study is situated as many others at the border
between the offenses provided by the Law no. 50/1991 and Law no. 10/1995, offenses of execution of works,
after inadequate opinions and projects in the context in which the beneficiary endorse good functioning - namely
ENEL (with express attributions in this respect).
The interdisciplinary nature of the research of the case study presented consists in knowing the
legislative framework by the issuing institution of notices and the agreement applicable to the situation,
knowledge of the technology to carry out replacement of electrical cables and their characteristics, knowledge in
the structural safety assessment of pre-stressed reinforced concrete columns - elements that support the power
line cables, knowledge of the operating parameters over time, knowing the conditions of exploitation of these
types of constructions by correctly assessing the effects of snow and hoar-frost in the winter, or the effects of
summer temperature variations as well as the exact quantification of these effects on the existing construction -
the columns, knowledge of the legal framework for project assignment to the safety requirements, and last but
not least the responsibility of the beneficiary who is not a person but a legal person responsible for the operation
of the power network.
Another example is the attics of existing buildings. This measure, lately promoted and generated by real
estate developers, may result in repercussions on the ownership of the condominium as a whole, on the operation
of existing water channel networks that have been dimensioned for a certain number of consumers, not for an
extra level.
Particular problems also arise in the realization of the structural system, which most of the time does not
meet the requirements for structural resistance and stability, fire protection, in service safety according to the
requirements of the Law no. 10/1995, updated and completed to date. In such situations even evacuation routes
in the event of fire are not correlated with the functional. Thus, a technical expertise in such a case should be
corroborated with the opinions of the structural engineering expert, cadastral expert, fire safety expert,
construction installations expert.
Similar cases are more and more common in metal constructions. As is known in metal constructions,
the fasteners must provide the necessary resistance to the transfer under conditions similar to the continuous
sections of the effort. But the collapses of recent years highlight the failure of metal constructions due to metal
defects.
The specialty literature attributes the formation of the visible structure with an exfoliable appearance to
the rapid cooling of austenite from high temperatures, being made of ferrite and perlite with thick separations.
The Wiedmannstatten phase acicular / lamellar aspect is due to the formation of a subdued austenitic ferrite
along the specific crystalline planes formed most possibly during the welding process [13].

As it is known, the basic constituent of steel is iron, which is called ferrite. In insertion solutions, carbon
occurs in the form of iron carbide or cementite. Part of the cementite together with the 6 ferrite parts form the
perlite, the latter being a normal constituent of the carbon steel. Building steels are made of perlite and ferrite
depending on the type of each steel. In the inserts where the grid is deformed (the ferrite grid with gaps), some
larger diameter elements than the gap penetrate and are often unstable solutions that can decompose causing
changes in the mechanical characteristics of the steels (e.g. carbon and nitrogen produces the aging of steel, low
carbon percentages cause the steel to become fragile, etc).
For building steels, the pitch is relevant for the percentage of carbon 0.20-0.30. For structural steels
with a carbon percentage of less than 0.20%, a mixture of ferrite and austenite appears first which in the end, by
transforming austenite into perlite, leads to a mixture of ferrite-perlite. When cooling steel, other structures that
are unfavourable to the construction steel behavior may be induced due to the fact that it induces a fragile
behavior and substantially reduces the mechanical strength, for example the Wiedmannstatten structure - it is
characterized by molded steels and the structure of welded joints The Wiedmannstatten structure occurs when
austenite is bulky and / or an overheating of the element or joint has occurred, or a prolonged heating has
occurred. This structure gives the product fragility. Analyzing the influence of the alloying elements on the
mechanical characteristics of steel used in construction, in conjunction with the analysis report issued by
ArcelorMittal Galati, the following assessments can be made:
- The carbon content of steels in construction varies between 0.15-0.25%. The small percentages of carbon
(between 0.1 and 0.4%) cause the steel to become fragile. Consequently, the influence of carbon can become
unfavorable to the thermal processing of a building element and especially in the case of its welding - it
corresponds to the situation in the case file;
- Manganese Mn content for construction steels is limited to 1.7-1.8% and has the role of increasing the quality,
improves steel strength properties - but in this case its content is quite low - according to the bulletin analysis is
0.65%. This phenomenon occurred in a steel of the quality of the one from which the farm was made, in
conjunction with the addition of the welding cords on the gusset, led to the fragility of the gusset and the
decrease of its mechanical strengths. Therefore, the weldability of the steel is defined (it is dependent) by the
chemical composition of the welding material, the thermal treatment, the degree of deoxidation, and so forth.
All literature reports that an over-heated structure with the Wiedmannstatten structure has an
unfavorable influence on fragility. The Widmanstatten structure is very fragile and gives a particularly low
mechanical strength, which is why its appearance must be combated. In such cases, the technical expertise
evidence is the collaboration between the expert in metal constructions, analytical laboratories and sometimes
the metallurgist expert.
In England and Wales, in accordance with the 1998 Civil Procedure Norms (CPR), an expert witness is
required to be independent and to submit and sustain the report before the court. A witness expert can be shared
on both sides if the parties so agree [11]. Under the judicial procedure, expert witnesses are usually invited to
make a joint statement, with points of agreement and disagreement, detailing them in court. The meeting takes
place independently of the opinion of the lawyers, and often helps solve a case, especially if a review of the
expertise is requested and the experts change their point of views. When this occurs, substantial court costs may
be saved if the parties to the dispute agree to an understanding. In most cases, the process (or procedure) may be
suspended to allow experts to study the case and conduct the expert report. Expert meetings often take place
before the trial. Experts charge a professional fee, which is paid by the party requesting the report (both parties
for common instructions), although the report is addressed to the court. The charge should not be conditional on
the outcome of the case. Experts can be summoned (with a witness citation), although this is normally a
formality to avoid being unable to appear before the court [11].
In the United States, according to Federal Rule of Evidence 702 (FRE), an expert witness must be
qualified to testify. When determining the expert's qualification, it requires a certain specialization as education
and professional training, or practical experience in the field, in connection with this case. The testimony of the
expert must be based on facts covered by the evidence and must provide an opinion on the causal link or the
correlation with the evidence in drawing up a conclusion [15].
The Australian Federal Court issued guidelines for experts appearing in Australian courts. This refers to
the format of the expert's written testimony as well as to their behavior in court. Similar procedures also apply to
non-judicial forums, such as the Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission.

4 Conclusions
In this context the promotion of the technical expertise, of judicial and extrajudicial expertise is of
major importance, as well as expertise in the diversity of related fields and its promotion to high professional
requirements through cooperation with the romanian and international academic environment, increasing the
visibility and role of the academic environment by initiating and promoting actions in a public-private
partnership, through conferences, summer schools, seminars, etc., the recognition of academic education as a

promoter of continuous professional training alongside professional associations, research institutes, vocational
training structures of professional societies, by the structures of the Romanian Academy through the Specialty
Committees, state institutions, judicial institutions, territorial administration units, etc. in order to increase the
citizen's confidence in the act of justice.
An important measure is to develop knowledge and promote collaboration with similar structures in
Europe as well as in other parts of the world; promoting and / or strengthening inter-academic cooperation
between Romanian and international institutions by carrying out the continuous training of experts and
specialists on strict or interdisciplinary fields: experts / specialists in restoration, painting, architecture,
construction engineering, architecture and urbanism, restoration of historical monuments, motor vehicles,
mechanical, technological equipment, refrigeration, zootechnics, agronomy, soil science, metallurgy, welding
specialists, food industry, physics, textile industry, leather industry, chemical industry, environmental protection,
economy, real estate valuations, valuations of goods, forensics, economic and financial crime, tax evasion,
explosions and fires, and in many other areas, as well as legal expertise through the participation of persons with
extensive experience in the field, to the case law on similar causes, etc.
The authors appreciate that initiating actions to: promote recognition of professional skills, promoting
grants, creating tools and mechanisms to support professional insertion, promoting quality in higher education by
developing a postgraduate network of in-service training can lead to the promotion of a qualitative act in the
field of technical expertise. Also of major importance in the opinion of the authors is:
- establishing a fundamental basis for a comparative analysis of Romanian judicial experiences, creating the
conditions and identifying the criteria for the harmonization of their own policies as quickly as possible with the
specifics of each EU member state, but also the acquisition of the necessary knowledge to deepen the domain of
judicial and extrajudicial expertise outside the European area;
- addressing cross-border issues as coherent as possible.
These aspects will contribute in the future to the harmonization of the procedures in Romania with the
European ones, but also to stimulate the research in order to harmonize the Romanian legislation with the
European legislation.

REFERENCES
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Romania and in the comparative law. International Conference Prospects of business law in the
third millennium,The academy of economic studies in Bucharest.
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expertise. International Conference Proceedings, Dunarea de Jos University, Law Faculty.
[10] Grămescu A.M., Barbu A.M.D. (2006). Technical expert guide. Agir Publishing House,
Bucharest.
[11] Guidelines for Expert Witnesses in Proceedings in the Federal Court of Australia, Practice
Direction, (Federal Court of Australia, 2007).
[12] Stancu E. (2006). Treated by forensics. Juridic Univers Publishing House, Bucharest.

[13] Stanciu G. (2012). Researches on the hardening of active surfaces of plastic deformation tools,
PhD thesis, University of Transylvania in Brasov.
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[15] Tom Worthington (2005). The accidental expert witness. Information Age (IDG).

Modern Land Improvement Technologies for

Rural Agriculture Adaptation to Climate
Changes

Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir C.1, Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R.1

1
Politehnica University Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
The Romanian rural space still depends to a large extent on the agricultural sector and its capacity to
offer a range of services and products. Agricultural lands and agricultural yields are threatened by climate
change, especially because of the extreme variability of rainfall and temperatures. Water scarcity and water
stagnation on agricultural lands are just a few situations that can have a negative impact on agricultural outputs,
impact which can be reduced by land improvement systems.
The challenge for land improvement systems will be to get the highest possible agricultural yields using
as little water as possible. This can be the result of a high level of performance presented by land improvement
systems and will only be achieved by implementing changes in both basin water management and careful
management of water resources up to the level of end-user (farmer).
This paper will briefly present some modern technologies in the field of land improvement systems
needed to adapt the agricultural sector to climate changes.
Keywords: land improvement, agriculture, rural, climate change.

1. Introduction
Interactions between climate change, water, and agriculture are numerous, complex and region-specific.
Climate change can affect water resources through several dimensions: changes in the amount and patterns of
precipitation; impact on water quality through changes in runoff, river flows, retention and thus, loading of
nutrients; extreme events (floods and droughts) and associated effects (water logging and water deficit). These
potential changes in water distribution can significantly affect agricultural systems and, as such, need to be
effectively managed within the context of modern land improvement policies and policy development, as a
means to develop climate-resilient strategies.
Rural areas are undergoing profound changes, of which some of the most significant have been the
reduction of agricultural activities, the rise of residential and service activities, and farmland abandonment,
which now appears to become reversed and giving way to various new and differing activities and practices.
Rural land is divided into different zones for various uses—including residential and recreational activities or
agricultural or industrial production—and is acutely affected by global economic and environmental changes
such as the productive and financial crisis, climate change, problems pertaining to water scarcity or biodiversity.
Climate change affects rural development both in positive and negative ways. Rural people, who make
up approximately 40% of Romanian population, are generally more vulnerable to the adverse consequences of
climate change. In developing countries (e.g. Romania), most of the rural population directly or indirectly
depends on agriculture for their income, food security and livelihoods. At the same time, rapidly expanding
urban populations rely on the continuous supply of food from the countryside to meet their needs. Thus, they
will require important increases in global food production in the foreseeable future. Yet agricultural yields are
expected to decline in many regions without effective countermeasures against climate change effects [1]. These
countermeasures include both mitigation and adaptation. Early and effective mitigation investments are needed
to prevent increasingly damaging levels of climate change, which are expected to increase the costs of
adaptation.
Thus, giving their objectives and potential impacts, land improvement systems can play a significant
role in increasing agriculture resilience to climate change contributing this way to feeding the world's population.
This contribution will need to increase in the future as a direct consequence to increasing demand.

2. A Theory on Modern Land Improvement Systems

The modernization of land improvement systems is undoubtedly a challenge of the third millennium in
the field of agriculture and involves interventions in the following directions:
- Modernization of land improvement systems operations;
- Evaluating and monitoring the performance of these systems;
- Improving procedures in the institutional space;
- Updating and enhancing training techniques and increasing management capacity in land
improvement systems.
In order to increase their performance and implicitly to make them more efficient and effective in the
current climate, we can intervene on land improvement considering three main directions:
- intervention based on rehabilitation measures;
- intervention based on retrofitting measures;
- intervention based on modernization measures.
Rehabilitation measures imply an improvement of the existing technical characteristics by bringing the
operating parameters to the ones envisaged in the project. Although rehabilitation, by definition, has a technical
character, it can also be applied in the institutional field.
Retrofitting measures are taking place by introducing new technologies, similar to existing ones, but
with superior technical parameters but without making any changes in the field of water management.
Modernization is a complex intervention involving fundamental changes at both technical and
institutional level, with a direct impact on the management of water resources.
The modernization of land improvement systems has been and is a continuing concern of both the
scientific community and the institutional community. Over time, the concept of modernization has evolved so
that modernization today does not only reduce the introduction of new technologies and methodologies, but also
fundamental transformations in the field of water resource management. These changes include both new
regulations in the field of institutional structures and procedures, as well as new rules on water resource rights,
water distribution services, financial support mechanisms, the introduction of modern physical structures.
Modernization of land improvement systems can be defined as follows: Modernization of land
improvement systems is a process of technical and institutional improvement combined with institutional
reforms aiming at improving the use of human resources, economic, environmental resources and water resource
management.
The implementation of these modernization measures aims at achieving several objectives:
- Increased water productivity;
- Improving cost-effectiveness;
- Increase the reliability of water distribution systems;
- Increase the reliability of water application;
- Analysis and consideration of alternative water sources;
- Developing human resources in terms of increasing the planning, design and operation capacity of
land improvement systems.
In support of this context and requirements, climate change adaptation planners (including here land
improvement engineers) will need a specific knowledge and skill set, including having a minimum grasp of
climate change science, developing skills to understand the complexities and uncertainties of water multi-
hazards, and acquiring an appreciation of systems thinking. Currently, there is a clear education agenda in rural
areas adaptation, which requires learning new knowledge and skills and changing behaviours in order to reduce
vulnerabilities; manages the risks of climate change; change consumption and production patterns; and build
adaptive capacity and resilient societies. This knowledge and skills can be acquired through course modules on
irrigation and land drainage management for different categories of decision makers and stakeholders and with
the help of educational arenas, tools and techniques for empowering rural people with the abilities to cope with
rural challenges. These tools will support the Vocational Transition of people in rural areas, from agricultural
employment, to participation in self-employment.
Achieving these goals, however, requires overcoming some obstacles. A successful upgrading of a land
improvement system is not easy to achieve. Often, the boundary between success and failure is particularly thin.
Some of the constraints that make up this difference are:
- Technological differences between requirements for the implementation of modern technology and
available local resources
- Financial constraints resulting from the difference between the costs of modern equipment and the
revenue from services rendered and the economy from water resources;
- Social constraints arising in particular from cheap labour as a more economical alternative to the
introduction of more expensive modern technology;
- Bureaucratic constraints;
- Educational and cultural constraints.

3. Modern Land Improvement Technologies

The modern technologies that will be presented in this article cover several key areas for increasing
the agricultural sector's capacity to adapt to climate change. These areas include: the use of geo-spatial systems
in the implementation and operation of irrigation systems; reducing pressure on classical water sources for
irrigation by implementing water harvesting measures; conservation of water resources by implementing
techniques based on low water consumption; techniques based on systems involving the reuse of wastewater in
agriculture.

3.1 Satellite Support Systems for Irrigation

Geo-spatial systems are increasingly being used in land improvement. The advances in the past decades
in this area as well as an increasingly liberal pricing policy have been able to respond effectively to the critical
issues identified in a first study about this technique [2]. Due to this technological advance, the use of remote
sensing has become increasingly applied and integrated into management, monitoring and control activities (at
different spatial scales) including precision farming [3].
Some of the uses of this technology are:
- Mapping of biophysical vegetation parameters used in agricultural production forecasting models
[4], [5], [6].
- Determination of water demand for crops from satellite estimates of biophysical parameters
assimilated to agro-meteorological models [7].
- Monitoring of nitrogen level, application of fertilizers, obtaining of agronomic variables [8], [9].
- Determination of current evapotranspiration using surface energy balance based on satellite data
[10], [11], [12].
These methods, although useful in analysing water balance in irrigated areas have some limitations on
their use in decision support systems due to spatial and temporal resolution constraints, respectively due to the
complexity of the algorithms used [13], [14], [15].
Maps for crop, irrigation, plant development and other products resulting from the processing of
satellite data may be aggregated on different time scales or on different surface units to meet user requirements.
Knowing the spatial distribution of crop water needs will help the water resource manager make a more
efficient distribution and monitor and control the water resource exploitation plans. As a control method, maps
with irrigated areas resulting from remote sensing can help identify unauthorized water operations.
Technological adoption of remote sensing solutions in the field of water management and agricultural
crops is a process of high complexity that requires favourable technical, social and economic conditions [16]. A
critical issue that still affects this area is the link between new technologies and their inclusion in the current
practices of end-users. Particularly in the field of transfer of good practice, current practices and agricultural
systems in use should be considered for adapting to the implementation of innovative aspects.

3.2 Modern Techniques for Water Harvesting

Water for agricultural production continues to be a key constraint in agriculture due to the increasing
variability of precipitation, dry seasons and drought and floods. If rainfall will be less than plant needs,
production will be less than productive potential. Moreover, the impacts of rainfall variability will be strongly
affected by soil type and crop development [17].
Water harvesting has been defined and classified in various ways over the years. In summary, we can
define water harvesting as the collection and management of flood water or surface irrigation to increase the
amount of water available for domestic and agricultural use, and for ecosystem maintenance.
The purpose of water harvesting is to collect surface or underground water from areas where it is in
excess (where there is a surplus) and make it available where (and when) there is a deficiency. Water harvesting
is a method of relocating water resources in space and time. Water harvesting and rainwater harvesting are
syntactics often used in the same sense, although water harvesting is more general and includes all methods of
collecting and managing excess water and surface runoff including collection roofs, irrigation through surface
leakage, flood irrigation [18], [19], [20].
Rainwater is one of the main water sources for irrigation but due to its unpredictable patterns, an
efficient use of this resource requires the existence of rainwater storage. Although the rainwater itself is free of
charge, rainwater storage systems are costly. An appropriate dimensioning of the storage is essential to meet the
crops’ water demand and to make the water storage economically feasible. In order to support rainwater
storages, researchers from western Europe developed a water storage dimensioning tool (WADITO) [21].
This tool can be easily be adapted all around Europe based on the assumption that long-term daily data
are available for rainfall and evapotranspiration.

3.3 Techniques based on low water consumption

Irrigated agriculture is practiced under a precipitation water shortage. As irrigation systems face a lack
of water, the management of these facilities will move from increasing production per unit of unit to maximizing
production per unit of water consumed. To deal with scarce resources, poor irrigation, defined as the application
of water volumes below crop needs, is an important tool in achieving the objective of reducing water
consumption for irrigation.
This method was studied and implemented in Spain to reduce water consumption in agriculture [22].
Although poor irrigation is widely practiced, the method has not received sufficient attention from the point of
view of scientific research. Deficient irrigation is used in water consumption for the production of biomass,
respectively, for irrigation of perennial and annual crops. This method has a high potential to reduce the pressure
on water resources and that there is sufficient information on it so that it can be included in the category of good
practice. Their results have shown that regulated depletion irrigation has had a positive impact on the increase in
water productivity. Research on the physiological responses of crops to strategies based on regulated depletion
irrigation will make this method widely available in areas with limited water resources [22].
Similar researches were developed on improving the efficiency of water use in agriculture in arid and
semi-arid areas in China. The study covered the biological conservation mechanisms of water resources and
technologies to save these resources in irrigation. These technologies include: low-pressure irrigation, furrow
irrigation, composting, drip irrigation in plastic-covered areas, precipitation harvesting and terraces. The results
have shown that in order to improve the agricultural potential in these areas (arid and semi-arid) it is necessary to
increase the efficiency of the use of water resources by effectively preserving the soil moisture through a
judicious use of limited water resources [23].
The partial drying of the root zone is another method of reducing water consumption and involves
irrigating only part of the rhizosphere, the other part being allowed to dry to a predetermined level. Several
researches were carried out in this regard by studying this technique for wine-growing areas [24].
Improving irrigation management can also be improved by integrating evapotranspiration obtained from
satellite data by applying simulation modelling of irrigation management at the level of development [25].
Research in the field has focused on combining a water balance model with evapotranspiration estimates
obtained by remote sensing to provide support for plotting watering programs. This procedure was applied in
Spain and comparisons with the classic water balance models have demonstrated the superiority of the
technology by remote sensing.

3.4 Techniques for an efficient water re-circulation in agriculture

The availability of sufficient and qualitative water is one of the critical factors for implementing a
sustainable agriculture. Recirculation of drained water is an efficient method for avoiding water and nutrient
discharge to the environment as well as for natural resources and nutrients conservation.
Implementing water re-circulation at a wide scale among European farmers must challenge several
potential bottlenecks like the high costs which such an investment may assume, the ratio between costs and
benefits (not all agricultural farms can benefit from this technology due to factors like size, location, crops type
etc.), education and cultural factors.
For ensuring an efficient water re-use in agriculture, a first step in selecting the treatment process for
improving water quality is to define the problem and to determine what the treatment process will need to
achieve. A thorough knowledge and understanding of these water quality criteria is required prior to selecting
any particular treatment process. Once the selection criteria have been defined, possible treatment options can be
identified. Water re-circulation in agriculture suppose the use of chemical (chemical oxidation, chlorination),
physical (ultraviolet disinfection, thermal disinfection, slow sand filtration) and biological treatments, not always
easy to be implemented and which will lead to both benefits as well as risks.
More recently, new innovative technologies were developed for getting a water of good quality in
relation with nutrients management. These technologies designated for optimizing water quality include among
others: forward osmosis, capacitive deionisation, modified ion exchange, electro-dialyses [26], [27].
These techniques can be combined, in some situations, with water storage facilities (wetlands).
Constructed wetlands for improving the quality of water which will be re-used are gaining acceptance in many
countries. Wetlands have the potential to reduce pollutants like N, P and sediment, and improve water quality.
We need also to mention that even wetlands will consume some water and will reduce the total available water
(Water use by wetlands is approximately equal to potential ET rates), the general water quality will be improved
so will become usable for agricultural needs [28].

4. Conclusions
The modernization of irrigation and drainage systems has to increase the efficiency of water use per unit
area and in relation to agricultural production. The installation of modern equipment in these systems must take
into account the type of service to be answered, the amplitude of these services, the interaction between water
management and agricultural production, the effects on water (surface and underground) water resources, the
environmental impact, etc.
The integrated approach to the development of irrigation and drainage systems is necessary in view of
the need to increase the efficiency of water use, to reduce percolation and to reduce the quality of water
recirculation. Design criteria need to be revised to maintain a balance between demand and available resources.
Land improvement systems sustainability can be achieved when irrigation and drainage systems are
implemented on farm level in a way that does not degrade land, water, and other natural resources. Sustainability
can also be described as maintaining the productivity of resources needed for irrigation so that future generations
can have the same opportunities in using these resources. Given the growing importance of irrigated land for
food production, it has become more than necessary to intercept and re-use the volumes of water resulting from
land drainage. Adoption of this strategy can be encouraged by appropriate policies for farmers to analyze the
impact of irrigation and drainage systems within and outside farms on the environment. Such policies include
linking rights to water use with monitoring and management of irrigation and salt. The findings have revealed
that there is an important amount of knowledge to implement strategies focusing on drainage reuse and salt
management. At the same time, a number of policies have been recommended that can motivate improvements
in productivity and increase the chances of achieving sustainability in land improvement.

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(2010). Earth observation products for operation irrigation management in the context of
PLEIADeS project. Agric. Water. Manag. 98(2), pp. 271-282.
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uncertainties and comparison with an empirical approach. Eur. J. Agron. 37(1), pp. 1-10.
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Renewable Energy – Key Aspects on their

Potential Use in Land Improvement Systems

Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R.1, Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir C.1

1
Politehnica University Timisoara (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Increased energy demand at global level coupled with rising energy prices and environmental pollution
due to the use of traditional energy sources have all led to finding new solutions in this area. Renewable, non-
polluting energy appears as a potential response to existing problems, energy which can also be used for land
improvement systems as well.
Renewable energies can have a major impact in rural areas, especially in areas where the transport and
distribution of “conventional” energy is an impediment. Local renewable energy production can prove to be a
sustainable solution for rural communities. Another positive impact can be the reduction of poverty, renewable
resources assuming a lower cost to the population and thus ensuring a more decent living in conditions at higher
standards.
The use of renewable energy sources in irrigation and drainage systems will reduce product price
dependence on fuel prices and minimize the impact of irrigation systems on the environment.
This paper will briefly present key aspects on the potential of using renewable energy as main driver of
land improvement systems.
Keywords: land improvement, renewable energy, potential.

1. Introduction
In 2011, Ali M.H. claimed that at the level of 2006, about 18% of global energy consumption came
from renewable resources. Of these, 13% were the result of biomass burning, 3% of hydrogen burning, and the
2% difference came from geothermal, wind, solar or hydro [1], [2].
The evolution of energy consumption in Europe has seen major changes in recent years amid a
reduction in the use of traditional fuels and an increase in the use of renewable energy resources. In 2013,
renewable energy consumption accounted for 14% of the total, compared to 6% in 1997 [3].
In 2012, at the EU level, renewable energy represented 14.1% of gross final consumption, thus covering
about 8% of the Union's electricity demand. Overall, the state of renewable energy resources in the European
Union is good given that some technologies in the field have experienced rapid and remarkable progress. What,
in the 1990s, was an ambitious target for 2010, some technologies have reached the desired level of
development. In 1997, the European Commission prepared an action plan for renewable energy resources, the
targets set in this document being already reached in 2010 for wind energy (cumulated installed capacity of 84
GW versus 40GW target) and photovoltaic energy (installed capacity of 27 GW versus 3 GW) [3]. According to
data provided by Eurostat (2013), several countries have already reached their 2020 targets under the 2009/28 /
EC Directorate for Renewable Energy, among these countries being Sweden, Bulgaria, Estonia.

2. Renewable Energy – Concepts and Definitions

Energy is defined as the ability or capacity to perform a work. For thousands of years, human energy
needs were met only by using renewable energy sources: sun, biomass, water, wind.
Renewable energy uses natural sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, waves, geothermal heat, sources
that can be replenished naturally. Renewable energy technologies include solar power, wind power,
hydroelectricity, biomass as well as biofuels.
It is necessary here to clarify a number of terms that have been used in similar contexts but which,
however, still have some well-defined limits. Alternative, sustainable and renewable energy terms, although for

people without knowledge in the field, may seem somewhat synonymous, refer to different situations and
contexts. The notion of alternative energy began to be used with the great oil crisis in the second half of the 20th
century and refers to those energy sources considered as potential alternatives to oil use. Coal, natural gas, wind,
hydro, and nuclear were all regarded as alternative sources of energy.
However, the notion of renewable energy is a more complex one. Looking from a broader perspective,
we can say that fossil fuels are also a renewable energy source because they are the result of biomass. Taking
into account the time and practice factors, the renewable feature is no longer valid. Thus, Sørensen (2004)
defines renewable energy as "the energy storage reservoir that can be completed in a time comparable to the rate
of energy extraction." [4]
Two forms of energy, the solar and the wind, are sources that can be considered non-renewable because
they are inexhaustible in terms of human life. Solar energy cannot be controlled in relation to its production and
its consumption, respectively. Instead, the exploitation of solar energy depends entirely on man's will and ability
to put it into practice.
According to the International Energy Agency: Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that
can be replenished constantly. The definition includes: electricity and heat generated by the sun, wind, oceans,
water power, biomass, geothermal resources as well as biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Directive 2001/77 / EC (European Commission 2001) sets out some definitions [5]:
- Renewable energy sources: include renewable energy sources that do not include fossil fuels. This
category includes: wind, sun, geo-thermal energy, wave energy, tidal energy, biomass, biogas, gas from
landfills);
- Biomass: is the degradable fraction of a product, waste, agricultural residue, forest and related
industries, i.e. the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste;
- Electricity produced from renewable energy sources: electricity produced by power plants using
only renewable energy sources, i.e. the percentage of energy produced from renewable energy sources in hybrid
plants using conventional energy sources;
- Electricity consumption: national electricity production including self-production plus imports and
lowering exports (gross national electricity consumption).
All of these energy sources have unique features that influence how and where to use. For a judicious
use of these resources, we need to know their availability, limits, energy conversion devices for end-users, or
how to use them directly for various purposes.
The main technologies in the field of renewable energy for irrigation and drainage facilities include:
- Photovoltaic pumps;
- Wind pumps;
- Pumps based on biogas;
- Hydroelectric equipment.
The technical potential of renewable energy is a more practical estimation of the amount of energy that
can be used by humanity taking into account the current efficiency of conversion systems and the available land.
The technical potential does not include economic or environmental constraints.

3. Renewable Energy Sources for Land Improvement Systems

3.1 Solar Energy

In the use of solar energy for irrigation and drainage systems, we can discuss about the theoretical
potential and the technical potential. The theoretical potential indicates the amount of theoretically available
energy for a specific purpose, in this case the amount of solar radiation at the surface of the earth. The technical
potential is a more practical estimation of the amount of energy that can be used by humans, considering the
conversion efficiency of the available technology and the available land area. The technical potential does not
include economic or environmental constraints.
Solar irradiation data are required to assess the solar energy potential. In order to use a photovoltaic
solar pump it must be known that the daily average of solar radiation in the sunniest month which must be ≥ 3.5
KW/m2 on a horizontal surface [6]. If data on solar radiation is not available, it can be determined from other
values such as temperature.
Types of photovoltaic systems used to pump irrigation water are:
- standalone photovoltaic systems;
- Hybrid self-contained systems;
- systems connected to the network.
A self-contained photovoltaic system produces energy independent of other systems.

It can be: directly coupled with battery, respectively - with battery and charging control. Those with
batteries are particularly useful for areas where there is no nearby power transmission and distribution network.
Solar tracking systems can be installed on photovoltaic systems to increase photovoltaic matrix results.
For hybrid systems, the photovoltaic matrix is coupled with one or more additional energy sources.
These systems are effective in large irrigation installations (where other sources of energy already exist), and
they are intended to be expanded.
Systems linked to the power transmission and distribution network operate like an electric power plant,
during the day supplying energy to the system, and during the night taking power from the system.
For the design of an irrigation system operated in the manner specified above, we need to determine the
possible energy to be supplied which must be greater than or equal to the energy demand required by the system.
The energy demand required by the system is determined by the energy peak demand required by the system,
pumping and irrigation system efficiency.

3.2 Wind Energy

Wind power has been used since ancient times in land improvement improvements. This energy source
is renewable (the wind will continue to beat as long as the sun is there) and no greenhouse gases are produced
during this type of energy, with minimal impact on the environment.
Air currents are used to power wind turbines. Modern turbines have a power between 600 KW and 5
MW, with the most common power being between 1.5 and 3 MW.
The flow driven by a wind driven pump depends on the variation in wind speed. The wind speed
depends on a number of factors specific to the location of the turbine. As wind speed can present very high
variations at regional level, it is recommended to analyse local climate data to determine the potential of a wind
power pump. Data is also needed on the irrigation system to be used for wind power as well as groundwater
depth data if this source is to be used [7].
For the efficiency of these installations to be adequate, satisfactory, it is necessary that the wind speed
of the turbines does not fall below 10km / h. There are 2 types of turbines used in land improvement systems:
horizontal axis turbines and vertical axis turbines, respectively.
These devices have a wide range of sizes. A so-called classic windmill has several blades with a
diameter of 2 to 3 m and installed at a height of 10 m. 18 pallets with a diameter of 3 m can pump water from a
maximum of 30 m if the wind speed is between 8 and 10 km/h. Ideal pumping average is 1000 - 1200 l/h, which
corresponds to an area between 0.5 and 1 ha for irrigation [8].

3.3 Water Energy

The energy from water (in the form of kinetic energy or temperature differences) can be utilized for
further use. Water has a density approximately 800 times higher than air, so small changes in water flow rates or
values can result in considerable amounts of energy.
For land improvement works, water mills have been used, many centuries ago. A water mill that
generates electricity is known as the hydroelectric plant.
Hydroelectricity has some specific features: It is sustainable; Depends on local resources; It is cost-
effective; It is also accessible to more isolated areas; It can meet multiple purposes.
However, the water energy analysis must be viewed from several points of view. Underground water
capture intensifies the hydrological cycle, significant changes in surface water flow being induced both by the
creation of artificial reservoirs and (working in the opposite direction) by drainage of marshes and other areas
affected by excess humidity [4].
Quantities of latent energy driven by irrigation systems as well as subsequent evaporation and
condensation respectively are several times greater than the residual heat associated with direct anthropic
conversion of energy. In addition to changing the energy content of the atmosphere, the irrigation effect is to
accelerate the hydrological cycle with influences that can be felt beyond it [4].

3.4 Biomass Energy

Bio-renewable resources, sometimes referred to as biomass, are organic materials of recent biological
origin [9]. The definition is one with a broad sense to exclude only fossil fuel resources from the wide variety of
organic material resulting from the biotic environment.
Biomass energy is based on the heat yield of biomass burning, heat that can be used to start engines or
generate electricity. The biomass energy is of a chemical nature, it does not present intermittent wind and solar
energy. In 2011, biomass accounted for 15% of global energy consumption, with the indication that this
percentage was higher in developing countries than in developed areas. Biomass can also be used to produce
liquid biofuels that can also be used to drive various plant and equipment. The advantages of liquid biofuels are

that by combustion, carbon monoxide emissions are 20-40% lower compared to conventional fuels. However,
there are intense debates about the competition between food security, environmental impact and energy balance,
competition to harness the potential of biomass at the expense of natural resources (water, soil, biodiversity,
etc.).

4. Conclusions
Romania has a high potential in terms of the amount of renewable energy that can be produced,
especially in the southern half of the country. This potential can be oriented towards the needs of energy in
agriculture respectively for optimal functioning of land reclamation systems. Solar, wind and water energy
sources are the most reliable for being used in agriculture, their technical features having the potential to be
easily adaptable to a wide range of situations specific for Romanian land improvement systems.
Renewable energy sources for land improvement systems are significant but their actual use depends on
several factors:
- the availability of renewable energy sources;
- the cost of systems (energy recovery and use);
- the availability of alternative energy sources and their cost;
- Reliability of renewable energy;
- accessibility for farmers;
- alternative use of renewable energy;
- the user's predilection for renewable energy investments;
- promotional activities to support these types of energy;
- financial support from the central authorities.
There may also be aesthetic, environmental and socio-economic situation, the land area required to
implement the system, the capacity / inability to generate significant amounts of energy, the sustainability of the
system infrastructure, the mode and the cost of transporting the energy to the final user.
Unfortunately, all of these elements influence how renewable energy technologies reach people.
Significant steps are needed to identify new cheap equipment but compete with the use of energy from non-
renewable sources. Developing such equipment is a challenge for researchers. Without these technological steps,
the widespread deployment of renewable energy, accessible to a wider range of users, will be difficult to
achieve, the success of implementation being low and unsatisfactory.
At present, the use of renewable energies for land improvement systems functioning is almost
inexistent. The lack of research-driven activities in Romania as well as the constraints generated by the financial
aspects makes these energy sources to be targeted on other economic sectors, situation which increases the
operating costs of land improvement systems still based on fossil fuels and other classical resources.

REFERENCES
[1] Ali, M.H. (2011) Practices of Irrigation and On-Farm Water Management, Volume 2. Springer.
[2] World Energy Assessment (2001). Renewable energy technologies, Chapter 7.
[3] Bigerna, S., Bollino, C.A., Micheli, S. (2015) The sustainability of renewable energy in Europe.
Springer International Publishing. Switzerland.
[4] Sørensen, B. (2004) Renewable Energy. Its physics, engineering, use, environmental impacts,
economy and planning aspects. Third Edition. Elsevier Science.
[5] European Commission (2001). Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 27 September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy
sources in the internal electricity market.
[6] UNESCAP (1991) Solar powered pumping in Asia and the Pacific. UNESCAP, Bangkok,
Thailand, The United nations Building, Rajadamnern Nok Aveneue.
[7] Kumar, A., Kandpal, T.C. (2007) Renewable energy technologies for irrigation water pumping in
India: a preliminary attempt towards potential estimation. Energy 32, pp. 861–870.
[8] Kaltschmitt, M., Streicher, W., Wiese, A. (2007) Renewable energy. Technology, Economics
and Environment. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
[9] Brown, R. C. (2003). Biorenewable Resources: Engineering New Products from Agriculture.
Iowa State Press, Ames, IA.

The Importance of Traditional Energy

Resources and their Influence on the
Environment. Importance of Coal

Munteanu R.1, Tiuzbaian I.N.1

1
Universitatea din Petrosani (ROMANIA)
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Although there is a trend in using the renewable sources of energy, they still are too expensive, and
therefore not a realistic replacement to the traditional sources of energy. Coal still is one of the most profitable
sources of energy. Mining in Europe decreased in importance; other countries in the world have deposits that
offer better conditions.
In Romania, unfortunately, due to the lack of investments and difficult deposit conditions, mining is in a
very difficult situation. Still, due to its importance (strategic resource), it continues to be part of the national
strategy for energy.
Keywords: mining, coal, environment, reserves, energy.

1. Introduction
The development of the human society has always depended on material resources and energy. Mining
provides the basic minerals and conventional source of energy necessary for all other industries. Therefore
mining, together with agriculture, forestry and fishing represent the basis of the economy. Accepting the
necessity of mining represents a step towards the roots of the economy.
Europe has a long tradition in mining. It was assessed that the rich reserves have been exploited and it
started to be too expensive to continue mining. Nevertheless, Europe still has resources, the progress of the
technology and the increase of demand for resources made the European countries turn once more towards
mining. The renewable sources of energy are still too expensive, and so coal continues to be needed.
.

2. Situation of oil, gas, coal and uranium worldwide

From a raw material geological point of view, oil, natural gas, coal and uranium supplies can also meet
growing demand over decades [5]. Together with the renewable energies, the energy supply can therefore be
guaranteed in the long term. In the short and medium term, fossil fuels as the main source of energy are still
indispensable and their demand-oriented provision essential. In general, a relaxed supply situation is currently
evident for all energy commodities, which, as in the case of crude oil, are still primarily based on production
from conventional deposits that were developed during the past high price phase of the oil price [2]. Without a
swift and sustained rise in oil prices, it seems unlikely that new investments will be made in new projects to meet
rising global demand without disruption. To what extent the relatively flexible oil production from shale deposits
as an "economic swing producer" can bridge potential supply bottlenecks remains to be seen. In addition, given
the complex and unstable situation of many oil producers and regions, unforeseeable disruptions to the global oil
supply should also be taken into account.
While renewable have the highest growth rates of all energy sources in power generation, their share of
total primary energy consumption only increases moderately. Instead of displacing the fossil fuels already today,
they are urgently needed to cover rising energy needs, to enable the exit from nuclear energy or to reduce urgent
environmental issues. For the coming years and decades, therefore, a "dual energy system" can still be assumed
in which fossil and renewable energies must jointly ensure the supply of energy.
The BGR (Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources) Energy Survey 2017 informs with
data and facts about the status and developments of the German and global energy supply for all energy sources:
oil, natural gas, coal, uranium and renewable energies including deep geothermal energy. The focus of 2017

year's edition, "Focus on energy commodities", is on the topics "Lithium - A Key Energy and Mobility
Turnaround", "Underground Coal Gassing: Background, Potentials and Risks" and "Gas Utilization Options -
Situation Analysis of Algeria and Cameroon".

3. Coal – an important energy resource

One of the most effective non-renewable energy resources, due to its accessibility and low cost
compared to the renewable energy sources is coal [4]. The availability of this resource is highlighted in Table 1
and Table 2.
The power consumption worldwide was represented by 26.2% coal. The production of coal (both hard
coal and brown coal) was 31,7% of the total non-renewable energy sources. From the point of view of the
reserves, coal represents 54.1%, while coal as resource represents 89.1% of the total. Calculations have been
made in EJ (exajoule, 1EJ=1018Joule) [1].

Table 1. Hard coal – reserves [1]

Rank Land/Region Mt Share [%]
1 USA 220.800 30,9
2 China 128.112 17,9
3 India 92.786 13,0
4 Russia 69.634 9,7
5 Australia 68.310 9,5
6 Ukraine 32.039 4,5
7 Kasachstan 25.605 3,6
8 Poland 19.808 2,8
9 Indonesien 15.068 2,1
10 South Africa 9.893 1,4
11 Columbia 4.881 0,7
12 Canada 4.346 0,6
13 Vietnam 3.116 0,4
14 Mosambik 1.792 0,3
15 Brasil 1.547 0,2
16 Usbekistan 1.375 0,2
17 Iran 1.203 0,2
18 Chile 1.181 0,2
19 Mongolia 1.170 0,2
20 Mexico 1.160 0,2

Table 2. Brown coal- reserves [1]

Rank Land/Region Mt Share [%]
1 Russia 90.730 28,7
2 Australia 76.508 24,2
3 Germany 36.100 11,4
4 USA 30.116 9,5
5 Turkey 10.975 3,5
6 China 7.801 2,5
7 Indonesia 7.530 2,4
8 Serbia 7.112 2,2
9 New Zeeland 6.750 2,1
10 Poland 6.003 1,9

Rank Land/Region Mt Share [%]

11 Brasil 5.049 1,6
12 India 4.942 1,6
13 Greece 2.876 0,9
14 Pakistan 2.857 0,9
15 Hungary 2.633 0,8
16 Czech Republic 2.541 0,8
17 Ukraine 2.336 0,7
18 Bosnia Herzegovina 2.264 0,7
19 Canada 2.236 0,7
20 Bulgaria 2.174 0,7

Coal is an efficient and inexpensive energy source, and provides stable and large-scale electricity
generation [6]. Power plants use two types of coal: lignite and hard coal. Lignite evolved from former bog
forests under high pressure 15 to 20 million years ago. Hard coal developed the same way, but was exposed to
additional pressure and heat for 300 to 350 million years deep within the Earth. This explains the difference in
carbon content - about 30 per cent for lignite and 80 per cent for hard coal.
Coal power plants provide stable and large-scale electricity generation. Of the Earth's fossil fuels, coal
is the most abundant and widely dispersed, meaning that supplies are readily available and not subject to
disruption.
Coal power has a competitive production cost. Fuel costs are low and coal markets are well-functioning.
Unfortunately, technologies to reduce coal power plant CO2 emissions are expensive.
The envirnonmental aspect is not given only by tha fact that coal power plants emit high levels of CO2,
but coal mining also impacts significantly with the landscape and infrastructure. Former open-cast mines have to
be re-cultivated. Major efforts - including the development of clean coal technologies to reduce CO2 emissions -
are being made to manage the climate impact of coal power plants.

4. Coal mining in Romania

According to the National Strategy for Energy of Romania 2018-2030, with the prospect of 2050, the
production of brown coal and hard coal in Romania depends directly on the national demand for primary energy
resources in the electricity sector and on the resources / reserves available to Romania. The role of coal in the
electricity mix will depend on the competitiveness of the raw material price, with direct influence on the price of
energy produced from this primary energy resource. The production of energy brown coal is mainly carried out
in the Oltenia mining basin in a number of 15 mining perimeters where, through the installed production
capacities, flexible production can be achieved between 20 and 30 million tons / year. The hard coal resources
are exhaustible, and in the current perimeters the term of concession granted through exploitation licenses
exceeds the first half. Ensuring the brown coal requirement for the operation of the power plants in economic
conditions will be achieved by identifying and opening new mining perimeters only under economic efficiency
conditions. The importance of coal in the Romanian strategy for energy is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Share of energy sources in 2017 and forecasted for 2030

The need for hard coal for the production of electric and thermal energy will be ensured by the
production of the Vulcan and Livezeni mines supplemented with the necessary import, until the reconfiguration
of the unprofitable hard coal-fired thermal power on another more efficient primary energy resource.
Romania currently has 3,300 MW of installed and available net capacity (including those reserved for
system services) in brown and hard coal-fired power plants, and other capacities are being refurbished. All
brown coal-based groups were put into operation in the 1970-1990 period and the oldest ones are near the end of
their life span, requiring either re-technology investments to extend the life spans of existing equipment, or
replacing them with new groups, through larger investments. The competitiveness of coal in the electricity mix
will depend on: (1) the performance of each group, rather low for existing capacities; (2) the cost of the brown
coal delivered to the plant, at a relatively high level; (3) the price of EU ETS emission allowances. New brown
coal capacities must have over-critical parameters, high efficiency, operational flexibility and low GHG
emissions [3].
Maintaining coal-based capacities requires streamlining of activity across the entire production chain,
including the implementation of technologies to ensure an emissions level that meets the requirements of
environmental legislation. In the long run, the role of the brown coal in the energy mix can be preserved by
developing new capacities provided with CO2 capture, transport and geological storage technology. After 2030,
brown coal competitiveness is difficult to assess for old clusters, depending on the effectiveness of new projects.
For reasons of energy security, hard coal remains a significant part of the electricity mixes in 2030.
Even more important will be the role of brown coal in ensuring the adequacy of NPS in stressful situations, such
as periods of prolonged drought or severe frost. Deva coal group, with the exception of Group 3, will be
withdrawn, with very limited prospects for restarting. The coal reserves in Romania are impossible to exploit
under economic efficiency, which makes it unlikely to build new groups instead of the withdrawn ones.

4. Conclusions
Although mining is a pollutant industry, it still is indispensable for the world economy. Coal is a cheap
source of energy (compared to other sources) and the technological progress lead to a significant decrease of the
pollution.
It also has to be mentioned that coal reserves and coal resources are the most significant among the non-
renewable resources. Romania could continue the mining for more than 100 years, but unfortunately, the
economic and technological conditions make it unprofitable. Still, the coal reserves represent strategic reserves, a
“backup” for the Romanian energy sector.
Coal has always been a part of the Romanian energy strategy, but unfortunately the strategy and the
reality were quite often different. Thus, the Energetic Complex Hunedoara was meant to be a major actor on the
Romanian energy market, but did not have the expected success. Anyway, in my opinion, coal mining should
continue to have its place in the Romanian energy mix, and the coal reserves must be taken into consideration for
possible future use, as strategic reserves. This is why the closure of mines must be carried out with maximum
attention and in a high professional way.

REFERENCES
[1] *** (2017). Daten und Entwicklungen der deutschen und globalen Energieversorgung,
Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe.
[2] ***, https://www.bgr.bund.de, viewed at 03.03.2019.
[3] *** (2017). Strategia energetică a României 2018-2030, cu perspectiva anului 2050, Ministerul
Energiei, România.
[4] Munteanu R. (2008). Untersuchung der Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten alternativer
Wirtschaftstätigkeiten infolge der Bergbaurestrukturierung im Jiu Valley, Dissertation, TU
Bergakademie Freiberg.
[5] Munteanu R. (2006). Some issues related to the present–day coal mining, Annals of the
University of Petroşani, Mining Engineering, Universitas Petroşani.
[6] Slaby D. (2005). Bergwirtschaft I (Mineralische Rohstoff– und Lagerstättenwirtschaft), Verlag
der TU Bergakademie Freiberg.

The Influence of the Land use Change

Popoviciu G.A.
1
University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection (ROMANIA)
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Soils are a finite resource: the way it is used is one of the main causes of environmental change, with a
significant impact on the quality of life and ecosystems, as well as on infrastructure management. The use of
soils leads to unprecedented changes in landscapes, ecosystems and the environment. As we already know,
Europe is that continent with the largest proportion of land (up to 80%) used for settlements, production systems,
including agriculture and forestry, and, of course, infrastructure. Often contradictory land use requirements arise,
and decisions are needed that will involve difficult compromise solutions. There are some important driving
forces for land use in Europe: the increasing demand for living space per person and the link between economic
activity, increased mobility and the growth of transport infrastructure usually lead to land use in that way for
being useful to humans, meaning taking from the arable lands for different construction. Being that, we will say
that the urban areas and related infrastructure are the fastest growing land users, mainly for productive
agricultural land. Rural landscapes are changing due to an intensification of agriculture, land abandonment and
forestry. In the same understanding, coastal and mountain areas are undergoing a profound spatial reorganization
process to integrate intensive tourism and recreational activities. Activities such as agriculture, forestry, transport
and housing use the soil, changing its natural state and functions. Many environmental problems arise from land
use; this leads to climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution of water, soil and air. The impact may be direct,
like damage to natural habitats and landscapes, or indirect, e.g. soil isolation and deforestation or increasing
flood risks. About these issues we try, through this paper, to shoot a warning about ingrate situation of
humankind in our days.
Keywords: land use, categories, soil, change, built environment.

1 Introduction
According to specialty literature, the land use notion involves that humans can modify the environment
into built environment such as settlements [7] and semi-natural habitats, or arable fields, pastures, and managed
woods [5]. It also has been defined as "the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people can undertake
in a certain land cover type" [4]. National categories of land use differ, but many have been harmonized under
the influence of FAO's periodical World Census of Agriculture (Table 1).

Table 1. Land-use categories (after FAO's World Census of Agriculture)

After their usage Equivalents

This category include: arable land, vineyards,
orchards, vineyard nurseries, fruit trees, hops and
rainforests, pastures, meadows, greenhouses,
solariums, landscapes, forests with forest
Agricultural lands
vegetation if they are not part of forest
landscaping, pastures forestry, agrozoo-technical
constructions and land improvements, fishing
facilities, technological roads and warehouses.
The forest land categories include: land plots or
those serving crop needs, forestry production or
administration, land for forested and non- Forest lands
productive land - grazing, steepness, boulders,
ravines, reefs and torrents.

This category includes minor water courses,

natural and artificial lake lakes, to the maximum
level of restraint, arms and canals in the Danube Land permanently under water
Delta, the bottom of the inland maritime waters
and the territorial and contiguous sea.
Included in this category are all land, irrespective
of the category of use, situated within the
perimeter of urban and rural localities as a result Intravilan land
of the establishment of the border of the town,
according to the legislation in force.
From the category of land with special
destination are those used for road, rail, air and
naval transport, those on which are located
hydro-technical objectives and installations,
thermal transport of electricity and natural gas,
Land with special destination
land with mining exploitations, oil, those for
needs the country's defence, as well as nature
reserves and monuments, monuments, ensembles
and archaeological and historical sites and the
like.
This category includes degraded lands and
excessive decay processes, which are practically
devoid of vegetation. This category includes:
-Flying sands - mobile sands not fixed by
vegetation and which the wind can move from
one place to another;
-Rocks, boulders, gravel - fields covered with
massive rock blocks, boulders and gravel inlays,
not covered by vegetation;
-Ravines, torrents - active landslides that are
unproductive when not afforested;
-Salt with crust - heavily sown land, which forms Degraded and unproductive lands
on its surface a friable white crust;
-Mud and marshes - land with frequent
alternations of excess water and dryness, which
does not install vegetation; Plots with reed
swamps are not recorded as non-productive land;
-Pitches and quarries - land that has become
unproductive by removing the soil and rock cover
for various construction needs;
-Dumps - land on which was deposited sterile
material resulting from industrial activities and
mining operations.
In this category are includes: buildings, yards and
constructions; dams; careers; parks; cemeteries;
Land with construction
sports grounds; markets and fairs; meadows and
shrubs; cobbled slopes; border strip; mining and
oil; other land with construction.

2 Methodology
The soil, by its position, nature and role, is a component of the biosphere and a product of the
interaction between the biotic and abiotic environment, representing a living organism in which an intense life
unfolds and in which a certain ecological balance has been established.
Soil determines agricultural production and state of forests, as well as water quality, especially rivers,
lakes and groundwater, regulates liquid and solid leakage in river basins and acts as a geomembrane to reduce
pollution air and water by the containment, recycling and neutralization of pollutants, such as chemicals used in
agriculture, organic waste and residues and other chemicals [2]. Soils, through their properties, have an
important function for maintaining and develop life, regenerate, filter the pollutants, absorb and transform them.

To protect and preserve these important natural resources, sustained actions are needed to prevent, stop or reduce
all factors that negatively affect the proper management and exploitation of the existing land stock.
Everybody knows that the main means of production in agriculture is soil, which is a fundamental
natural source, even if its effects are indirectly conveyed through agricultural production. In the case of
agriculture, natural conditions are a prerequisite of this order, this sector the economic environment being
influenced by environmental conditions (climate, water, soils, etc.), to a large extent. At the same time through
agricultural activity, man has changed quite a lot the natural environment through build-up of irrigation systems,
drainage of marshlands, terraced landslides, soil improvement, etc.
The Land Fund represents the total of lands (including those covered with water) in the territory of a
country. The Land Fund is the main production factor in agriculture and forestry and, implicitly, the raw material
base for a large number of industries. In this framework, prevention of soil degradation, protection and
improvement of the land and use of land its, the increased efficiency is a duty for all landowners, irrespective of
the title on which they were acquired, or the public or private domain they belong to.
As we noted in above, by destination, the land fund is made up of:
- Agricultural land (arable, pastures and meadows, vineyards, orchards and nurseries, etc.);
- Forests and other lands with forest vegetation;
- Constructions, roads and railways;
- Water and ponds; other surfaces.
The land resources attracted in the agricultural production circuit are a factor production - which, by
quantity (area), peculiarities, quality (level of fertility) and price determines the potential, the way of
organization, the structure and the economic efficiency of agriculture production.
Usage categories are directly influenced by chemical spills hazardous waste, landfills, treatments and
fertilization made without agro-pedological, agro-technical, improper foundation, plus the natural degradation of
soil quality (erosion, landslides, compactions, ruptures and collapses). The diversity of natural and anthropogenic
conditions determines a high variability in suitability of soils for agriculture. The quality of agricultural land
covers both soil fertility and the way of showing the other environmental factors towards plants.
Agricultural lands are grouped into five quality classes, differentiated by the average mark of economic
value. The five quality classes indicate the suitability of land for use of a farm. The number of class expresses
the favourability of the land to the living requirements of given crops under normal climatic conditions and
rational use.
According to the criterion of dividing the soil into five classes, according to the degree of fertility, they
are:
- Class I: soils with very good fertility.
- Class II: soils with good fertility.
- Class III: medium fertility soils.
- Class IV: soils with poor fertility.
- Class 5: soils with very low fertility.
For example, in Bihor County, the classification of the agricultural land in classes of quality – according
to the quality assessment – and with data submitted by the Office of Biological and Pedological Agrochemicals
(OSPA) in 2011 is (Table 2):

Table 2. Land repartition by quality classes and uses (OSPA Bihor, 2011)
1st Class: - Arable: 18.250 ha; - Pastures: 2nd Class: - Arable: 86.921ha; - Pastures:
410 ha; - Meadows: 125 ha; - Vineyards: 2 4.730 ha; - Meadows: 2.050 ha; - Vine-
ha; - Orchards: 120 ha yards: 87 ha; - Orchards: 370 ha
3rd Class: - Arable: 94.412 ha; - Pastures: 4th Class: - Arable: 82.900 ha; - Pastures:
42.290 ha; - Meadows: 14.201 ha; - Vine- 69.261 ha; - Meadows: 22.530 ha; -Vine-
yards: 668 ha; - Orchards: 1.731 ha yards: 995 ha; - Orchards: 1.405 ha
5th Class: - Arable: 27.530 ha ; - Pastures: 18.150 ha ; - Meadows: 5.425 ha
- Vineyards: 472 ha ; - Orchards: 620 ha

From research conducted by O.S.P.A. Bihor, on the occasion of studies for the territories in the county
of Bihor, soil quality is affected to a lesser extent by one or more restrictions. These are determined by either
natural factors (parental rocks, climate, and forms of relief, biotic factor, and water) or anthropic (agricultural or
industrial) actions and have the effect of decreasing soil quality. Soil pollution occurs due to the diffusion,
spreading of various toxic substances, wastes, which differ from the chemical composition of the soil.
Soil characteristics vary from one area to another depending on many factors such as climate and
altitude. Thus, in every climatic zone a type of soil predominates. In warm areas there are red soils and yellow,
poor in humus and mineral salts. In steppes and deserts the soils are grey or brown. In temperate zones,
chernozems predominant black and high fertility soils and brown forest podzols related parts.

3 Conclusions
The notion of soil is indissolubly linked to productivity, which depends on the conversion cycle, that is
to say, the speed of re-circulation of matter and energy from the complex habitat formed by soil biocenoses,
which in turn are influenced by, inter alia, excess and unilateral, as well as the pesticides brought into the soil. In
order to restore and increase productivity, mineral and organic fertilizers, various substances called fertilizers,
are introduced into the soil. But mineral fertilizers, along with nutritional elements, also contain other elements
and substrates (so-called ballast), and manure contains more and more non-organic components.
Concluding information from above, we will say that land use and land management practices have a
major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals [1]. Land use information
can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity and water quality. For
example, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality
than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, and the plant-based food production system, is believed to
be the oldest form of land use in the world [3].
More recent significant impacts of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation,
salinization, and desertification [11]. Land-use change, together with the use of fossil fuels, is the major
anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide and dominant greenhouse gas [10].
According to a report by the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, land degradation has
been exacerbated where there has been no land use planning or its orderly execution, or the existence of financial
or legal incentives that have led to misuse of land use decisions, or one-sided central planning leading to over-
use of land resources - for instance for immediate production at all costs. As a result, the result has often been for
large segments of the local population the destruction of valuable ecosystems [8]. Such narrow approaches
should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of land resources that is integrated and
holistic and where land users are central. This will ensure the long-term quality of the land for human use, the
prevention or resolution of social conflicts [6] related to land use and the conservation of ecosystems of high
biodiversity value.

REFERENCES
[1] Ameztegui, Aitor; Coll, Lluis; Brotons, Lluis; Ninot, JM (2016). "Land-use legacies rather than
climate change are driving the recent upward shift of the mountain tree line in the Pyrenees" (PDF). Global
Ecology and Biogeography. 25 (3):263–273. DOI:10.1111/geb.12407. hdl:10459.1/65151 viewed at
02.02.2019.
[2] Febrina Rina , Sambah Abu Bakar (2019). „The impact of land use on water quality using
geospatial approach (a case study in Way Kuripan River watershed)”. AIP Conference
Proceedings; https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5085978 viewed at 02.02.2019.
[3] Hart Robert (1996). Forest Gardening, p. 124, ISBN 9781603580502, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[4] IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change And Forestry, 2.2.1.1 Land Use,
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/land_use/045.htm, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[5] Jansen Louisa J.M., DiGregorio Antonio (2002). „Parametric land cover and land-use
classifications as tools for environmental change detection”. Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment, Volume 91, Issues 1–3, September 2002, Pages 89-100, Elsevier,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00243-2, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[6] Kucukali Ufuk Fatih, Kuşak Lütfiye (2018). „Environmental, Social, and Economic Indicators of
Urban Land Use Conflicts: Evidence from Istanbul Metropolitan Area”. Urbanization and Its
Impact on Socio-Economic Growth in Developing Regions. ISBN 9781522526599,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2659-9.ch014, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[7] Mancia M.S., Mancia A. (2017). “Elements in the Market of the Real Estate Property in Oradea”,
in Journal of Applied Engineering Sciences, vol. 7(20), issue 2/2017, pp. 44-47, DOI:
10.1515/jaes-2017-0012, http://www.arhiconoradea.ro/JAES/Latest_ISSUE/JAES_DEC_2017/
7.MANCIA-MS_MANCIA-A_219_7(20)2_44-47.htm, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[8] Saghapour Tayebeh (2013). “Achievement of Sustainable Transportation through Land-Use Mix at
Local Level: Case Studies of Two Urban Districts in Shiraz City, Iran”. Journal of Sustainable
Development; Vol. 6, No. 11; 2013 ISSN 1913-9063 E-ISSN 1913-9071 Published by Canadian Center of
Science and Education, pp. 71-81, DOI:10.5539/jsd.v6n11p71.
[9] http://apmbh-old.anpm.ro/upload/71496_Cap.4_Utilizarea%20terenurilor.pdf, viewed at 02.02.2019.
[10] UN Report on Climate Change retrieved 25 June 2007 from Web archive.
[11] UN Land Degradation and Land Use/Cover Data Sources ret. 26 June 2007.

© EdLearning.it . C405C0205
372
Author Index Dan D., 123, 167, 315, 323
Dan S., 105, 129
Daniel D., 217
Dănilă A., 149, 155
David V., 9
Alionescu A., 79 Diac M., 13
Andrișca S., 193 Diaconu D., 179, 323
Arghiroiu O., 93 Dima M., 31
Dinu F., 229
Badea G.E., 199 Dogariu A., 229
Badea, A.-C., 3 Droj G., 21
Badea, G., 3 Droj L., 21
Bala A.C., 37 Dubău C., 161
Balawejder M., 85 Dume D., 193
Banaś M., 85
Bănescu O., 99 Ene R.C., 123, 167
Barbu D., 349
Beilicci R., 139 Fărcaş V.S., 241
Belc A.L., 9 Fekete-Nagy L., 179
Bešević M., 55 Floruț S.C., 173, 307, 315
Bob C., 105, 129, 329 Fodor R., 247
Boca M.-C., 111 Fofiu M., 323
Bofu C., 13 Furdui I., 179
Boros I., 217, 223
Borşa E., 161 Gelmambet S., 299
Both I., 117, 229 Gergely V., 185
Brata S., 123, 167 Ghemiş M., 93
Brebu F.M., 37 Ghemis M.-T., 329
Brotea T., 235 Giurma-Handley R., 149, 155
Buda A.S., 61 Gligor E., 193
Gombos D., 139, 193
Călin M., 67 Grămescu A.M., 271, 275, 299, 349
Campian C., 185 Grecea C., 79
Cătaș A., 161 Grzegorz W., 85
Cercel P., 149, 155
Chendes R., 105, 129 Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir C., 355, 361
Cherecheş T., Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R., 355, 361
Chira N., 185 Henț E., 27
Cîrcu A.-P., 241 Henţ I.E., 43
Ciubotaru V.-C., 241 Herban S., 79
Cojocinescu (Guran) M.I., 133 Hodut N., 199
Comanescu R., 235 Hraniciuc T., 31
Crăciunescu B.-M., 241 Hrăniciuc T.A., 149, 155
Crenganiș L., 13 Hugianu R., 31
Cret P., 199
Cretan I.A., 133 Iambor L., 161
Crisan A., 223 Iliescu A., 67
Cristescu A., 139 Ion A., 259
Cucăilă S., 47 Ionescu G.L., 199, 205, 333
Cucuteanu A., 149, 155 Ionescu Gh.C., 199, 205, 333

© EdLearning.it 373
Iures L., 105, 129 Pintea D., 229
Ivan A., 117 Pop I.D., 67
Pop M., 185
Jianu R., 9 Pop Maria T., 285
Pop T.M., 281
Karda Sz., 217 Popa M., 253
Kun L., 223 Popescu D., 315
Popescu D.A., 173, 307
Lazić J., 55 Popoviciu G.A., 27, 43, 369
Lepădatu D., 285 Purdea D., 235
Luca L., 37 Pușcaș C., 291

Man T.E., 133, 139 Sălăgean T., 67, 73

Mancia A., 27 Solcan P., 73
Mancia M.S., 27, 43 Stanescu A., 235
Manu C.-S., 47 Stanescu M., 235
Marcu C., 13 Stoian V., 173, 323
Marginean I., 229 Stoian V.A., 315
Marinković G., 55 Șuba E.E., 67
Matkowska K., 85 Suba N.S., 61
Mironescu M., 235 Suliman S., 299
Moscovici A.M., 67, 79
Mosoarca M., 259 Tănasie C., 129
Munteanu R., 365 Telisca M., 31
Mureșan A.-A., 247 Teodorescu A., 173, 307
Mușat C., 9 Tiuzbaian I.N., 365
Tivig D.-F., 47
Nache F., 47 Todea V., 173, 307, 315
Nache R.A., 47 Todut C., 179, 323
Nagy A.-Cs., 241 Topan G., 241
Nagy Z., 247 Trifković M., 55
Nagy-György T., 173, 217, 223 Tudorica M., 329
Nemeș I., 37
Nestorović Ž., 55 Varga A., 205, 333
Nistor S., 61 Varga C., 205, 333
Nunes D.L., 117 Vereș I., 73
Vîlceanu C.B., 79
Omer I., 253 Vorovei C., 343
Onescu E., 259 Vučićević D., 117
Onescu I., 259
Opriţa R., 265 Warchoł A., 85

Pătraşcu D., 99 Zaharia R., 229

Păunescu C., 47
Păunescu V., 67
Paweł N., 85
Pelea G.N., 133
Pericleanu B.D., 271, 275
Pericleanu M., 271, 275, 349
Pescari S., 179

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