GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA

AND THE HORN

POWER POINT

BY

Fentanesh Haile
(Asst. Profesor)

Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes
-It is difficult to forward a definition acceptable to all
geographers at all times and places,
-because of the dynamic nature of the discipline and the
changes in its scope and method of study.
However, the following may be accepted as a working
definition.
-Geography is the scientific study of the Earth that describes and
analyses spatial and temporal variations of physical, biological
and human phenomena, and their interrelationships and
dynamism over the surface of the Earth.
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 1.1.2. The Scope, Approaches and Themes of
Geography
• Geography has now acquired the status of science that
explains the arrangements of various natural and cultural
features on the Earth surface.
• It is a holistic and interdisciplinary field of study
contributing to the understanding of the changing spatial
structures from the past to the future.
• Thus, the scope of Geography is the surface of the Earth,
which is the very thin zone that is the interface of the
atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere,
which provides the habitable zone in which life forms &
humans are able to live.
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• Geography can be approached by considering two
continuums: a human-physical continuum and a topical-
regional continuum.
• The topical (systematic) fields of Geography view
particular categories of physical or human phenomena as
distributed over the Earth
• while regional geography is concerned with the
associations within regions of all or some of the elements
and their interrelationships.
• Geography has five basic themes namely location, place,
human-environment interaction, movement, and region.

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 Cont’d
• Location: is defined as a particular place or position.
Most studies of geography begin with the mention of
this theme of geography. Location can be of two types:
absolute location and relative location.
• Place: refers to the physical and human aspects of a
location. This theme of geography is associated with
toponym (the name of a place), site (the description of
the features of the place), and situation (the
environmental conditions of the place).
• Each place in the world has its unique characteristics
expressed in terms of landforms, hydrology,
biogeography, pedology, characteristics and size of its
human population, and the distinct human cultures.
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 Cont’d
Human-Environment Interaction:
• Humans have always been on ceaseless interaction with
their natural environment.
• No other species that has lived on our planet has a
profound effect on the environment as humans.
• Humans have adapted to the environment in ways that
have allowed them to dominate all other species on
Earth.
• Thus, human-environment interaction involves three
distinct aspects: dependency, adaptation, and
modification.

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 Cont’d
• Movement:
• Movement entails to the translocation of human
beings, their goods, and their ideas from one end of
the planet to another.
• The physical movement of people allowed the
human race to inhabit all the continents and islands
of the world.
• Another aspect of movement is the transport of
goods from one place on the Earth to another.
• The third dimension of movement is the flow of
ideas that allows the unification of the human
civilization and promotes its growth and prosperity.
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 Cont’d
• Region: is a geographic area having distinctive
characteristics that distinguishes itself from adjacent
unit(s) of space.
• It could be a formal region that is characterized by
homogeneity in terms of a certain phenomenon (soil,
temperature, rainfall, or other cultural elements like
language, religion, and economy).
• It can also be a functional or nodal region
characterized by functional interrelationships in a
spatial system defined by the linkages binding
particular phenomena.

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 1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn
• The Horn of Africa, a region of eastern Africa, is a
narrow tip that protrudes into the northern Indian
Ocean, separating it from the Gulf of Aden.
• It is home to the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, and Somalia, whose cultures have been
linked throughout their long history.
• Although the countries of the region share many
common features, there is also great diversity
among them, rendering each country unique.
-In terms of size, Ethiopia is the largest of all the Horn
of African countries,
-while Djibouti is the smallest.
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 Cont’d
• contains such diverse areas as the highlands of
the Ethiopian Plateau, the Ogaden desert, and
the Eritrean and Somali coasts.

• Its coasts are washed by the Red Sea, the Gulf of

Aden, and the Indian Ocean, and it has long been
in contact with the Arabian Peninsula and
southwestern Asia.

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 1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia
• The location a map or a globe is expressed in two
different ways (astronomical and relative locations)
• Astronomically, Ethiopia is a landlocked country
located between 3°N (Moyale) and 15°N (Bademe
the northernmost tip of Tigray) latitudes and
• 33°E (Akobo) to 48°E (the tip of Ogaden in the east)
longitudes.

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 Cont’d
• The latitudinal and longitudinal extensions are important
in two ways.

• 1st,as a result of its latitudinal extension the country

experiences tropical climate

• 2nd, due to its longitudinal extension there is a difference

of one hour between the most easterly and most westerly
points of the country.
• It is only for convenience that the 3 hours-time zone is
used in all parts of Fentanesh
the country.
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Table 1.1: The relative location of Ethiopia
Vicinal location In relation to water
bodies & land masses
➢Sudan to the west and ✓In the Horn of Africa
Northwest ✓Southwest of the
➢South Sudan to southwest Arabian Peninsula
➢Djibouti to the east ✓South of Europe
➢Eritrea to the north and ✓Northwest of the Indian
northeast Ocean
➢Kenya to the south ✓In the Nile Basin
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 The implications of the location of Ethiopia
a) Climate:
• Ethiopia is located between 3°N and 15°N
(between the Equator and Tropic of Cancer)
implies that the country has a tropical climate,
though modified by its altitude.

• The location of Ethiopia relative to the Indian

Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and the African and
Asian landmass has also various bearings on the
climate of Ethiopia.
•
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 Cont’d
B) Socio-cultural:
-Ethiopia is one of the earliest recipients of the major
world religions namely Christianity, Islam and
Judaism due to its proximity to the Middle East,
which was the origin of these religions.

-The linguistic and other cultural relationships, which

Ethiopia shares with its neighbors, reflect the
influence of location.

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 Cont’d
c) Political:
-The political history of Ethiopia has been considerably
influenced by:
• Geopolitical considerations of superpowers.
• Adjacency to the Red Sea (a major global trade route).
• The Middle East geopolitical paradigms.
• As a result, Ethiopia has been exposed for external
invasions in a number of times; though the country
resisted foreign intervention and remains free of
external domination.

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Figure 1.1.Ethiopia‟s location in relation to its neighboring countries
Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar
Source: Africa Map Library University
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 1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia
• Ethiopia with a total area of approximately 1,106,000
sqkms is the 8th largest country in Africa and 25th in the
World.

• It extends about 1,639 kms East-West, and 1,577

kilometers North-South.

• About 0.7% of the country is covered by water bodies.

• The size of Ethiopia also affects both the natural and

human environment of the country.
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 Table 1.2. The advantages and disadvantages of Ethiopia’s
large size
Advantages Disadvantages
Possess diverse agro ecological Demands greater capital to
zones construct infrastructural facilities

Variety of natural resources Requires large army to protect its

territory
Own extensive arable land Difficult for effective
administration
Have larger population size Difficult for socio-economic
integration
Home for diverse cultures
Greater depth in defense external
invasion
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 1.2.3. The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication
• Countries of the World have different kinds of shape that
can be divided into five main categories:
➢compact,
➢fragmented,
➢elongated,
➢perforated, and
➢protruded.

-These shapes have implications on defense, administration

and economic integration within a country.

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 Cont’d
1. Compact shape countries: The distance from the geographic
centre of the state to any of the borders does not vary
greatly.
• It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural
integration.
• Eg: Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho,
2. Fragmented shape countries: They are divided from their
other parts by either water, land or other countries.
▪ Eg: UK, Greek,
3. Elongated shape countries: They are geographically long and
relatively narrow like Chile.

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 Cont’d
4. Perforated shape countries: A country that completely
surrounds another country like the Republic of South
Africa.
-South Africa surrounds Lesotho

5. Protrude shape countries: Countries that have one

portion that is much more elongated than the rest of the
country like Myanmar and Eritrea.

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 Cont’d
• There are various ways of measuring shape of
countries. These measures are known as the indices of
compact
• These indices measure the deviation of the shape of a
country from a circular shape,
• Since there is no country with absolutely circular
shape, those approximating a circular shape are said to
be more compact.
• There are four most commonly used measures of
compactness

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 Cont’d
1. The ratio of area of country to its boundary length: Area-
Boundary ratio. The higher the A/B ratio, the greater the
degree of compactness.
2. The ratio of boundary length of a country to the
circumference of a circle having the same area as the
country itself:
Boundary-Circumference ratio. It measures how far the
boundary of a country approximates the circumference of a
circle of its own size. Therefore, the nearer the ratio to 1 the
more compact the country is.
3. The ratio of the area of the country to the circumference of
the smallest inscribing circle:
Area-Circumference ratio. It compares the area of the
country with the circumference of a circle that passes
touching the extreme points on the boundary of the country.
The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of
compactness.
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 Cont’d
4. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the
smallest possible inscribing circle:
Area-Area (A/A‟) ratio. The area of the inscribing circle
is the area of the smallest possible circle whose
circumference passes through the extreme points on
the boundary. Half-length of the longest distance
between two extreme points gives radius of the
inscribing circle. The nearer the ratio to 1, the more
compact the country is.

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Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar
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 1.3. Basic Skills of Map Reading
• What is a Map? A map is a two-dimensional scaled
representation of part or whole of the Earth surface on a
flat body such as piece of paper, black board, wood or
cloth.
• Map reading encompasses a systematic identification of
natural features and manmade features.
❖ Importance of maps
➢ Provide the basis for making geographical details of regions
represented i.e. the geographical facts of an area such as
relief, drainage, settlement etc.
➢ Maps are powerful tools for making spatial analysis of
geographical facts of areas represented.
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 Cont’d
➢ Maps are useful for giving location of geographical features
by varied methods of grid reference, place naming etc.
➢ Maps are used on various disciplines like land use
planning, military science, aviation, tourism, marine
science, population studies, epidemiology, geology,
economics, history, archaeology, agriculture etc.
➢ Map makes storage of the geographical data of areas
represented.
➢ Maps are potentially used to asses‟ reliable measurements
of the geographical features. The measurements can be of
area size, distance etc.

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 Types of Map
• There are many types of maps according to their purpose
and functions. For the purpose of this course, topographical
and statistical maps are considered.

a. Topographical maps:

• Topographic maps depict one or more natural and

cultural features of an area. They could be small,
medium or large scale depending on the size of the
area represented.

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 Cont’d
b. Special purpose/statistical maps: These are maps, which show
distribution of different aspects such as temperature, rainfall,
settlement, vegetation etc.

Marginal Information on Maps (Elements of Maps)

• Marginal information is shown on a map to enable the reading and

interpretation of the geographical information of an area
represented.
a. Title: It is the heading of the given map which tells what the map is all
about.
b. Key (legend): It is the list of all convectional symbols and signs shown
on the map with their interpretation.
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 Cont’d
c. Scale: It is the ratio between the distance on the map and
the actual ground distance. Scales enable the map user to
interpret the ground measurement like road distance,
areal sizes, gradient etc.
-It can be expressed as representative fraction,
statements/verbal scale, and linear (graphic) scale.
d. North arrow: It is indicated with the north direction on a
map; used to know the other important directions of the
mapped area like east, west, south, and west.
e. Margin: Is the frame of the map. It is important for
showing the end of the mapped area.
f. Date of compilation: It is a date of map publication. This
enables map users to realize whether the map is updated
or outdated.
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 CHAPTER TWO
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN

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 Introduction
• Geology: Earth science that studies the evolution of
the earth, the materials of which it is made of, and
the processes acting upon them.

• Much of Geology is concerned with events that took

place in the remote past when no one was around
to witness them, with features which are far
beneath the earth's surface where no one can see
them.

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 Cont’d
• A great deal of geological understanding obtained by
inference, using clues from what can be seen and
what can be measured
• not only the rocks and landforms which can be
observed and studied at the Earth‟s surface,
• provided by indirect methods such as geophysics
(e.g. studying earthquake waves which can
penetrate deep beneath the Earth‟s surface),
geochemistry (analysis of the detailed composition
of rocks which can give clues as to their origin) and
geochronology (methods for finding the ages of
rocks, usually from the radioactive elements they
contain). Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar
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 Cont’d
• The earth's continents were once bunched up together in
to a single huge continent called Pangaea.

• Split into Gondwanaland where Africa is a part and

Laurasia; and later into smaller fragments over the last
million years.

• German Climatologist Alfred Wegener proposed the hypothesis

that the continents were once assembled together as a
supercontinent called Pangae by his Continental drift Theory.

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 Cont’d
Wegener‟s principal observations were:
• Fit of the continents: The opposing coastlines of continents often fit
together.
• Match of mountain belts, rock types: If the continents are
reassembled as Pangaea, mountains in West Africa, North America,
Greenland, and Western Europe match up.
• Distribution of fossils: The distribution of plants and animal fossils on
separate continents forms definite linked patterns if the continents
are reassembled.

• Paleoclimates: rocks formed 200 million years ago in India, Australia,

South America, and southern Africa all exhibited evidence of
continental glaciations. ..\Continental Drift - YouTube.mp4

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 2.2. The Geologic Processes: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
• Geology studies of how Earth's materials, structures, processes
and organisms have changed over time.
• These processes are divided into two major groups: internal and
external processes.
• The internal processes (endogenic) include
✓ volcanic activity and all the tectonic processes (folding,
faulting, orogenesis (mountain building), and
✓ epeirogenesis (slow rising and sinking of the landmass).

• These processes result in building of structural and

volcanic features like plateaus, rift valleys, Block
Mountains, volcanic mountains, etc.

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 external (exogenic) processes፡
• The external (exogenic) processes are geomorphic
processes.
• They include weathering, mass transfer, erosion and
deposition.
• They act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by
modifying, roughening and lowering them down.
• The landmass of Ethiopia, as elsewhere, is the result of the
combined effect of endogenic and exogenic processes.
• The brief geological history of Ethiopia and the Horn will
be dealt chronologically starting from the oldest Era of the
Earth‟s history to the recent.

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 2.3. The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating
Techniques
• The geological history is divided in to Eras.
• Each Era is divided into periods.
• The Eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed
in them.
• For instance, the Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of
invertebrates,
• the Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of reptiles
• while the Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of mammals.
• These geological time divisions basically differ from each other in
such characteristics as the relative position of land and sea, the
kind of climate and most important the kind of animal and plant
life that developed and existed during that Era or period.
• Geological time is difficult to measure precisely.

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 Cont’d
• The Earth is believed to have been formed approximately
4.5 billion years ago and the earliest forms of life were
thought to have originated approximately 3.5 billion years
ago.

The span of time before life appeared was termed the

Precambrian Era.
• To describe the geology and history of life on Earth,
scientists have developed the geological time scale.
• The geological time scale measures, time on a scale
involving four main units:

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 Cont’d
1. An epoch: is the smallest unit of time on the scale and
encompasses a period of millions of years.
2. periods: Chronologically, epochs are clumped together
into larger units called periods.
3. Eras: Periods are combined to make subdivisions called
Eras.
4. An eon: is the largest period of geological time.

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 Cont’d
• The division of time units in the geological time scale is
usually based on the occurrence of significant geological
events (e.g. mass extinctions).
• As such, the geological time categories do not usually
consist of a uniform length of time.

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 Cont’d
B. Absolute Dating A. Relative Dating

Radiometric techniques. Relative dating uses geological evidence

-This technique was developed with to assign comparative ages of fossils.
discovery of radioactivity in 1896. Hence, we can use two ways to know the
➢The regular rates of decay for unstable, relative age of a rock:
radioactive elements were found to ▪one way is to look at any fossils the rock
constitute virtual “clocks” within the may contain. If any of the fossils are
earth‟s rocks. unique to one of the geologic time
➢Radioactive elements such as uranium periods, then the rock was formed during
(U) and thorium (Th) decay naturally to that particular time period.
form different elements or isotopes of ▪The second way is to use the "What is
the same element. on top of the older rocks?"
➢Every radioactive element has its own ▪When you find layers of rocks in a cliff or
half-life. hillside, younger rocks are on top of older
rocks. But these two methods only give
the relative age of rocks -which one is
younger and which is older

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2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms
of Ethiopia and the Horn
• 2.4.1. The Precambrian Era Geologic Processes (4.5 billion - 600
million years ago)
• The Precambrian Era covers 5/6th of the Earth‟s history.
• Due to its remoteness in time and the absence of well-preserved
fossils, our knowledge of the events is limited.
• Nevertheless, some general description of the main geologic
processes can be made.
• The major geologic event of the Precambrian Era was Orogenesis.
As a result, the land was subjected to intense folding. This was
accompanied by intrusive igneous activity.
• The result was the formation of huge mountain ranges.

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 Cont’d
• In between the orogenic periods and after the last
orogenesis, there were long periods of denudation,
which finally reduced these mountains to near-level
(peneplained) rock surfaces.

• This “levelled” surface was later (in the Mesozoic and

Cenozoic Eras) covered by younger rock formations.
Therefore, in most parts of Ethiopia rocks belonging to
this Era are found beneath all other rocks, forming the
basement rocks

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 Cont’d
• Since, they had been subjected to pressure and heat from
overlying weight, earth movements (folding, orogenesis)
and to intrusive igneous activity; the original rocks (both
sedimentary and igneous) were altered into metamorphic
rocks of varying stages of metamorphism.
• Since these same processes have allowed mineralization
and crystal formation, the rocks are also collectively
described as crystalline rocks.
• The Precambrian rocks are overlaid by recent rock
formations.
• However, as surface rocks covering 25% of the land mass
of the country; they are found exposed in the following
areas:
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 Cont’d

A. In the northern part: Western lowlands, parts of

northern and central Tigray.
B. In the western Part: Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz
(Metekel and Asossa), western Gojjam, western Wellega,
Illuababora, and Abay gorge.
C. In the southern Part: Guji, southern Omo, and parts of
southern Bale and Borena.
D. In the eastern part: Eastern Hararghe.

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 2.4.2. The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600
million - 225 million years ago)
• The Paleozoic Era lasted for about 375 million years.
• The major geological process of this Era was denudation.
• The gigantic mountains that were formed by the
Precambrian orogeny were subjected to intense and
prolonged denudation.
• At the end, the once gigantic mountain ranges were
reduced to a “peneplained” surface.
• Undulating plain with some residual features (inselbergs)
here and there was formed.
• Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia, rocks
belonging to this Era are rare in the country.

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 2.4.3. The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes (225-70 million
years ago)
• This Mesozoic Era lasted for about 155 million years.
• It was an Era of alternate slow sinking and rising
(epeirogenesis) of the landmass.
• This process affected the whole present-day Horn of Africa
and Arabian landmass.
• At the same time the land was tilted eastward and
therefore lower in the southeast and higher in the
northwest.
• The subsidence of the land began about 225 million years
ago.
• As the land sank slowly the sea invaded it starting from
Somalia and Ogaden and slowly spreading northwestward
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 cont’d
• This was in late Triassic.
• This phenomenon continued up to Jurassic period.
• As the shallow sea spread towards the land, sands
were deposited over the peneplained Precambrian
rock surface.
• As the depth of the sea increased, mud (shale),
gypsum and later lime were deposited.
• The latter is associated with the flourishing of marine
life and decaying and precipitating of their remains, as
the sea stayed long.
• Hence, Mesozoic rocks are considered to have the
greatest potential for oil and gas deposits.
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 Cont’d
• Through time, compression by the overlying rocks and
by cementing minerals, the sands and lime were
compacted to form sandstone and limestone layers
respectively.

• These are known as the Adigrat sand stone and Hintalo

limestone layers.

• They are named after place names in Tigray where they

might have been first identified.

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 Cont’d
• In the Horn of Africa and Ethiopia, the slow rise of the land
and consequently the regression of the sea began in the
Upper Jurassic.
• It continued throughout the Cretaceous period.
• With the retreat of the sea, another process of deposition
occurred.
• In the country sedimentation ended with the deposition of
clay, silt, sand conglomerate brought in from the land as the
sea receded due to uplift of the landmass.
• Gypsum, shale and at last sands were laid over the Hintalo
limestone.

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 Cont’t
• The uppermost layer is known as the Upper sandstone.
• By the end of the Mesozoic Era, when the land emerged
out of the sea, three major sedimentary formations were
laid and formed upon the Precambrian rock surface.
✓ These were the Adigrat or lower sandstone,
✓ Hintalo limestone and
✓ Upper Sandstone.

-The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the land mass

of the country.

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 Cont’d
• Due to the tilting of the landmass during the transgression
and regression of the sea, and due to the direction of the
invading and retreating sea, the age and thickness of the
Sandstone layers vary in a Southeast - Northwest direction.
• The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the
southeast and progressively decreases in age and thickness
northwestward.

• The Upper sandstone, on the other hand, is thicker and

younger (Upper Cretaceous) in the Southeast, while in the
Northwest it is older and thinner.

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 Cont’d
• In most parts of Ethiopia, the Mesozoic rocks are
overlaid by the Cenozoic rocks.

• As surface rocks, these old marine sediments are

extensively found in the Southeast lowlands.

• Other exposures include central Tigray, and along the

gorges of Abay and Wabishebelle rivers

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 2.4.4. The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes (70million
years ago - Present)
• The Cenozoic Era is the most recent of the geologic Eras.
• The tectonic and volcanic activities that took place in this
Era have an important effect in the making of the present-
day landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
• The land was subjected to two major geologic events and
other geologic processes of lesser magnitude but still
important.
• These geologic activities are:
a. Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring
of huge quantity of lava.
b. Formation of the Rift Valley.
c. Quaternary volcanism and deposition.
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 Cont’d

• The uplifting of the whole of the Arabo-Ethiopian

landmass is a continuation of the slow rise that began in
the Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

• This huge uplift continued to the Paleocene and

Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary period.

Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar

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 The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley
• The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East African Rift system
that extends from Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-
Mozambique in the south, for a distance of about 7,200 kilometers.
• Of these, 5,600 kilometers is in Africa, 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea and
Ethiopia.
• On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle
(200-300 km).
• The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African System meet and
form the triangular depression of the Afar where the Kobar Sink lies
about 125 meters below sea level.
• The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the separation of the Arabian
Peninsula from the Horn of Africa also took place during the Tertiary
period.
• is the most unstable part of the country

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 Cont’d
• There are numerous hot springs,
• Fumaroles፡ steam vent in a volcanic area from which steam and hot gases such
as sulfur dioxide are emitted.Fumaroles.png
• active volcanoes,
• Geysers፡ spring gushing hot water and steam: a spring that throws a jet of hot
water or steam into the air at intervals.Geyser.bmp
• and frequent earthquakes.
• The formation of the Rift Valley has the following structural
(physiographic) effects:
✓ It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.
✓ It separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass.
✓ It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden troughs.
✓ It creates basins and fault depressions on which the Rift
Valley lakes are formed.
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 Cenozoic: Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and
Depositions in Ethiopia
• They are recent volcanic activities that took place after the
formation of the Rift Valley.
• This occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs.
• This is a continuation of the tectonic and volcanic processes
that earlier affected the Rift Valley formation.
• This activity was generally limited to the floor of the Rift
Valley and the region South of Lake Tana, where the lava
covers an area of more than 3,000km2.

• Aden volcanic and recent faulting are more extensively

developed in the Afar region.

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 Cont’d
• The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include the
following:
• Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones, many of
which have explosive craters.
• Some of these are active Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera etc.
• Of these, Erta Ale is the most active volcano in Ethiopia.
• Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-
dormant (Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu north
of Lake Ziway, Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc.).
• Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which are
very recent.
• Lava ridges.
• Thermal springs, fumaroles etc.
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 Cenozoic: Quaternary Deposition
• During the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic Era, the Earth
experienced a marked climatic change, where warmer and
dry periods were alternating with cooler and wet periods.
• This was the time of the last “Ice Age” in the middle and high
latitude areas and the time of the “Pluvial Rains” in Africa.
• The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian plateau and
the eroded materials were deposited in the Rift Valley
lakes.
• Lake and marshy areas became numerous and deep.
• Many were enlarged and covered much area and even
merged together.
• For example, Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa; Chamo-Abaya;
and Lake Abe and the nearby smaller lakes and marsh basins
formed huge lakes.
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 Cont’d
• Today, there are lacustrine deposits of continental origin
around many of the Ethiopian lakes, river valleys and
lowlands.
• According to the place and manner of deposition and
depositing agents these deposits are divided as follow.
a. Lacustrine deposits: Deposits on former lakebeds, and
swampy depressions.
b. Fluvial deposits: Deposits on the banks of rivers, flood
plains both in plateau, foothills etc.
c. Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features: These are
occurred on high mountains, such as Bale and Kaka
Mountains.
d. Aeolian deposits: Are windblown deposits.
e. Coastal and marine deposits: Deposits on sea invaded
and sea-covered places.
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 Cont’d
• The quaternary deposits are mainly found in the Rift
Valley (Afar and Lakes Region), Baro lowlands, southern
Borena, and parts of northwestern low lands.

• Generally, the Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land

mass of the country.

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 Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
• The occurrence of metallic minerals in Ethiopia is
associated with the Precambrian rocks.

• Although not in sufficient concentration and extent, a great

variety of such minerals occur in the basement rocks.
• These rocks contain most of the metallic deposits known at
present.

• presently mineral production from Ethiopia has been

negligible by World standards.

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 2.5.1. Brief Facts and Current State of Main Minerals in
Ethiopia

• Geological surveys proved that Ethiopia has abundant

mineral resources of metals and precious metals, coal,
and industrial minerals.

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Type of Use Location
mineral
resource
Gold Jewelry -Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola
Dermi-dama, Sakoro and Lega-dembi
-Secondary gold deposits: Adola, Murmur Basin, Shakiso,
Awata Basin, Dawa Basin, Ghenale Basin, Ujama
Basin,Makanisa (Guba and Wombera), Kaffa.
In Gambella and Illuababora (Akobo River), in Sidama
(Wondo), Borena (Negele-Yabelo area) and in Benishangul-
Gumuz (Sherkole), west Wellega, Mengi-Tumat-Shangul areas
to the Sudanese border, and the drainage of the Didessa and
Birbir.
Platinum jewelry, Yubdo area in Wellega (only active Ethiopian Platinum mine )
catalyst, -Delatti in Wellega
electroplating -the valley of Demi-Denissa and Bone Rivers as well as Tullu
Mountain area in Sidama.
Tantalum electronic Significant deposit found in southern Ethiopia,
components, It occurs in Adola area where Kenticha Tantalum mine
alloys,
Gemstones used in mainly in Amhara and Oromia Regional States.
jewelry -Quality Opal was first discovered by local people in Wadla and
Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar
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 Type of mineral Use Location
resource
Potash in fertilizers The potash reserve in the Danakil (Dallol Depression) of the
Afar region is believed to be significant.
Gypsum and cement, A limited amount of gypsum is produced for domestic
Anhydrite plaster, consumption in Ethiopia, mainly for the cement industry, bu
fertilizers very large deposits are known to occur in sedimentary
formations of the Red Sea coastal area, Danakil Depression,
Ogaden, Shewa, Gojjam, Tigray, and Hararghe.
Clay making bricks, -Alluvial clay deposits for bricks and tile, pottery and pipe
ceramics, and industry occur in Adola, Abay gorge, and the Rift Valley lakes
cement. region.
-Ceramic clay for the production of glasses, plates, bricks is
found at Ambo and Adola. Eg:Tabor ceramic industry in
Hawassa
Marble building, Has been quarried in such localities as west of Mekelle and
sculpture, south of Adwa in Tigray. In the east in Galetti, Soka, Ramis,
monuments. Rochelle, Kumi and other valleys of Chercher Mountain in
West Hararghe. In areas built of Precambrian schist in Gonde
and the Dabus River and other neighboring river basins in
Benishangul-Gumuz and Gojjam.
Fentanesh Haile ( Asst.Professor), Bahir Dar
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Construction For theUniversity
surfacing of roads and compaction, basalt, scoria and
 CHAPTER THREE

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN
 Introduction
 The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the
geologic activities of the Cenozoic Era.
 The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell and the
subsequent outpouring, spreading and thick
accumulation of Trapean lava have given rise to an
outward sloping highland plateau and mountains.
 Faulting elsewhere

 They also formed depressions on which lakes were

subsequently created.
 General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography
 The Ethiopian landform is characterized by:
✓ Flat-topped plateaus,
✓ high and rugged mountains,
✓ deep river gorges and vast plains.
-Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level
(Kobar Sink) to the highest mountain in Ethiopia,
Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l), which is the
fourth highest mountain in Africa.
• Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated
landmass in the African continent.
 Cont’d
 It is sometimes described as the Roof of East Africa
because of its height and large area.
 More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000
meters of elevation; and above 1,500 meters makes 44% of
the country.
 Half of this, in turn, is at more than 2,000 meters above sea
level.
 Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and
northern Ethiopia, and its Northernmost portion extends
into Eritrea.
 have been dissected by several rivers and ravines which
have cut deep gorges.
 Cont’d
 Most of the country consists of high plateau and
mountain ranges that are sources of many rivers and
streams that made the country to be described as the
“Water Tower of East Africa”.

 The diversity in topography is accompanied by

differences in other natural features such as soil,
climate, vegetation and wild life.

 Likewise, the socio-cultural and economic

phenomena are also affected by the topography.
 Cont’d
 Taking the 1,000 meters contour line for the highland-lowland
demarcation, one observes the following contrasting features
between the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands;
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands:
 Moderate and high amount of rainfall (>600 mm per year).
 Lower mean annual temperature (<20°C).
 The climate is favorable for biotic life.
 Rain-fed agriculture is possible.
 Free from tropical diseases.
 Attractive for human habitation and densely settled.
 Cont’d

 Cumulative effect have been significant throughout

Ethiopian history in the economic, cultural and
political life of the people.
 These highlands make up nearly 56% of the area of the
Ethiopia.
 This is further subdivided into lower highland (1,000 -
2,000 m.a.s.l), which make up 35% and higher highland
(>2,000 m.a.s.l) constituting nearly 22%.
 Characteristics of Ethiopian lowlands
-In contrast to the highlands, the lowlands make up nearly the
remaining 44% of the area of the Ethiopia.
characterized by:
 Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher temperature.
 High prevalence of tropical diseases. (malaria, cholera,
Chagas’ disease, yellow fever, and dengue)
 Lower population densities.
 Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life.
 Vast plain lands favorable for irrigation agriculture along the
lower river basins.
 3.2. The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia
 three major physiographic units brought about by the geologic
processes of the Cenozoic Era are:
1) The Western highlands and lowlands
2) The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and lowlands
3) The Rift Valley
3.2.1. The Western Highlands and Lowlands
➢ This physiographic unit includes all the area west of the Rift Valley.
➢ It extends from north to south encompassing nearly the whole
western half of Ethiopia.
➢ It makes up about 44% of the area of the country.
➢ In the east the western escarpment of the Rift Valley bound it
whereas westward, the land gradually descends in altitude until it
merges into the western foothills and lowlands, along the Sudan and
South Sudan border.
➢ This region is further subdivided into four groups of highlands
(76.3%) and four groups of lowlands (23.7%) (See Fig. 3.1).
 The Western Highlands
a. The Tigray Plateau
 It extends from the Tekeze gorge in the south to central
Eritrean highlands.
 The Tigray plateau is separated from the Eritrean plateau by
the Mereb River.
 It lies to the southeast of the upper course of the Mereb/Gash
River and to the northeast of Tekeze River Gorge.
 It constitutes about 13% of the area of the region.
 It is an elongated highland with most of the land being in
between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level.
 The right bank tributaries of Tekeze drain this plateau.
 There are high mountains in this plateau with elevations of
over 3000 meters, namely Mount Tsibet (3988 m.a.s.l),
Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l), and Mount Assimba (3248
m.a.s.l).
 b. North Central Massifs
 This Physiographic division is the largest in the western
highlands
 Much of its northern and southern limit follows the Abay
and Tekeze gorges.
 The Abay, Tekeze and their tributaries have cut into this
region a maze of gorges, steep sided river valleys, dividing
the land into many isolated plateau blocks, precipitous
tablelands and other rugged surface forms.

 In its central part, the physiographic unit also accommodates

the Lake Tana basin surrounded by plains of Fogera and
Dembia in the north and an upland plain in its south.
 Cont’d
 58% of the region is at an altitude of more than 2,000 meters, making
it, next to the Shewan Plateau, the second highest physiographic
division. (Shewan Plateau has largest proportion of elevated ground in WPR)
 The region consists of the Gonder, Wello and Gojjam Massifs. Out of
the 26 mountain peaks with altitude of more than 4,000m.a.s.l in
Ethiopia, 19 mountain peaks are found in this physiographic region
 Among these, the most popular ones include Mount Ras Dashen
(4,620 m.a.s.l), Mount Weynobar/Ancua (4462 m.a.s.l), Mount
KidisYared (4453 m.a.s.l), and Mount Bwahit (4437 m.a.s.l) in the
Simen Mountain System.
 Cont’d
 Mount Guna (4,231m.a.s.l) in the Debre Tabour Mountain
System, Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the Lasta highlands
of Wello and Mount Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the Choke
Mountain System in Gojjam are also part of Simen Mountain
System.
 These mountains have steep cliffs and rugged terrain that
provide scenic views to climbers.
 The Mountain systems in Gonder and Gojjam are separated
from the eastern group of mountains in Wello by
impenetrable and deep gorges.
 At one point though, they are connected by Yeju-Wadla
Delanta land bridge (ridge).
 c. The Shewa Plateau/central highlands
 is bounded by the Rift Valley in the east and southeast, by
the Abay gorge in its northern and western limit, and the
Omo gorge in the south and west.

 the Shewa Plateau is the smallest of the Western highlands

with only 11% of the area of the whole physiographic region

 Nearly ¾ of its area is at an altitude of more than 2,000

meters above sea level.

 Cont’d
 The Shewa plateau is drained, outward in all directions by
the tributaries of Abay, Omo, and Awash.
 It, therefore, forms a water divide for these three river
basins.
 The tributaries of Abay:- Guder, Muger, Jema etc. have cut
deep gorges and steep sided river valleys.
 the tributaries of Omo and Awash have dissected the other
sides of the plateau.
 this plateau has relatively extensive flat-topped uplands,
giving it the appearance of a true plateau.
 The highest mountain in the Shewan plateau is Mount
Abuye-Meda (4,000 m.a.s.l) in Northern Shewa, Mount
Guraghe in the south is 3,721 meters high.
 d. The Southwestern Highlands
 Consists of the highlands of Wellega, Illuababora, Jimma,
Kaffa, Gamo and Gofa.
 This region is separated from the adjacent highlands by the
Abay and Omo river valleys.
 It extends from the Abay gorge in the north to the Kenya
border and Chew Bahir in the south.
 It accounts for 22.7% of the area of the region.
 The region is the second largest in the Western highlands.
 About 70% of its area lies within 1,000-2,000 meters altitude
 The southwestern plateau is the wettest in Ethiopia
 Cont’d
 It is drained by Dabus, Deddessa (tributaries of Abay),
Baro, Akobo and the Ghibe/Omo rivers.

 The numerous streams have cut these highlands to

produce the most dissected and rugged terrain that
accommodates the most numerous and diverse ethnic
linguistic groups in Ethiopia.

 With a height of 4,200 m a s l, Guge Mountain is the

highest peak in this physiographic subdivision
 The Western Lowlands
 These are the western foothills and border plains that extend
from Western Tigray in the north to southern Gamo-Gofa in
the South.
 In certain places, ridges or part of the highlands protrude into the
lowlands, interrupting their continuity.
 They make 11% of the area of the physiographic region.
 The general elevation ranges between 500 and 1000 meters above
sea level.
❑ Tekeze lowland,
❑ Abay-Dinder lowland,
❑ Baro lowland, and
❑ Ghibe lowland
 With the exception of the Baro lowland, the region is generally
characterized by arid or semi-arid conditions.
 Pastoral or semi-pastoral economic activities dominate the area.
 As one moves northwards, the degree of aridity increases, making rain-
fed agriculture more difficult.
 Cont’d
 Since one or two rivers cross all of these lowlands, irrigation agriculture is
highly feasible.
 For example, the Baro lowland has an extensive flat area suitable for
mechanized agriculture.
 The Ghibe/Omo lowland, includes the lower Ghibe/Omo Valley and the
northern section of the Turkana basin is classified in the Western lowlands from its
geographical location.

 But structurally it also belongs to the Rift Valley.

 It is an area, which is both faulted and tectonically depressed.

 The Western Lowlands importance could be related to agriculture, history,

or are simply border towns and frontier ports. These are Humera(W.Tig),
Metema (NW. Amh), Omedla, Kurmuk(SW. Begu), Gambella (N. Gamb) etc.
3.2.2. The Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
 It accounts for 37% of the area of Ethiopia.
 The highlands make up 46% of the physiographic division
while the rest is lowland.
 bordered by eastern escarpment of the Rift Valley in the west
and north,
 In many places the land raises so abruptly that from the edge
of the plateau one literally looks down the Rift Valley.
 From here, the land gradually descends southeastward into
the southeastern lowlands and then to the plains of Somalia.
 Cont’d
Further subdivided into two units of highlands and two
units of extensive lowlands
❖ The Southeastern Highlands

A. The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands

➢ These highlands are found to the east of the Lakes Region.

➢ They are located in the south western section of the

physiographic region.

➢ They make up 28.5% of the area of the region and 62% of

the south - Eastern Highlands.

 Cont’d
i) The Arsi Highlands
 are made up of flat rolling uplands and dissected mountains.
 The well-known mountains in this area are Mount Kaka (4,180
m.a.s.l), Mount Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l) and Mount Chilalo (4,036
m.a.s.l).
ii)The Bale highlands
 are separated from the Arsi highlands by the head and main stream
of Wabishebelle.
 They consist of a platform looking basaltic plateau in the north-
central part and high mountain massif to the south.
 The Afro-Alpine summit of Senetti plateau is found on this group.
 The highest mountain peaks in this region are Tulu-Demtu (4,377
m.a.s.l) and Mount Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l).
 Erosion features belonging to Pleistocene glaciation but later
modified by fluvial processes are seen in the trough-like gorges,
hanging valleys, and depressions.
 Cont’d
N:B
 Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has cut an underground
passage (Sof Omar cave) through the Mesozoic Limestone
rocks.
 The cave is found near Bale Mountains.
 It is one of the World's most spectacular and extensive
underground caverns creating a magnificent view accessible
only by an underground stream.

iii)The Sidama Highlands

 are separated from the Bale Highlands by the Ghenale river
valley.
 They occupy the southwestern corner of this region.
 The prominent feature here is the Jemjem plateau, an
important coffee growing area.
 Rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale along with their tributaries
have dissected this physiographic region.
 B. The Hararghe Plateau
 This plateau is a north-easterly extension of the south-eastern
highlands.
 extends from the Chercher highlands in the south-west to Jigjiga in
the east.
 It makes up 38% of the South Eastern highlands and 17.4% of the
whole physiographic region.
 It has the smallest proportion of upper highland (>2,000 meters).
 It is a low lying and elongated region.
 The left-bank tributaries of Wabishebelle drain it.
 Much of the Trappean lava is removed and the Mesozoic rocks are
extensively exposed. Babile1.bmp, Babile 2.bmp, Babile3.bmp, Babile
4.bmp

 The highest mountain here is Mount Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l).

 The Southeastern Lowlands
 located in the southeastern part of the country and the most
extensive lowlands.
 They make up 54% of the area of the physiographic region
and around one-fifth of the country.
 divided into Wabishebelle plain (60%) and the Ghenale
Plain (40%).
 include the plain of Ogaden, east of Wabishebelle
 Elkere plain b/n Ghenale and Wabishebelle
 and Borena west of Ghenale basin
 These extensive plains are interrupted here and there, by
low hills, low ridges, inselbergs and by shallow and broad
river valleys and depressions.
 Cont’d
 these lowlands are little used and support very small
population/ sparsely populated due to the harsh climatic
conditions.

 inhabited by pastoral and semi-pastoral communities,

 The economic potential for this region includes animal

husbandry, irrigation, agriculture and perhaps exploitation
of petroleum and natural gas.
 3.2.3. The Rift Valley
 is a tectonically formed structural depression
 It is bounded by two major and more or less parallel
escarpments.
 It covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia.
 It is elongated and funnel shaped, with a NE-SW orientation.
 It opens out in the Afar Triangle, where it is the widest, and
narrows down to the south.
 The floor of the Rift Valley is made up of interconnected
troughs, grabens and depressions.
 Volcanic rocks, fluvial and lacustrine deposits cover the
floor.
 In many places, numerous volcanic domes, hills and cinder
cones rise from the floor.
 Cont’d
 Altitude in the floor ranges from 125 meters below sea
level at Dallol Depression, to as high as 2,000 meters above
sea level in the Lakes region.
 The bounding escarpments are also of varying heights.
 From the floor to the edge of the escarpment, the heights
vary from 200 to 1500 meters.
 the climate also varies from warm, hot and dry to cool and
moderately moist conditions resulted in variation of social
and economic life
 There are places, which are desolate/ uninhabited, and
sparsely inhabited by pastoralists where as in other parts
people practice some rain-fed agriculture.
 Cont’d
 The Rift Valley is subdivided into three physiographic sub-
regions.
❖ the Afar Triangle,
❖ the Main Ethiopian Rift, and
❖ the Chew Bahir Rift.
i. The Afar Triangle
▪ is the largest and widest part of the Rift Valley
▪ makes up 54% of the Rift Valley area.
▪ It is bounded by the high western and eastern escarpments in
the west and east respectively, and by the Afar and Aisha
Horst in the northeast.
 Cont’d
 morphology of the Afar depression, triangular-shape lowland,
where elevation drops uniformly from approximately 1,000
meters in the southwest to below sea level in the north
(Danakil depression) and in the east, where the shores of Lake
Asal, fluctuating at around 125 meters below sea level,
represent the lowest subaerial point of the African continent.

 The area is generally of low altitude (300-700 meters).

 The depression, hosts one of the most hostile environments
on Earth (maximum temperatures can exceed 50°C during
the summer wet season;
-Dallol, at the northern tip of Afar.
 Cont’d
 characterized by faulted depressions (grabens), volcanic hills,
active volcanoes, volcanic ridges, lava fields and low lava
platforms.
 Lakes (Abe, Asale, and Afrera) occupy some of these basins.
 A prominent feature in this region is the Denakil Depression
(Kobar Sink)
 Separated from the Red Sea by a 200 meters high land barrier,
much of it lies below sea level.
 A larger part of this is covered by thick and extensive salt plain.
 Lake Asale and Lake Afrera occupy the lowest parts of this
sunken depression.
 The Afar Triangle is generally hot and dry
❖ The economic importance: salt extraction, irrigation along the
Awash River and electric potential from geothermal energy
ii. The Main Ethiopian Rift/Central Rift
 It refers to the narrow belt of the Rift Valley that extends
from Awash River in the north to Lake Chamo in the
south.
 bounded by the western and eastern escarpments.
 With the exception of the Arbaminch area, the bounding
escarpments are generally low.
 is the narrowest and the highest
 It has an average width of 50-80 kilometers and general
elevation of 1,000-2,000 meters above sea level.
 The floor in many places is dotted by cinder cones and
volcanic mountains.
 The big ones include Mount Fentale, Boseti-guda (near
Adama), Aletu (north of Lake Ziway) and Chebi (north of
Lake Hawasa).
 Cont’d
 Because of altitude, the lakes region of the Main
Ethiopian Rift is generally milder and watery.

 Here rain-fed agriculture is practiced.

 Other resource bases include the recreational value of the

lakes, the agricultural importance of some streams and
lakes, and the geothermal energy potential.
 iii. The Chew Bahir Rift
 This is the smallest and the southern-most part of the Rift
Valley
 Gneissic highlands of Konso and the surrounding
highlands separate it from the Main Ethiopian Rift to the
north.
 characteristic feature of this region is the broad and
shallow depression, which is a marshy area covered by tall
grass, into which the Segen and Woito streams empty.
 3.3. The Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and
Socioeconomic Conditions
1. Agricultural practices
 Relief influences farm size and shape in that in an area of
rugged terrain the farmlands are small in size and
fragmented and tend to be irregular in shape.
 Choice of farming techniques and farm implements are
highly influenced (in rugged terrain mechanized farming
techniques are difficult to practice).
 influences crop production as some corps are well adapted to
higher altitudes (barley, wheat) and others to low altitude
(sorghum, maize).
 influences the practice of animal husbandry as most equines
and sheep are reared in the higher altitudes and camels and
goat are well adapted to lower altitudes
 2. Settlement pattern
 Highlands of Ethiopia that experience a temperate type of
climatic condition that are mainly free from most of the
tropical diseases are densely settled.
 Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the development of
settlement and its expansion.
 The highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by sedentary
life and permanent settlements while lowlands that are
inhabited by pastoralists have temporary settlements.
 3. Transportation and communication
 The highly dissected nature of the landscape is a barrier to
the development of internal surface transportation that
resulted in the long-term isolation of many communities
 The difficult terrain makes infrastructure development and
maintenance costly.
 TV and radio communications are also highly influenced by
relief.
 The rugged topography rendered rivers less navigable due to
the waterfalls, deep gorges and steep cliffs.
 4. Hydroelectric power potential
 The great difference in altitude coupled with high rainfall
created suitable conditions for a very high potential for the
production of hydroelectric power in Ethiopia.

5. Socio-cultural feeling
 The rugged terrain as a result of excessive surface dissection
resulted in the long-term isolation of communities that led
to the occurrence of cultural diversity.
 People who live in the highlands have been identifying
themselves as degegnas (mountaineers) and those who live in
the lowlands as kollegnas (lowlanders).
 6. Impacts on climate
 The climate of Ethiopia is a result of the tropical position of
the country and the great altitudinal variation of the general
topography.
 Highlands with higher amount of rainfall and lower rate of
evapo-transpiration tend to be moisture surplus compared to
the moisture deficit lowlands.

7. Impacts on soil
- Steep mountain slopes have shallow and little developed
soils.
8. Impacts on natural vegetation
- Relief through its effect on climate and hydrology affect
the type of natural vegetation grown in an area.
 Chapter 4
Drainage Systems and Water
Resource of Ethiopia and the Horn
 4.1. Introduction
▪ Globally water bodies occupy about ¾ (71%) of the earth’s surface, mainly
occupied by oceans and seas . Of which,
✓ nearly 97.5% is alkaline (found in oceans and seas);
✓ only about 2.5% is fresh water, out of which
o nearly 68.7% is deposited in glaciers/ice mass/,
o 30.1% in ground water,
o 0.8% in permafrost/permanently frozen land- of polar areas/ and
o 0.4% in surface waters. (eg. Lakes, rivers, atmosphere, soil and wetlands)

▪ The most abundant and easily available fresh waters are:

✓ surface water and
✓ ground water.
▪ However, it is unevenly distributed throughout the world.
 Cont’d
▪ Ethiopia has larger volume of ground and surface water.
❖ This is mainly owing to:
❖The diverse topographical setup;
❖ Relatively higher rainfall;

▪ Around 0.7 % of Ethiopia’s total land mass is covered by water bodies.

▪ Although it requires further detailed investigation, Ethiopia’s surface water

potential (eg. Lakes, rivers, atmosphere, soil and wetlands) as studied in
different integrated river basin master plans is estimated to be 124.4
billion cubic meters (BCM).

➢ Hence, Ethiopia is referred to be “the water tower of Eastern

Africa”.
 4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
Concepts:
▪ Drainage is conceptualized as the flow of water through well-defined
channel.

▪ A drainage system is made up of the a principal river and its tributaries

that flow into it.
▪ A river system begins at a place called the source or headwater and ends at
a point called mouth.

➢ So, drainage system is branched network of stream channels together

with the adjacent land slopes they drain.

▪ A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a river & its
tributaries collect both the surface runoff and subsurface flow.

✓ It is bounded by and separated from other river basins by a water

divide or topographic divide.
 Cont’d
▪ The drainage pattern of an area is the result of:
✓ the geological processes /faulting, folding/,
✓ nature and structure of rocks /rough or smooth/,
✓ topography /rugged or plain/,
✓ Slope /steep or gentle/,
✓ amount and the periodicity of the flow

▪ The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined by

topographical structures which can be clarified as:.

❖ The outward sloping of the Western and South eastern plateaus result in:
➢ Western and Southeastern drainage systems
❖ The structural formation of the Rift Valley ( inward sloping escarpments)
result in:
❖ Rift Valley drainage system
❖ Faults and joints that structurally influence part of the courses of many
rivers.
Drainage Basins of Ethiopia
The Major Drainage Systems
4.2.1. The Western Drainage Systems
▪ Are the largest of all drainage systems;
▪ Draining 40% of Ethiopia’s landmass, and
▪ 60% of the annual water flow.
▪ Most of the catchment extends to the westward sloping part of
the western highlands and lowlands.
▪ Consist of the basins of Rivers Tekeze, Abay, Baro-Akobo, Ghibe/
Omo
▪ Unlike other river basins in the system the Ghibe (Omo) flows
southward to join Lake Turkana (an elongated Rift Valley Lake);
▪ Others (Tekeze joining Whit Nile at Atbara town/ in north-
central Sudan, Abay in Khartoum & Baro Jions Sobat at South
Sudan) flow westward to join white Nile and finally ends at
Mediterranean sea.
 Cont’d
 Abay river: is the largest river both in volumetric
discharge and coverage
➢ Together with its tributaries, most of which are left-bank tributaries; it
carries 65 percent of the annual water flow of the region (WDS).

➢ Rises from Lake Tana (some sources indicate its origin from Sekela, Choke
mountain) flows about 1,450 kilometers and joins the White Nile in
Khartoum, Sudan to form the Nile River.

➢ Abay basin covers an area of 199,812 km², covering parts of Amhara, Oromia
and Benishangul-Gumuz regional states.

➢ More than 60 streams drain the Abay within elevation ranging between 500 -
4261 meters above sea level.
➢ The largest of these is Ghilgel Abay (Little Abay).
 Tekeze and its tributaries:
 carrying 12% of the annual water flow of the region

 drains 82,350 Km² of land surface within elevation ranging

between 536-4517 meters above sea level.

 Erosion in the basin resulted in large tablelands, plateau blocks

and isolated mountain groups.

 The basin has two main tributaries (Angereb and Goang) which
rises in the central highlands of Ethiopia.

 is termed Atbara in Sudan, which is a tributary of the Nile.

 The total mean annual flow from the basin is estimated to be 8.2
billion metric cubes (BMC).
 Baro- Akobo and Ghibe/ Omo Rivers:
Baro- Akobo:
 The two rivers drain the wettest highlands in the south and
southwestern Ethiopia.
 In the lower course, the Baro River flows across an extensive
marshy land.
 Baro together with Akobo forms Sobat River in South Sudan.
 Baro – Akobo basin carries 17% of the annual water flow and
has an area of 75,912KM2
 The total mean annual flow from the basin is estimated to be
23.6BMC.
 Covers parts of the Benishangul- Gumuz, Gambella, Oromia
and SNNPR.
Ghibe/ Omo: basin carries 6% of the annual water flow and
drains an area of 79,000KM2
 Finally enters to Lake Turkana
 Cont’d
▪ The total mean annual flow from Ghibe / Omo basin is 16.6 (BMC)

▪ Its major tributary is Gojeb river

4.2.2. The Southeaster Drainage Systems

▪ Drain nearly the entire physiographic region of southeaster part of
Ethiopia.
▪ The basin is mainly drained by Wabishebelle and Ghenale,
▪ Slopes south-eastwards across large water deficient plains.
▪ Major highlands of this basin include plateaus of Arsi, Bale,
Sidama and Harerghe.
▪ Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers cross the border into Somalia,
carrying 25 % of the annual water flow of Ethiopia.
 Cont’d
❑Ghenale River basin has an area of 171,042 km², covering parts of Oromia,
SNNPR, and Somali regions.
Ghenale, has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle,
It reaches the Indian Ocean.
The basin flows estimated to be 5.8 BMC within elevation ranging between
171-4385 meters above sea level.
In Somalia it is named the Juba River.
 Cont’d
 Wabishebelle with a total catchment area of 202,697 km², is the largest river
in terms of catchment area.

 It drains parts of Oromia, Harari and the Somali regions.

 It is the longest river in Ethiopia.

 Its tributaries are mainly left bank and, most of them, are intermittent.

 flowing through the Ogaden (arid plateau region of Ethiopia) into southern
Somalia (where it is known as the Shabeelle).

 Despite its size, the Wabishebelle fails to reach the Indian Ocean where at
the end of its journey it flows parallel to the coast before its water disappears
in the sands, just near the Juba River.
 4.2.3. The Rift Valley Drainage System
 is an area of small amount of rainfall, high evaporation and small catchment
area.
 The size of the drainage area is restricted by the outward sloping highlands,
which starts right from the edge of the escarpment.
 The Rift Valley drainage system is therefore left with the slopes of the
escarpment and the Rift Valley floor itself as the catchment area.
 The only major river basin is that of the Awash with a catchment area of
114,123 km² and has an average annual discharge of 4.9BMC .
 The Awash River originates from Shewan plateau in central highlands of
Ethiopia, and flows 1250 km.
 It covers parts of the Amhara, Oromia, Afar, Somali, Dire Dawa, and Addis
Ababa City Administration.
 Awash is the most utilized river in the country.
 Cont’d
 In the Rift Valley drainage systems, there is no one general flow direction, as
the streams flow in all directions.

 Following the Rift Valley orientation, the Awash flows in a northeast

direction.

 It finally ends in a maze of small lakes and marshy area; the largest of which
is Lake Abe on the Ethio-Djibouti border.

❖The Afar drainage sub-basin

➢ has practically no stream flow.
➢ It is an area of little rain, very high temperature and very high evaporation.
➢ Lake Afrera and Asale are the only main surface waters in the basin which are
not the result of any meaningful surface flow.
➢ Their formation is related to tectonic activities.
 Cont’d
❖The Southern part of the Rift Valley sub-basin
▪ is characterized by a number of lakes and small streams.

▪ It is also described as lakes region.

▪ The lakes occupy fault depression.

▪ There are small streams that drain down from the nearby mountain slopes
which supply water to the lakes.
▪ For example, Meki and Katar Rivers flow into Ziway;
▪ Bilate into Abaya; and
▪ Segen into Chew Bahir.
▪ Likewise, some of these lakes are interconnected.
➢ Lakes Ziway and Langano drain into Lake Abijiata through the small streams of

Bulbula and Horocolo respectively.

 4.3. Water Resources:
Rivers, Lakes and Sub-Surface Water
 4.3.1. The Ethiopian Rivers
 Unlike many other African countries, Ethiopia is endowed with many
rivers.

 Majority of the rivers originate from highland areas and cross the Ethiopian
boundary.

 Altogether, Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds separating the

Mediterranean Sea from the Indian Ocean drainage systems.
 ❖General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
 Owing to the highland nature of the Ethiopian landmass,
✓ surface ruggedness,
✓ the outward inclination of the highlands, and
✓ the climatic conditions, Ethiopian rivers have the following
characteristics.
Almost all major rivers originate from the highlands elevating more than 1500
meters above sea level,
Majority of Ethiopian rivers are trans-boundary,
Due to the marked seasonality of rainfall, Ethiopian rivers are characterized by
extreme seasonal fluctuation.
In the wet season, runoff is higher and rivers are full bursting their banks,
destroying small bridges, damage roads and flooding low lands; during the
dry seasons they became mere trickles of water or even dry up,
 Cont’d
 Due to surface ruggedness they have rapids and waterfalls
along their course,

 They have cuts, steep-sided river valleys and deep gorges along
their courses,

 Rivers in Ethiopia flow on steep slopes having steep profiles.

 Some of the rivers serve as boundaries, both international and

domestic administrative
54.4
 4.3.2. The Ethiopian Lakes
 Relatively Ethiopia is rich in lakes.

 Almost all Ethiopian lakes are result of tectonic process that took place
during Quaternary period of Cenozoic era.

 Except few, majority of lakes are located within the Rift Valley System.

 The lakes in this drainage are mainly formed on faulted depressions and are
clustered along the system forming linear pattern.

❖ Lake Tana,
➢ The largest lake in Ethiopia

➢ Occupies a shallow depression in the highlands.

➢ The Tana depression is believed to be formed following slower sinking and

reservoir by lava flow between Gojjam and Gonder massifs.
 Cont’d
❑Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes.
 the lakes at and around Bishoftu,

 Wonchi (near Ambo),

 Hayk (near Dessie) and

 the Crater Lake on top of Mount Zikwala.

 Lake Ashenge (Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin.

❑ Other types of lakes in Ethiopia are man-made such as

❑ Lakes Koka, Fincha and Melka Wakena, and many other lakes dammed
following hydroelectric power generation projects.
 Cont’d
❖ Cluster of lakes are lined up within main Ethiopian rift.

 Lake Abaya is the largest of all the lakes in the system.

 The southern tip of the Rift Valley forms the marshy land called the Chew

Bahir which is drained by Segan and Woito Rivers.

 Shala and Ziway are the deepest and the shallowest lakes in the central

Ethiopian Rift
 Table 4.2: Area and depth of some of Ethiopian Lakes
Lake Area (km2) Max. Lake Area (km²) Max. Depth(m)
Depth(m)
Lake Tana 3600 14 Abijata 205 14

Abaya 1162 13.1 Awassa 129 10

Chamo 551 13 Ashenge 20 25

Ziway 442 8.95 Hayk 5 23

Shala 409 266* Beseka 48.5 11

Koka 205 9

Source: Compiled from different sources

 4.3.3. Sub-surface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia
 As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has lower ground water
potential.

 However, there exists higher total exploitable groundwater potential.

 Climatic and geophysical conditions determine the availability of

groundwater resource.

 Based on existing scanty knowledge, the groundwater potential of Ethiopia

is estimated to be 2.6 - 6.5 BMC. This estimate is now considered
underestimated.

 Considering various separate studies, Ethiopian potential of groundwater is

believed to range between 12-30 BMC.
 4.4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in
Ethiopia
 The enormous water resource potential of Ethiopia is underutilized due to so
many factors.

 However, there are plenteous of opportunities that can transform the

resource into our collective social and economic needs.
❖ Some of potential development uses of water resource of Ethiopia are:
 a) Hydro-electric Potential
 Ethiopian rivers have a very high potential for generating electricity.
 exploitable potential of HP is estimated at about 45,000 megawatts
 The first hydroelectric power generation plant was installed on Akaki River
(Aba Samuel) in 1932
 Currently many hydroelectric power dams are operating and many others are
under construction.
 Cont’d
 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country’s largest dam
under construction aiming to generate “6400” (5200MW).

 Gilgel Gibe III hydropower project has been operational generating

1870MW.

 Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants

constructed on Lake Aba Samuel, Koka, Tis Abay, Awash, Melka Wakena,
Sor, Fincha, Gibe/Omo, Tana Beles and Tekeze, generating close to 4000
megawatts of energy.
Sites of Ethiopian HEP plants
 b) Irrigation and Transportation
 The potential of exploitable water in Ethiopia is huge, so why is our
agriculture still rain fed?
 The rugged terrain in Ethiopia limits the uses of Ethiopian rivers both for
irrigation and transportation.

 In the highlands, steep slopes, rapids, waterfalls, narrow and deep valleys
and gorges are important obstacles.

 But on the lowlands, their demand for irrigation is high.

 Regardless of existing physiographic setups, Ethiopia’s potential of irrigation

is estimated to be 5.3 million hectares.

 The Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa river systems have large irrigation
potential compared to other basins.
 Cont’d
 Despite the untapped irrigation practice, more than 60% of the area under
irrigation so far is located in Rift Valley Drainage System.

 Except few, majority of hydro-electric reservoirs are multi-purpose and are

expected to contribute for irrigation.

 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation.

 The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river.

 Comparatively, Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation than

rivers.

 Lake Tana and Abaya are relatively the most used for transportation.
 c) Fishing and Recreation
 Fishing
 The majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish.
 Currently the annual production of fish is estimated to be 31.5 thousand
tons.
 The exploitable potential is however, by far greater than the current
production.
 Currently Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000 tons per
year.
 Fish production from Lake Chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons per year.
 However, more than 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main
Rift Valley lakes.
 However, some of the lakes are currently threatened by sedimentation,
invasive species (water hyacinth), over exploitation
 There are a variety of fish, birds and other aquatic life forms in the lakes.
 Cont’d
 Recreation
➢ The scenic beauty of the lakes,

➢ the hot springs around them,

➢ the spectacular river gorges and the most impressive waterfalls

make Ethiopian rivers and lakes important recreational and tourist attractions.

 As they are the natural habitat of a variety of wild life, some of which are
only endemic to Ethiopia, their value for scientific purposes is immense.
 CHAPTER 5

THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN

146
5.1 Introduction
 Ethiopia as a large country in the Horn of Africa, is
characterized by a wide variety of altitudinal ranges
and diverse climatic conditions.

 because of its closeness to the equator and the

Indian Ocean, the country is subjected to large
temporal and spatial variations in elements of
weather and climate.

147
 Cont’d
 Weather: the instantaneous/ immediate state of
the atmosphere
Composing: measured using instruments
Temperature ------------------------thermometer
atmospheric pressure -------------barometer
humidity -----------------------------Hygrometer
wind speed and direction ------ anemometer and Wind
vane
cloudiness and precipitation.
 In general, the weather that impacts the surface of
the Earth and those that live on the surface takes
place in the troposphere.
148
 Cont’d
 Climate: the state of the atmosphere over long time
periods, (decades and more).
 It is the composite of daily weather conditions
recorded for long periods of time.
 Climate also takes into account the extremes or
variations that may occur beyond the average
conditions.
 The climate of Ethiopia is therefore, mainly
controlled by the seasonal migration of the Inter-
tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and associated
atmospheric circulations as well as by the complex
topography of the country.

149
5.2. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
All weather conditions may be traced to the effect of the Sun on the
Earth.
Most changes in weather involve large scale horizontal motion of air
which is called wind.
The temperature differences produced by inequalities in heating
cause differences in air density and pressure that propel the winds.
The climate of a region is ultimately determined by the radiation, its
distribution and temporal fluctuations.
The long-term state of the atmosphere is a function of a variety of
interacting elements.
Weather is expressed by a combination of several elements.
Here are lists of major elements and controls of weather and climate.

150
Table 5.1.Elements and controls of weather and climate

151
5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate
 What do you think is the source of summer rainfall
in Ethiopia?

 Have you ever noticed varying lengths of days and

nights by seasons?

 What do you think is the reason behind?

152
 Cont’d
 The expressions of weather are
 Hotness or coldness,

 rainy or cloudiness,

 sunniness,

 windiness or calmness, of air you are feeling on the daily base

in your current location.

 Now the question one should inquire here is what

determines the variations in weather and climate
between places and seasons.
 Hence, these determining factors are called controls
of weather and climate or climatic controls.
153
 Cont’d
The climate of any particular location on earth is
determined by a combination of many interacting
factors.
These include:
 latitude,

 altitude/ Elevation,

 nearby water, ocean currents,

 topography, vegetation, and

 prevailing winds.

Moreover, the global climate system and any

changes that occur within it also influence local
climate.
154
5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate Cont’d
a. Latitude
 Is the distance of a location from the equator.

 The sun shines directly on equator for more hours

during the year than anywhere else.

 As you move further away from the equator towards

the poles, less solar insolation is received during the
year and the temperature become colder.

 Ethiopia’s latitudinal location has bearings on its

temperature.
155
 Cont’d
 Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted in:
➢ high average temperatures,
➢ high daily and small annual ranges of temperature,
➢ no significant variation in length of day and night between
summer and winter.
b. Inclination of the Earth's Axis
 The earth's rotation axis makes an angle of about 66
½° with the plane of its orbit around the sun, or
about 23 ½° from the perpendicular to the ecliptic
plane.
 This inclination determines the location of the
Tropics of Cancer, Capricorn and the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles
156
Cont’d
 As the earth revolves around the sun, this inclination
produces a change in the directness of the sun's rays;
in turn causes the directness of the sun and
differences in length of day and seasons.
 Equinoxes and Solstices
 An equinox is the instant/ moment of time when the sun
strikes the plane of the Earth's equator.
 During this passage the length of day and night are equal.

 Moreover,
 revolution of the earth along its orbit,
 the inclination of its axis from the plane of that orbit, and
 the constant position (parallelism) of the axis causes
seasonal changes in the daylight and darkness periods.
157
 Cont’d
 Equinox appears twice a year. Let's see two major
equinoxes:
i. The Vernal (spring) equinox:
▪ Appears to happen in the seasons of spring
▪ is the day when the point of verticality of sun's rays
crosses the equator northwards.
 This equinox experiences in Northern Hemisphere when
the sun is exactly above the equator.
 During this period, the length of day and night are equal.
 Vernal (spring) equinox marks the beginning of spring
season.
 March 21 marks the offset of the vernal equinox.

158
Cont’d
ii. The Autumn equinox:
▪ appears to happen when the sun crosses
equator giving approximately equal length
between day and night.
▪ It appears to happen when the visible sun
moves south across the celestial equator on 23rd
of September.
▪ It marks the beginning of Autumn season.

159
Cont’d
 Solstice: longest/ shortest day
 is an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern
or southern points relative to the celestial equator
 resulting in unequal length of days and nights in the
hemispheres.
 Both hemispheres during this event has either the most or
least sunlight of the year.
a. The summer Solstice:
 on June 21st, the northern hemisphere has maximum tilt
towards the sun experiencing longest daylight of the year.
 It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern
Hemisphere.
 The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly
above 23 ½ in the Tropic of Cancer.

160
 Cont’d
b. The winter solstice:
 Is the time of year in the Northern Hemisphere when the
noon Sun appears to be farthest south.
 22nd of December is the day when the maximum southward
inclination is attained in the Southern Hemisphere.
 In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest
night and shortest daylight in Northern Hemisphere.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is
directly over the Tropic of Capricorn, which is located at 23
½ ° south of the equator.

161
The apparent path of the sun at different
latitudes

162
Cont’d
c. Altitude:
 Altitude is the height of location above the sea level.
 Under normal conditions there is a general decrease
in temperature with increasing elevation.
❖The average rate at which temperature changes per
unit of altitudinal change is known as lapse rate.
 The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the
atmosphere named as troposphere.
 The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per kilometer rise in
altitude.

163
 Cont’d
 Types of lapse rate
 Three types of lapse rates are identified:
i. Dry adiabatic laps rate
ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate
iii. Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late

164
Cont’d
i. Dry adiabatic laps rate
 The temperature changes occurring in the rising or
subsiding air mass
✓ are not the result of additions of heat to,
✓ or withdrawals of heat from outside sources,
✓ but rather are the consequence of internal processes of
expansion and contraction.
 This is known as adiabatic temperature change.
 An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the
temperature of an air parcel changes in response to
the expansion or compression process associated
with a change in altitude.

165
Cont’d
 Dry adiabatic laps rate: the lapse rate that occurs in a
vertically moving air parcel in which no condensation is
occurring
 Vertical displacements of air are the major cause
of adiabatic temperature changes.
 When air rises, it expands because there is less
weight of air upon it.
 Thus, if a mass of dry air at sea level rises to an
altitude of about 18,000ft (5486.22 meters), the
pressure upon it is reduced by nearly half and
consequently its volume is doubled.
 As long as the air in the parcel is unsaturated (the
relative humidity is less than 100 percent), the
rate of adiabatic cooling or warming remains 166
Cont’d
 The temperature change is related to the expansional
cooling (compressional warming) that occurs when the air
moves upward (downward).
 More precisely, if the upward movement of air does not
produce condensation, then the energy expended by
expansion will cause the temperature of the mass to fall
at the constant dry adiabatic lapse rate.
 The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every
1000 m of change in elevation.
 This rate applies only to unsaturated air, and thus it is
called the dry adiabatic laps rate.

167
Cont’d
ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate
 The lapse rate that occurs in a vertically moving air parcel
in which condensation is occurring.
 Due to the fact that the heat added during
condensation starts cooling following the expansion,
the air will no longer cool at the dry adiabatic rate.
 This is due to the latent heat in the water vapor
carried by the air.
 The heat is released in the process of ascent, therefore
affecting or lowering the rate of temperature change
of the rising air.
 If a saturated air containing water droplets were to
sink, it would compress and warm at the moist
adiabatic rate because evaporation of the liquid
droplets would start the rate of compression
warming. 168
Cont’d
 Hence, the rate at which rising or sinking saturated
air changes its temperature is less than the dry
adiabatic rate.
 Prolonged cooling of air invariably produces
condensation, thereby liberating latent heat.
 Therefore, rising and saturated or precipitating air
cools at a slower rate than air that is unsaturated.
 This process is called wet adiabatic temperature
change.
 The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately 5°c
per 1000 meters ascend.

169
 Cont’d
iii. Environmental lapse rate / Atmospheric lapse late
▪ This refers to the actual, observed change of
temperature with altitude.
▪ The fact that air temperature is normally highest at low
elevations next to the earth and decreases with altitude
clearly indicates that most of the atmospheric heat is
received directly from the earth's surface and only
indirectly from the sun.
▪ lower layer is warmer, not only because it is closest to
the direct source of heat but also of its high density.
▪ It contains more water vapor and dust, which causes it
to be a more efficient absorber of earth radiation than is
the thinner, drier, cleaner air aloft/ in a higher position.
170
 Cont’d
 This decrease in temperature upward from the earth's
surface normally prevails throughout the lower
atmosphere called troposphere.

 It's important to keep in mind that this lapse rate is

determined by a vertically moving radiosonde. The
air itself is not moving up or down.
 The principal exception to the rule is the cause of
temperature inversions/ temperature increase with
altitude
 The rate of change is 6.5°C/1000 meters
171
5.3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of
Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia
5.3.1. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
➢ Altitude is an important factor in determining temperature
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
➢ Latitude, humidity and winds, with varying magnitude have
also significant impacts on temperature conditions in
Ethiopia.
➢ The spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia is
primarily determined by altitude and latitude.
➢ Ethiopia’s close proximity to equator (a zone of maximum
insolation) resulted for every part of the country to
experience overhead sun twice a year.
172
 Cont’d
 Ethiopia, as it is a highland country, tropical
temperature conditions have no full spatial coverage.
 Tropical temperature conditions are limited to the
lowlands in the peripheries.
 Thus temperature, as it is affected by altitude, decreases
towards the interior highlands.
 Mean annual temperature varies from over 30 °C in the
tropical lowlands to less than 10°c at very high altitudes.

173
Cont’d
 The Bale Mountains are among highlands where
lowest mean annual temperatures are recorded.

 The highest mean maximum temperature in the

country is recorded in the Afar Depression.

 Moreover, lowlands of north-western, western and

south-eastern Ethiopian experiences mean
maximum temperatures of more than 30°C.

 In Ethiopia there are local terms denoting

temperature zones as shown in the table below:
174
175
 Cont’d
 The temporal distribution of Ethiopian temperature is
characterized by extremes.

 The major controls determining its distributions are latitude

and cloud cover.

 However, some parts of the country enjoy a temperate climate.

 In the tropics, the daily range of temperature is higher and the

annual range is small, whereas the reverse is true in the
temperate latitudes.

 In Ethiopia, as in all places in the tropics, the air is frost-free

and changes in solar angles are small, making intense solar
radiation.
176
 Cont’d
 Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme than its
annual averages.
 Daily maximum temperature varies from a high of more
than 37°C over the lowlands in northeast and southeast to
 a low of about 10°C- 15°C over the northwestern and
southwestern highlands.
 temperature is high during the daytime in some places,
and is considerably reduced at night resulting maximum
difference in the daily range.
 But in the case of monthly averages, variation is minimal
and the annual range of temperature is small. This holds
true in both the highlands and lowlands.
 Conversely, low temperatures are recorded from
November to February.
177
 Cont’d
 In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperature shows
seasonal variations.

 For example, months from March to June in Ethiopia have records

of highest temperatures.

 as the sun is always high in the tropics, It is not easy to observe

distinct variation in temperature between seasons.

 However, there is a slight temperature increase in summer.

 Southern part of Ethiopia receives highest records of temperature

in autumn and spring following the relative shift of the sun;

 whereas in the northern part of the country, summer season is

characterized by higher temperature.

178
 5.3.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
 the rainfall system in Ethiopia is characterized by spatial and
temporal variability.
 Rainfall in Ethiopia is influenced by the position of Inter-
tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
 The convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the
Equatorial Westerlies forms the ITCZ, which is a low-pressure
zone.
 The inter-annual oscillation of the surface position of the
ITCZ causes a variation in the Wind flow patterns over
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ shifts
north and south of the equator.
 As the shift takes place, equatorial westerlies from the south
and southwest invade most parts of Ethiopia bringing moist
winds.
179
 Cont’d
 However, these winds decrease the length of rainy seasons
and magnitudes on the line of the shift.

 The shift takes place when the trade winds from the north
retreat giving the space for equatorial westerlies.

 This development mainly happens in July in Ethiopia and

the Horn causing variability and seasonality.

 The ITCZ shifts towards south of equator (Tropic of

Capricorn) in January.

180
Cont’d
 During this period, the Northeast Trade Winds
carrying non-moisture-laden dominates the
region.
 Afar and parts of Eritrean coastal areas
experience rainfall in this period.
 Following the directness of the Sun in March and
September around the equator, the ITCZ shifts
towards equator.
 During this time, the central highlands,
southeastern highlands and lowlands receives
rainfall as the south easterlies bring moist winds.

181
 Seasonal or Temporal Variability
 The temporal variability of rainfall are characterized by;
i. Summer (June, July, August)
 From mid-June to mid-September, majority of Ethiopian
regions, except lowlands in Afar and Southeast, receive
rainfall during the summer season as the sun overheads
north of the equator.
 High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans around the tropic of Capricorn although the Atlantic
contributes a lot, the Indian Ocean is also source of rainfall.
 During this season, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the
influence of the Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon)
and Easterlies.
 Hence, the Guinea monsoon and the South easterly winds
are responsible for the rain in this season.

182
 Autumn is the season of the year between summer and
winter.
 In autumn the ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening
the equatorial westerlies.
 During this season, the south easterlies from Indian
Ocean showers the lowlands in southeastern part of
Ethiopia.
iii. Winter (December, January and February)
 In winter, the overhead sun is far south of equator.
 During this season, northeasterly winds originating from
the landmass of Asia dominantly prevail Ethiopian
landmass.
 However, it has no significant coverage compared to other
seasons.
 The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry very183
 iv. Spring (March, April and May)
 In this season, the noonday sun is shining directly on
the equator while shifting north from south.
 The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more
direct solar radiation providing warmer weather for the
northern world.
 In this season, the effect of the northeast trade wind is
very much reduced.
 Conversely, the southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean
provide rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the
central and southeastern lowlands and highlands of
Ethiopia.

184
Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
 Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and
time, four rainfall regions can be identified in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 These are:
i. Summer rainfall region
❑ This region comprises almost all parts of the
country, except the southeastern and northeastern
lowlands.
❑ The region experiences most of its rain during
summer (kiremt), while some places also receive
spring (Belg) rain.
❑ The region is divided in to dry and wet summer
rainfall regions.
❑ Hence, the wet corresponds to the area having
rainfall of 1,000 mm or more. The High altitudes
and the windward side experience such rainfall 185
 Cont’d
ii. All year-round rainfall region
 It has many rainy days than any part of the
country.
 It is a rainfall region in the southwestern part of
the country.
 The wetness of this region is particularly due to
the prepotency of moist air currents of equatorial
Westerlies called the Guinea Monsoons.
 Both duration and amount of rainfall decreases as
we move from southwest to north and eastwards.
 Months in summer gain highest rainfall whereas
the winter months receive the reduced amount.
 The average rainfall in the region varies from
1,400 to over 2,200 mm/year.
186
 Cont’d
iii. Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
 The region comprises areas receiving rain following the
influence of southeasterly winds.
 South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during
autumn and spring seasons when both the north
easterlies and equatorial westerlies are weak.
 The south-easterlies bring rainfall from the Indian Ocean.

 About 60 percent of the rain is in autumn and 40 percent

in spring.
 The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000
mm.
187
 Cont’d
iv. Winter rainfall region
 This rainfall region receives rain from the northeasterly
winds.
 During the winter season, the Red sea escarpments and
some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain.
5.4 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
 As a result of the diversified altitude and climatic
conditions, Ethiopia possesses diverse agro-climatic
zones.
 These zones have traditionally been defined in terms of
temperature.
 This system divides the nation into five major climatic
zones namely Bereha, Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega and
Wurch.
 A description on each of the zones is presented as
follows.
188
 Cont’d
 The Wurch Zone
 The Wurch-zone is an area having altitude higher than 3,200
meters above sea level and mean annual temperature of less
than 10°C.
 Mountains having typically fitting characteristics of this
zone include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna,
Megezez in North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
Dega Zone
 This is a zone of highlands having relatively higher
temperature and lower altitude compared to the wurch
Zones.
 In Ethiopia, the Dega-zone is long inhabited and has dense
human settlement due to reliable rainfall for agriculture and
absence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria.


189
 Cont’d
❖ Weyna Dega Zone
 This zone has warmer temperature and moderate rainfall.
 It lies between 1500-2,300 meters above sea level.
 It is the second largest zone covering more than 26% of the
landmass of Ethiopia.
 The temperature and rainfall of this category is highly
suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia.
 Hence, the zone includes most of the agricultural land.
 The Weyna Dega zone has also two growing seasons.
❖ Kolla Zone
 In Ethiopia, the geographic peripheries in south, southeast,
west and northeastern part are mainly in this category.
 Kolla is the climate of the hot lowlands with an altitudinal
range of 500 to 1500 meters above sea level.
 Average annual temperature ranges between 20°C and 30°C.

190
Cont’d
 Although mean annual rainfall is erratic, it can be
as high as 1500 mm in the wet western lowlands of
Gambella.
 Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
 The region is boundary between the hot arid
(Bereha) and the humid climates (Woina Dega).
❖Bereha
 is the hot arid climate of the desert lowlands.
 The Bereha agro-climatic zone is largely confined
to lowland areas with altitude of lower than 500
meters.
 Around Danakil depression, the elevation goes
below the sea level.

191
Cont’d
 Its average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and
average annual temperature is over 27.5°C.
 Strong wind, high temperature, low relative
humidity, and little cloud cover usually
characterize Bereha.
 Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall.

 Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of

Eritrea are categorized under Kolla and Bereha
zones.
192
5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes,
Consequences and Response Mechanisms
 Climate change is natural and has always been there.

 So why is it our concern now?

 Climate change refers to a change in the state of the

climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests)
by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties and that persists for an extended period,
typically decades or longer.

 It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either

natural variability or human activities.
193
 Cont’d
 5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
 Besides spatial and temporal variations in different
parts of the country, Ethiopian climate experiences
extremes such as drought, flood etc.
 Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of
its risk of drought.
 In the country, 12 extreme drought events were
recorded between 1900 and 2010.
 Among the 12, seven of the drought events occurred
since 1980.
 The majority of these resulted in famines.
 The severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by
the strongest El Nino that caused successive harvest
failures and widespread livestock deaths in some
regions.
194
 Cont’d
❖Trends in Temperature Variability
 Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic
changes.
 Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise
per decade over the last 40-50 years.
 A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been
observed between 1960 and 2006.
 The rise has spatial and temporal variation.
 Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in
northeast and southeast part of the country.
 Notably the variability is higher in July-September.

195
 Cont’d
 The number of “hot days” and “hot nights” has also shown
increment.
 Consequently, the country’s minimum temperature has
increased with 0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade.

 Trends in Rainfall Variability

 Precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last
50 years when averaged over the country.
 However, these averages do not reflect local
conditions which are extremely divergent and the
natural variability in rainfall in the country makes it
difficult to detect long-term trends.
 Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is
decreasing) in many parts of the country.
196
 Cont’d
 In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline.
 parts of southern, south-western and south-eastern regions
receiving Spring and Summer rainfall have shown decline by
15-20% between 1975 and 2010.
 This has strong implications for crop production, which
becomes clear when assessing the change in areas that
receive sufficient rain to support crop production.

 Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency

and severity of extreme events.
 Major floods have been a common occurrence, leading to
loss of life and property in numerous parts of the country.
 Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in
the lowlands of the country is expanding.

197
 5.5.2. Causes of Climate Change
 The causes of climate change are generally categorized as
anthropogenic/manmade and natural causes.
A. Natural Causes
 Climate change has many natural causes, such as:
✓ variations in the energy budget,
✓ the position of Earth relative to Sun,
✓ the position of continents relative to the equator, and
✓ even whether the continents are together or apart.
 Here are some of the major natural causes:
 Earth orbital changes: The earth is tilted at an angle
of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path.
 Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons.
 More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.

198
Cont’d
 Energy Budget: Although the Sun’s energy output appears
constant, small changes over an extended period of time
can lead to climate changes.
 Since the Sun was born, 4.5 billion years ago, the star has
been very gradually increasing its amount of radiation so
that it is now 20% to 30% more intense than it was once.
 Volcanic eruptions: volcanic eruption releases large
volumes of sulphure dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor,
dust, and ash into the atmosphere.
 The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase
planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling.

199
 Cont’d
B. Anthropogenic Causes
 The growing influence of human activities on the
environment is being increasingly recognized, and
concern over the potential for global warming
caused by such anthropogenic effects is growing.
 The warming of earth planet in the past 50 years is
majorly driven by human activities.
 The industrial activities that our modern
civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to
400 parts per million in the last 150 years.
 Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused
much of the observed increase in Earth's
temperatures over the past 50 years.

200
Cont’d
 The decomposition of wastes in landfills,
agriculture, ruminant digestion and manure
management, synthetic compounds
manufacturing, clearing of land for agriculture,
industrial activities, and other human activities
have increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.
 The major gases that contribute to the greenhouse
effect include Water vapor, Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).
 Although methane is less abundant in atmosphere,
it is by far more active greenhouse gas than carbon
dioxide.
201
 5.5.3. Consequences of Climate Change
 In many parts of the world, climate change has
already caused loss of life, damaging property and
affecting livelihoods.
 The impact of climate change is higher in low income
countries, since they have limited capacity to cope
with the changes.
 Some of the consequences of the changing climate
include:
 Impacts on human health: The change can cause
increased heat related mortality and morbidity,
greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics
following floods and storms, and substantial health
effects following population displacement to escape
extreme weather events.
 Climate change also raises the incidence malaria.
202
 Impact on water resources: Climate change is leading to
melting of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea
level, increase drought and floods, distorts wind flow
pattern, decreases water table.
 More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount
of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes.
 Impact on Agriculture: changes in temperature and
rainfall patterns as well as significantly affect
agricultural production.
 Climate change increases physiological stress and
fodder quality and availability.
 Impact on Ecosystem: climate change affects the
success of species, population, and community
adaptation.
 The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of
shifts in certain range species, these species could be 203
 5.5.4. Climate Response Mechanisms
 How do our forefathers react to the changing
climate?
 Do we have any traditional (indigenous)
mechanism?
 Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us
today.
 So even if we stopped emitting all greenhouse gases today,
global warming and climate change will continue as it has
natural source of emission.
 Hence, there has to be response mechanism to reduce the
impact of extreme events.
 There are three major response mechanisms to climate
change namely mitigation, adaptation and resilience.

204
 Cont’d
 Mitigation and its Strategies
 Mitigation measures are those actions that are taken to
reduce and control greenhouse gas emissions changing the
climate.
 Moreover, it implies reducing the flow of heat trapping
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing
sources of these gases or enhancing the “sinks” that
accumulate and store these gases(such as the oceans, forests
and soil).

205
 Cont’d
 The goal of mitigations is to avoid significant human
interference with the climate system.
 There are some mitigation measures that can be taken to
avoid the increase of pollutant emissions.
 Practice Energy efficiency
 Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
 Efficient means of transport implementation: electric
public transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.

206
 Cont’d
 Adaptation and its Strategies
 Throughout history, people and societies have adjusted to
and coped with changes in climate and extremes with varying
degrees of success.
 Adaptation is simply defined as adapting to life in a changing
climate.
 It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate.
 The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects
of climate change such as extreme weather events or food
insecurity.
 It also encompasses making the most of any potential
beneficial opportunities associated with climate change (for
example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some
regions).

207
Cont’d
 Some of the major adaptation strategies include:
 building flood defenses,
 plan for heat waves and higher temperatures,
 installing water-permeable pavements to better
deal with floods and storm water
 improve water storage and use are some of
measures taken by cities and towns.
 landscape restoration and reforestation,
 flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared
for natural catastrophes
 preventive and precautionary measures
(evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)

208