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 ss 674:2021
55 812310:2014, MOD
(ICS 91 .080.40; 91.100.30)

SINGAPORE STANDARD

Fibre concrete - Design of fibre concrete

structures

Singapore
Council
 ss 674:2021
SS 812310:2014, MOD
(ICS 91.080.40; 91.100.30)

SINGAPORE STANDARD

Fibre concrete - Design of fibre concrete structures

Published by Enterprise Singapore

All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this Singapore Standard may
be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and microfilming, without permission in writing from Enterprise Singapore.
Request for permission can be sent to: [email protected] .

© SIS 2014
© Enterprise Singapore 2021

ISBN 978-981-5024-04-3
 ss 674:2021

The content of this Singapore Standard was approved on 29 June 2021 by the Building and
Construction Standards Committee (BCSC) under the purview of the Singapore Standards Council.

First published, 2021

BCSC consists of the following members:

Name Representation

Chairman Ar. Chan Kok Way Individual Capacity

Deputy
Chairman Er. Clement Tseng Building and Construction Authority
Secretary Ms Amy Sim The Institution of Engineers, Singapore -
Standards Development Organisation
Members Mr Bin Chee Kwan National Environment Agency
Dr Bertil Brandin Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Er. Chan Ewe Jin The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
Er. Chee Kheng Chye Housing & Development Board
Assoc Prof Darren Chian Siau National University of Singapore
Chen
Mr Herman Ching PUB, Singapore 's National Water Agency
Mr Dominic Choy Singapore Contractors Association Ltd
Assoc Prof Stylianos Dritsas Singapore University of Technology and Design
Er. Paul Fok Land Transport Authority
Mr Goh Ngan Hong Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers
Mr Desmond Hill Individual Capacity
Ar. William Lau Individual Capacity
Ar. Benedict Lee Singapore Institute of Architects
Assoc Prof Leong Eng Choon Nanyang Technological University
Dr Lim Lan Yuan Association of Property and Facility Managers
Dr Andrew Ngo Chun Yong Agency for Science, Technology and Research
Ms Kay Pungkothai National Parks Board
Er. Punithan s/o Shanmugam Building and Construction Authority
Er. Yvonne Soh Singapore Green Building Council
Assoc Prof Tan Beng Kiang National University of Singapore
AC Derek Tan Singapore Civil Defence Force
Prof Tan Kiang Hwee National University of Singapore
Mr Sebastian Tan Ministry of Manpower
Er. Tang Pei Luen JTC Corporation
Er. Yong Fen Leong Association of Consulting Engineers Singapore

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 ss 674:2021

BCSC set up the Technical Committee on Buildiing Structures and Substructures to oversee the
preparation of this standard. The Technical Committee consists of the following members:

Name Representation

Chairman Prof Tan Kiang Hwee Individual Capacity

Deputy
Chairman Er. Lung Hian Hao Building and Construction Authority
Secretary Ms Jasmine Bai The Institution of Engineers, Singapore -
Standards Development Organisation
Members Er. Chan Ewe Jin The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
Mr David Chew Tuan Dong Singapore Contractors Association Ltd
Er. Dr Chiew Sing Ping Singapore Institute of Technology
Er. Dr Richard Liew Jat Yuen National University of Singapore
Er. Neo Bian Hong Land Transport Authority
Dr Ng Yiaw Heong Singapore Structural Steel Society
Mr Sze Thiam Siong Singapore Welding Society
Dr Tam Chat Tim Individual Capacity
Prof Tan Kang Hai Nanyang Technological University
Er. Dr Tan Teng Hooi Individual Capacity
Er. Tang Pei Luen JTC Corporation
LTC Tong Hong Haey Singapore Civil Defence Force
Ms Yee Wai Ean Housing & Development Board
Er. Yong Fen Leong Association of Consulting Engineers Singapore

The Technical Committee set up the Working Group on Fibre concrete - Design of fibre concrete
structures to prepare this standard. The Working Group consists of the following experts who contribute
in their individual capacity:

Name

Convenor Prof Tan Kiang Hwee

Secretary Ms Siti Norfaein
Members Mr Gan Cheng Chian
Er. Hew Kit San
Er. Dr Richard Liew Jat Yuen
Er. Liow Bee Leng
Assoc Prof Lok Tat Seng
Mr John Poh
Mr Eric Sim Thiam Chye
Dr Sofren Leo Suhaendi
Mr Tan Choon Keat
Mr Tan Hong Kian
Prof Tan Kang Hai
Er. Tan See Chee
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 ss 674:2021

Er. Tang Pei Luen

Er. Dr Tran Chi Trung
Er. Yong Fen Leong
Mr James Yuen Chew Loong
Er. Zhang Bin

The organisations in which the experts of the Working Group are involved are:

Arup Singapore Pte Ltd

Association of Consulting Engineers Singapore
Bekaert MacCafferi Underground Solutions BVBA
Building and Construction Authority
Continental Steel Pte. Ltd.
CPG Consultants Pte Ltd
Housing & Development Board
JTC Corporation
Land Transport Authority
Meinhardt (Singapore) Pte Ltd.
Nanyang Technological University
National University of Singapore
PUB, Singapore's National Water Agency
SETSCO Services Pte Ltd
Singapore Contractors Association Limited
The Institution of Engineers, Singapore
TOV SOD PSB Pte Ltd

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ss 674:2021

Contents Page

National Foreword ...................................................................................................................... 7

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 9
1 General ......................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................. 10
1.2 Normative referen ces .................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.5.2 Additional terms and definitions used in this Standard ................................................. 11
1.6 Symbols ......................................................................................................................... 11
2 Basis of design ............................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Basic variables .............................................................................................................. 12
2.3.2 Material and product properties ..................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Deformation s of concrete .............................................................................................. 13
2.4 Verification by the partial factor method ........................................................................ 13
2.4.2 Design values ................................................................................................................ 13
3 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Fibre concrete ................................................................................................................ 14
3.5.1 Residual flexural tensile strength classes ..................................................................... 14
3.5.2 Design residual tensile strength .................................................................................... 15
3.5.3 Stress-strain relations for structural analysis and design of cross-sections ................. 16
3.6 Fibres ............................................................................................................................. 18
5 Structural analysis ...................................................................................................... 18
5.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 18
5.6 Plastic analysis .............................................................................................................. 18
5.6.2 Plastic analysis for beams, frames and slabs ............................................................... 18
5.6.3 Rotation capacity ................................. .......................................................................... 18
6 Ultimate Limit States (ULS) ........................................................................................ 19
6.1 Bending with or without axial force ...... .......................................................................... 19
6.2 Shear ............................................................................................................................. 20
6.2.1 General verification procedure ............ .......................................................................... 20
6.2.2 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement ..................................................... 20
6.3 Torsion ........................................................................................................................... 20
6.3.2 Design procedure .......................................................................................................... 20
6.4 Punching ........................................................................................................................ 20
6.4.4 Punching shear resistance of slabs and column bases without shear reinforcement .. 20
6.7 Partially loaded areas .......................... .......................................................................... 21
6.8 Fatigue ........................................................................................................................... 21
6.8.2 Internal forces and stresses for fatigue verification ....................................................... 21
6.8.7 Verification of concrete under compression or shear .................................................... 21
7 Serviceability Limit State (SLS) ................................................................................. 21
7.2 Stress limitation ............................................................................................................. 21
7.3 Crack control .................................................................................................................. 21
7.3.1 General considerations ................................................................................................. 21
7.3.2 Minimum reinforcement areas ....................................................................................... 22
7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation ................................................................ 22
7.3.4 Calculation of crack widths ............................................................................................ 23
7.4 Deflection control ........................................................................................................... 24
7.4.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted .................................................................... 24
7.4.3 Checking deflections by calculation .............................................................................. 24

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8 Detailing of reinforcement and pre-stressing tendons - General. ......................... 25

8.2 Spacing of bars .............................................................................................................. 25
9 Detailing of members and particular rules .............................................................. 25
9.2 Beams ........................................................................................................................... 25
9.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement ........................................................................................... 25
9.3 Sol id slabs ..................................................................................................................... 26
9.3.1 Flexural reinforcement .................................................................................................. 26
11 Lightweight aggregate concrete structures ............................................................ 26
11.3 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 26
11.3.3 Creep and shrinkage ..................................................................................................... 26
11 .6 Ultimate limit states ....................................................................................................... 26
11 .6.1 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement ..................................................... 26
11.6.4 Punching ...................................................................................................................... 26
Annex O (Normative) Calculation of strains and stresses in bending ............................. 27
0.1 Simplified approach for fibre concrete with conventional bar reinforcement ................ 27
0.2 Simplified approach for fibre concrete without bar reinforcement ................................ 28
0.3 General approach for fibre concrete with or without bar reinforcement ........................ 29
Annex P (Normative) Production and conformity control of fibre concrete .................... 31
P.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 31
P.2 Fibre concrete composition and initial testing ............................................................... 31
P.3 Conformity control for designed fibre concrete ............................................................. 33
P .4 Conformity control for prescribed fibre concrete ........................................................... 33
Annex Q (Normative) Execution control of fibre concrete ................................................. 34
Q.1 Execution classes for fibre concrete ............................................................................. 34
Q.2 Execution control of fibre concrete ................................................................................ 34
Annex R (Informative) Expected Coefficient of Variation for beam tests according to
BS EN 14651 ............................................................................................................................ 35
R.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 35
R.2 Coefficient of variation .................................................................................................. 35
R.3 Expected coefficient of variation ................................................................................... 35
R.4 Influencing factors ......................................................................................................... 35
R.5 Examples of C0V with different concrete compositions ............................................... 35
Annex S (Informative) Fibre concrete, statically indeterminate structures, and
magnification factors .............................................................................................................. 36
S.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 36
S.2 Statically determinate beams ........................................................................................ 36
S.3 Statically indeterminate beams ..................................................................................... 37
S.4 Slabs ............................................................................................................................. 39
S.5 Alternative estimation for statically indeterminate structures ........................................ 41
S.6 Cases with lower scatter ............................................................................................... 42
S. 7 Recommended values .................................................................................................. 43

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 45

6
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 ss 674:2021

National Foreword

This Singapore Standard was prepared by the Working Group on Fibre concrete - Design of fibre
concrete structures set up by the Technical Committee on Building Structures and Substructures under
the purview of BCSC.

This standard is a modified adoption of SS 812310:2014, "Fibre concrete - Design of fibre concrete
structures", including its Amendment, published by the Swedish Institute for Standards.

In this standard, minor modifications have been made in Tables P.1 and Q.2 due to national
requirements and the particular needs of the local i ndustry. These technical deviations and additional
information have been added directly to the clauses and are marked by a vertical bar on the left margin
of the standard. The modifications are as follows:

a) Modification of requirements for Table P.1 - Properties to be determined during initial testing of
fibre concrete, in addition to the requirements in SS EN 206:

Test method for residual flexural tensile strength at 28 days in EN 14651 , the number of
samples per test occasion was amended from 6 beams to 12 beams;

Test method for steel fibre distribution in fresh concrete in EN 14721, the number of
samples per test occasion was amended from 1 to 3;

Test method for polymer fibre distribution in fresh concrete in EN 14488-7, the number of
samples per test occasion was amended from 1 to 3.

b) Modification of requirements for Table Q.2 - Test frequency for the execution control of fibre
concrete:

Test method for fibre content in SS-EN 14721 (steel fibres) and SS-EN 14488-7 (polymer
fibres):

• Under execution class 2, was amended from 1 per 300 m 3 or 1 per pour to 1 per
100 m3 or 3 per pour; and

• Under execution class 3, was amended from 1 per 100 m3 or 1 per pour to 3 per
100 m3 or 3 per pour.

Test method for residual flexural tensile strength in SS-EN 14651 , under execution class
3, was amended from 1 per 100 m3 or 1 per pour to 2 per 100 m 3 or 2 per pour;

Note 1 - Amended from 6 beams to 12 beams.

The following changes, including some minor edits, were also made within the body of this standard:

Amended the standards in the normative references and bibliography from SS-EN (Swedish
Standards) to SS EN (Singapore Standards) or BS EN where applicable;

Amended SS 812310 to SS 674.

In Singapore, the following practices are adopted:

The fibre orientation factor 'lt is taken as 1 for horizontally cast members such as slabs and tunnel
segments. For other cases, 'lt is taken as 0.5 .

The magnification factor '7det is generally taken as 1.

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 ss 674:2021

Fibres are used together with bar reinforcement 1n beams and other structural members
subjected to significant tensile stresses.

NOTE - Where numerical values are expressed as decimals, the comma is read as a full point.

Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this Singapore Standard may be the
subject of patent rights. Enterprise Singapore shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all of
such patent rights.

NOTE

1. Singapore Standards (SSs) and Technical References (TRs) are reviewed periodically to keep abreast of technical
changes, technological developments and industry practices. The changes are documented through the issue of
either amendments or revisions. Where SSs are deemed to be stable, i.e. no foreseeable changes in them, they will be
classified as "Mature Standards". Mature Standards will not be subject to further review, unless there are requests to review
such standards.

2. An SS or TR is voluntary in nature except when it is made mandatory by a regulatory authority. It can also be cited in contracts
making its application a business necessity. Users are advised to assess and determine whether the SS or TR is suitable for
their intended use or purpose. If required, they should refer to the relevant professionals or experts for advice on the use of
the document. Enterprise Singapore and the Singapore Standards Council shall not be liable for any damages whether
directly or indirectly suffered by anyone or any organisation as a result of the use of any SS or TR. Although care has been
taken to draft this standard, users are also advised to ensure that they apply the information after due diligence.

3. Compliance with a SS or TR does not exempt users from any legal obligations.

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 ss 674:2021

Introduction

This Standard has been prepared in order to provide National guidelines on how to design fibre concrete
structures in accordance with SS EN 1992-1-1. SS 674 is not a Eurocode but it is complement to SS
EN 1992-1-1 . Both documents should be read in conjunction with each other for a full comprehension
of the subject.

This Standard follows the same Section configuration as SS EN 1992-1-1 and provides additional
paragraphs and amended text where necessary to aid fibre concrete design, plus relevant figures,
tables and equations.

Repetition of text from SS EN 1992-1-1 has been avoided as far as possible and is only included when
absolutely necessary for the comprehension of this Standard. Figures, tables and equations are
numbered according to the separate Sections, i.e. the first figure in Section 3 is notated as 3.1, the
second figure 3.2 and so on .

This Standard deals mainly with fundamental requirements concerning general issues, basis of design,
materials, structural analysis, ultimate limit state, and serviceability limit state (Sections 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,
and 7). Durability is treated equally for fibre concrete and conventionally reinforced concrete and is
covered in SS EN 1992-1-1, Section 4 . This Standard addresses Section 8.2 Spacing of bars and both
Sections 9.2 Beams and 9.3 Solid slabs with regards to minimum flexural reinforcement. There is no
need for changes to SS EN 1992-1-1 Section 10 Additional rules for precast concrete elements and
structures or Section 12 Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures. This standard for fibre concrete
covers creep and shrinkage, members not requiring design shear reinforcement, and punching in
Section 11.

This Standard covers fibre concrete structures. The term "fibre concrete" instead of "steel fibre concrete"
or "steel fibre reinforced concrete" has been selected deliberately since the intention is to develop a
standard that is material-independent regarding the fibre material. However, the scientific basis for the
Standard is predicated on numerous test results and literature references primarily devoted to steel
fibre concrete and secondly, but to a much lesser degree, polymer fibre concrete. Despite the fact that
the fibre concrete material properties and equations given are defined or derived from proposed fibre
material-independent tests it is emphasized that the polymer fibres currently available in the market
may either lead to very low values of strength, moment capacity and/or stiffness of the fibre concrete or
mixes needing such high fibre amounts that they will be difficult to cast outside the laboratory.

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 ss 674:2021

1 General

1.1 Scope

This Standard applies to the design of buildings and other civil engineering works in concrete with
steel fibres and or polymer fibres according to BS EN 14889-1 and BS EN 14889-2. The Standard does
not cover glass, carbon, basalt or any other type of fibres.

This Standard is intended to be used in conjunction with SS EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of

structures - Part 1-1 : General rules and rules for buildings.

NOTE SS 674 is not a Eurocode.

The following subjects are dealt with in this Standard:

Section 1: General
Section 2: Basis of design
Section 3: Materials
Section 5: Structural analysis
Section 6: Ultimate limit states (ULS)
Section 7: Serviceability limit states (SLS)
Section 8: Detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons - General
Section 9: Detailing of members and particular rules
Section 10: No section 10 in SS 812310
Section 11: Lightweight aggregate concrete structures

Annex 0: Calculation of strains and stresses in bending

Annex P: Production and conformity control of fibre concrete
Annex Q: Execution control of fibre concrete
Annex R: Expected Coefficient of Variation for beam tests according to BS EN 14651
Annex S: Fibre concrete, statically indeterminate structures, and magnification factors

1.2 Normative references

The following normative documents contain provIsIons which, through references in this text,
constitute provisions of this Standard . For dated references, subsequent amendments to or revisions
of any of these publications do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this Standard are
encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative documents
indicated below. For undated references the latest edition of the normative document referred to
applies.

SS EN 206:2014, Concrete - Specification, performance, production and conformity

BS EN 14488-7, Testing sprayed concrete - Part 7: Fibre content of fibre reinforced concrete

BS EN 14651 , Test method for metallic fibre concrete - Measuring the flexural tensile strength (limit
or proportionality (LOP), residual)

BS EN 14721 , Test method for metallic fibre concrete - Measuring the fibre content in fresh and
hardened concrete

BS EN 14889-1 , Fibres for concrete - Part 1: Steel fibres - Definitions, specifications and conformity

BS EN 14889-2, Fibres for concrete - Part 2: Polymer fibres - Definitions, specifications and
conformity

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 ss 674:2021

SS EN 1992-1-1 :2008, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings

1.5 Definitions

1.5.2 Additional terms and definitions used in this Standard

1.5.2.5 Fibre concrete

Structural or non-structural concrete members in which the concrete matrix provides compressive
strength and protection of the fibres , whereas the fibres provide tensile strength and ductility after cracking.
For structural members the fibre has to fulfil the requirements in BS EN 14889-1 (steel fibres) and
BS EN 14889-2 (polymer fibres).

1.5.2.6 Steel fibre

Straight or deformed pieces of cold-drawn steel wire, straight or deformed cut sheet fibres, melt
extracted fibres, shaved cold drawn wire fibres and fibres milled from steel blocks which are suitable to be
homogeneously mixed into concrete or mortar.

[BS EN 14889-1 Section 3.1]

1.5.2.7 Polymer fibre

Straight or deformed pieces of extruded, oriented and cut material which are suitable to be
homogeneously mixed into concrete or mortar.

[BS EN 14889-2 Section 3.2]

1.5.2.8 Designed concrete

Concrete for which the required properties and additional characteristics if any are specified to the
producer who is responsible for providing a concrete conforming to the required properties and additional
characteristics.

[BS EN 206 Section 3.1.1.4]

1.5.2.9 Prescribed concrete

Concrete for which the composition of the concrete and the constituent materials to be used are
specified to the producer who is responsible for providing a concrete with the specified composition.

[SS EN 206 Section 3.1.1.1 0]

1.6 Symbols

For the purposes of this standard, the following symbols apply.

NOTE All other relevant symbols for comprehension of this standard can be found in SS-EN 1992-1-1.

Latin upper case letters

Residual strength factor

Factor defining the degree of external axial restraint provided by elements attached
to the element considered or by friction with the soil

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 ss 674:2021

Latin lower case letters

{' .f
J ct,L Limit of proportionality as obtained from beam testing in accordance with BS EN
14651
fR,1 Characteristic residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R 1
fR,3 Characteristic residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R3
fR,4 Characteristic residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R4
fR,1,i Individual test results for residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class
R1
fR ,3,i Individual test results for residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class
R3
fR ,1m Mean residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R1
fR ,3m Mean residual flexural tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R3
fctk ,0.05 Characteristic value of the tensile strength for the concrete matrix in accordance to
the current codes
ftt, R1 Characteristic residual tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R 1
ftt, R3 Characteristic residual tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R3
fttd, R1 Design residual tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R1
fttd, R3 Design residual tensile strength of a fibre concrete of class R3
kn Statistical factor
kt Factor to consider the ratio between the residual tensile strength and the tensile
strength
/cs Characteristic length
Wu Ultimate crack opening

Greek lower case letters

J1 Partial factor for fibre concrete

f]f Fibre orientation factor
f}det Factor considering the degree of iindeterminacy
&ct Tensile cracking strain
&flu Ultimate tensile strain in fibre concrete
</Js,f Modified reinforcement bar size for fibre reinforced concrete

2 Basis of design

2.3 Basic variables

2.3.2 Material and product properties

2.3.2.1 General

(3) Provisions for fibre concrete are given in Section 3.

(4) Structural components designed with this Standard shall have structural system stability (system
equilibrium) in ultimate limit state after a fully developed crack system. This requires that one of the
following conditions is fulfilled:

stress redistribution is possible in a statically indeterminate system

conventional steel bar reinforcement or pre-tensioned steel reinforcement in combination with

fibre concrete is used

external normal forces maintain equilibrium.

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 ss 674:2021

2.3.2.2 Shrinkage and creep

(4) For fibre concrete the effects of shrinkage and creep shall be considered at ultimate limit states according
to·
'
(i) the theory of elasticity, where stresses caused by restrained shrinkage and creep, if any, have to
be superposed to the stresses due to mechanical loading ,

or

(ii) the theory of plasticity, where the strength has to be considered at an increased strain value
considering the increased ductility demand that is caused by cracking due to shrinkage and creep.
For fibre concrete without bar reinforcement, the design should be based on fR,3 instead of fR,1 or on
fR,4 instead of fR,3.

In the (frequent) case where the fibre concrete member is subjected to flexure , the potential difference
between compressive creep and flexural creep should be considered.

In cases where polymer fibres are used , creep properties should be evaluated through long-term tests.
If the fibre concrete structure is to be subjected to elevated temperature, the long-term tests should be
conducted under elevated temperature simulating the conditions that are likely to occur in reality.

NOTE Creep effects may, for example, be assessed as tensile creep where beam specimens used for testing
flexural tensile strength are subjected to long term loading using the same load and support arrangements as in
the flexural tensile strength test but with load levels equalling 50 % of the short term cracking load.

2.3.3 Deformations of concrete

(4) The effects of temperature and shrinkage shall either be considered as additional load effects or
as increased ductility demands on the moment capacity. For fibre concrete structures, the effects of
temperature and shrinkage are of great importance in cases where restraint is present. The reason is
that fibre concrete elements usually have less ductility than corresponding conventionally reinforced
concrete members.

2.4 Verification by the partial factor method

2.4.2 Design values

2.4.2.4 Partial factors for materials

( 1)

NOTE SLS and partial factors for fibre concrete have been added to Table 2.1 N in SS-EN 1992-1-1 .

Table 2.1 N - Partial factors for materials

Design situations 1't for concrete

rs for reinforcing rs for prestressing Ji for fibre concrete
steel steel

Persistent & Transient 1,5 1,15 1, 15 1,5

Accidental 1,2 1,0 1,0 1,2

SLS 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0

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3 Materials

3.5 Fibre concrete

3.5.1 Residual flexural tensile strength classes

(1) The residual flexural tensile strength of fibre concrete is denoted by residual flexural tensile
strength classes, (R-classes) which relate to the characteristic residual flexural tensile strength , fR,i,
determined from beam testing in accordance to BS EN 14651 at an age of 28 days.

(2) The residual flexural tensile strength classes (R-classes) are provided in Table 3.1. Class R1 is
required for SLS design while ULS design generally requires that both classes (R 1 and R3) are specified .
A simplified design approach in ULS may however be based on class R3 alone, see Figure 3.2.

Table 3.1 - Residual flexural tensile strength classes (R-classes) for fibre concrete

Class R1 fR,1 (MPa) Class R3 f°R,3 (MPa) Class R4 f°R,4 (MPa)

R11 1,0 R31 1,0 R41 1,0
R12 2,0 R32 2,0 R42 2,0
R13 3,0 R33 3,0 R43 3,0
R14 4,0 R34 4,0 R44 4,0
R15 5,0 R35 5,0 R45 5,0

R16 6,0 R36 6,0 R46 6,0

Note 1 Residual flexural tensile strength is the characteristic value obtained from beam testing in accordance to BS EN 14651
at a CMOD (crack mouth opening displacement) of 0,5; 2,5 and 3,5 mm respectively for fR.1, fR, 3 and fR,4, see Figure 3.1.
Note 2 Higher residual flexural tensile strength than given in the table may be utilised if the specified value is verified by test
results according to BS EN 14651.
Note 3 The following conditions must be satisfied: C1 = 100·fR,1/fctk,o.os~ 50 % and 100 -fR,:ffR,1~ 50 %. The
intention is to ensure a certain minimum ductility of the fibre concrete.

Note 4 In most cases fR,1 is higher than or equal to fR,3 and fR,1 is lower than /~{,L, so called bending softening behaviour, see
Figure 3.1.

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8
II
7 -
Be:nding hardening1

-
~

(llJ
6 - - - -
Q.
~ f ~(i
·-....,.c 5

bl)
C
4 - - -

--- -·
(1J
:Ii..
+-'
V1
/R,1 3 11
Berriding1softening
(ID
I'
:Ii..
:::, ./R,3 2 L - - - - - - - - - - _ 1~ - - -- .,
II
---r----- - ----
1!_1 1... !!!!!!!9 - -
)( I I
liiiii
Q.i ,/R,4 - - - -~ -- - !!!!!!!!! II!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!II! ~ 'i""""""'

u.. :fil
II I II I I
I I I
I ti
.I ■ ,.

1 2 3 CMOfJ4 4

Figure 3.1 - Schematic behaviour from beam testing in accordance to BS EN 14651.

(3) Following the classification described above a fibre concrete can be specified as the following
example:

This corresponds to a concrete of compressive strength of 30 MPa (cylinder) or 37 MPa (cube) and a
residual flexural tensile strength of 3,0 MPa and 2,0 MPa in class R1 and R3 respectively (see Figure
3.1).

The structural engineer also has the possibility of specifying a value for class R3 alone, if a simplified
analysis in the ULS is sufficient. This results in the following specification, e.g. C30/37-R32. Likewise it
is possible to specify class R1 only if ULS design is not required , e.g. C30/37-R12.

(4) The characteristic residual tensile strength of fibre reinforced concrete is obtained from the
following relationships:

/ftRl
' = 0,45 · / RI' . .
(3.1)

jft' R3 = 0,37 · JR3' (3.2)

3.5.2 Design residual tensile strength

(1) The design residual tensile strength in ULS is defined as:

/' /ft,R l I' fft,R3

J ftd,Rl = 1Jf . 1Jdet . and Jftd,R3 = 77f · 7Jdet · (3.3)
rf Yr

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(2) The design residual tensile strength in SLS is defined as:

I' fft,RI
J ftd,Rl = 1Jr . (3.4)
Yr

NOTE }1 is set to 1.0 in serviceability limit state (see Table 2.1N).

where:

fJt is a factor considering the fibre orientation where fJt > 0.5 . For horizontally cast concrete members
(width > 5 x thickness), the factor may be set to fJt = 1.0. For other concrete members a higher
value (0.5 < fJt < 1.0) may be selected after considering member dimensions, fibre length, and casting
procedure.

fJctet is a factor considering the degree of indeterminacy according to Table 3.2.

Values of the conversion factor rJdet are given in Tab le 3.2 for different structural cases. See Appendix
S for background information on the derivation of conversion factors.

Table 3.2 - Proposed T/det values for different structural cases 1121

Case No. Type of structural member Magnification factor T/det

1 Statically determinate beams 1

2 Statically indeterminate beams 1.4

3 Rectangular slabs with two opposite edges simply 1
supported and the other two edges free

4 (a) Simply supported circular slabs 1.4

(b) Rectangular slabs with at least three edges simply
supported

5 (a) Circular slabs with clamped edges 2

(b) Rectangular slabs with at least one edge clamped
and the other edges simply supported
(c) Slabs-on-grade
(d) Interior spans of pile-supported slabs
(e) Interior spans of column-supported slabs
(f) Interior spans of simply supported continuous slabs

3.5.3 Stress-strain relations for structural analysis and design of cross-sections

(1) For section design under normal loads different stress-strain relations can be used depending on
the type of analysis and the required accuracy. One of the following diagrams shall be considered at
the Ultimate Limit States (ULS):

a) Constant residual tensile strength as shown in Figure 3.2, characterized by the design value of the
residual tensile strength fftct, R3

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/ctd
r
r
/ ftd, R3

Beu Bel

\_ Bet
\_
cftu

6 ct = fctd / Ec
Cftu = &ct + Wu / fcs
where W u = 2.5 mm
f' and lcs is the characteristic length
J ed

Figure 3.2 - Schematic representation of the stress-strain relation with drop constant relationship in
tension

b) Multi-linear diagram can be used for applications that require more exact calculations. The stress-
strain (a-£) diagrams are characterized by the design value of the tensile strength fctd and the residual
tensile strengths fftct' RI and fftct' R3 in Figure 3.3.

\_

8 ct = f ctd/ Ec
Cftu = &ct + Wu / fcs
where Wu= 2.5 mm
. __,.____________________ .
and f cs = the characteristic length

Figure 3.3 - Schematic representation of the stress-strain relation with a drop linear
descending relationship in tension

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In elements with conventional bar reinforcement, the characteristic length , /cs, may be evaluated as
follows:

(3.5)

where Srm is the mean crack spacing and y is the distance between neutral axis and the extreme
tensile side of the cross section. As a conservative simplification, the characteristic length can be
assumed to be equal to 80 % of the section height, /cs = 0,8 x h.

In case of sections without conventional bar reinforcement, where one crack dominates the behaviour,
y = h is assumed. The same assumption is valid for slabs.

3.6 Fibres

(1) Fibres shall meet the requirements specified in BS EN 14889-1 or BS EN 14889-2.

(2) Alternatively, where either the European Standard does not cover the particular fibre or its
intended performance, or the material deviates from an existing European Standard, the establishment
of suitability may result from a European Technical Approval (ETA), which refers specifically to the use
of the fibre in fibre concrete conforming to this Standard.

5 Structural analysis

5.1 General

5.6 Plastic analysis

5.6.2 Plastic analysis for beams, frames and slabs

(2) The required ductility may be deemed to be satisfied without explicit verification if all the following
are fulfilled:

iv) The residual strength factor is defined as C i = 100• fR.ilfctk ,o.o5 , where fR,i is the flexural tensile
strength of the fibre concrete at displacement level i (i = 1 or 3) and fctk,0.05 is the characteristic
value of the tensile strength for the concrete matrix in accordance with SS EN 1992-1-1 .

v) The residual strength factor C1 has to exceed 75 % in cases with fibre only (i.e., without other
type of reinforcement). If the fibre concrete is subjected to a combination of restrained shrinkage
or thermal movement and external load both conditions C1 > 75 % and C3 > 65 % have to be
fulfilled. These values can be used for members with a nominal thickness not exceeding 400
mm . For thicker structures, a special investigation is needed.

vi) In cases with combined conventional bar reinforcement and fibres, either conditions (2)i-ii) or
(2)iv-v) shall be used . Conditions (2)i-ii) shall be used if the conventional reinforcement exceeds
50 % of the amount needed for concrete without fibres. Condition (2)iii) shall always be fulfilled.

5.6.3 Rotation capacity

(5) For fibre concrete, set @p1,d = 10 mrad . This value can be used for members with a nominal thickness
not exceeding 400 mm. For thicker structures, a special investigation is needed.

NOTE In three point bending beam tests, usually only one crack appears. Consequently, e = 28/1, where 8 =
midspan displacement and / = span length. For a displacement corresponding to the residual strength 8 ~ 3 mm
when/= 500 and, thus, e = 0.012 rad~ 10 mrad. At midspan, @centre = 20 = 48/I = 0.024 rad.

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6 Ultimate Limit States (ULS)

6.1 Bending with or without axial force

(2) When determining the ultimate moment resistance of reinforced concrete as in Annex O (fibre
concrete with/without bar reinforcement) or pre-stressed concrete (fibre concrete and pre-stressing
tendons) cross-sections, the following assumptions are made:

- for fibre concrete the design residual tensile strength (fttd, R1 and fttd, R3) should be taken into account.

- the stresses in tension for fibre concrete are derived from the design stress/strain relationship
given in 3.5.3.

(3) For steel fibre concrete, the tensile strains shall be limited to &ttu, see 3.5.3. For polymer fibre
concrete, the tensile strain limit &ttu, is not supported by 3.5.3.

NOTE The design rules have been established on the basis of research carried out on steel fibre concrete.

(6) The possible range of strain and stress distributions is shown in Figure 6.1.

O"c = l] fed
II II /
II
IZI TlY IZI TlY
.-.-.-.-·-.-·_f_c:d _ 1.- .-·-.-.-.-.-·-·-·-.-.-. ,

--·ft- -·-·-J =- ·- ·-
/

fitd,Rl _/ htd,Rl ftd,R3 -

-
-
-
-
-
-
-- -
O"st X A st -
-
-
_j _j
O"ft > /ftd,R3 O"ft > /ftd,R3 /ftd,R3

a) b) c)

NOTE 1 Strain and stress distributions for design of cracked concrete sections in Figure (fibre concrete with or
without bar reinforcement): a) general stress distribution; and b) and c) simplified stress-distribution for ULS (valid
only if &ft< &flu and &cu = 3.5%0). Maximum design tensile strength crtt from equation (6.1).

NOTE 2 The general strain and stress distribution (see Figure 6.1 a) also covers the case of fibre only with Ast =
0. The factors A and TJ are defined in section 3.1.7 of SS EN 1992-1-1 . See Annex O for illustration of the equilibrium
equations for the ultimate limit state for a specific assumed strain distribution over the height of the cross-section .

Figure 6.1 - Strain and stress distributions for design of cracked concrete sections (fibre
concrete with or without bar reinforcement)

(7) Maximum design tensile strength in the outer fibre of the tensile zone can be determined as:

(6.1)

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6.2 Shear

6.2.1 General verification procedure

(2) VRd,ct is the design shear resistance of the fibre concrete member without shear reinforcement.

6.2.2 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement

(6.2)

NOTE The equation above is developed by the Italian National Research Council (CNR, 2006) l11. In this equation
ftt,R3 replaces fFtuk that was used in the original Italian equation. fFtuk = characteristic value of the ultimate residual
flexural tensile strength for the fibre concrete determined through 4 point bending by considering Wu = 1,5 mm .
In a Master Thesis work at KTH (Mondo, 2011) [21, this equation was found to be the most applicable for the
available test data (based on 30 scientific investigations carried out between 1976 and 2011) compared to four
alternatives.

6.3 Torsion

6.3.2 Design procedure

(6) The parameter VRd,ct including the effects of the fibres and defined in 6.2.2, can be used as a
replacement of the total shear capacity VRd ,c in equation (6.31) in SS EN 1992-1-1.

6.4 Punching

6.4.4 Punching shear resistance of slabs and column bases without shear reinforcement

( 1)

For fibre concrete slabs and column bases containing conventional bar reinforcement:

__ 6)r
- []- T '«A~ '?I -
y ta
M rnrn
- t't, ct, (l:""Q 1 1
1'51 .+fl' 1'51 1'51 "
(l:w1z1 -r1 w wat c. 111 _ -,; a:,
-a , A- ,+,
;:r w
rn..1J'
1 c1 l1
1'51
c,w ,
(6.3)

NOTE The equation above is in principal the same as the equation proposed for shear in Section 6.2.2. Due to
harmonization ambitions and simplicity reasons , the authors of EN 1992-1-1 selected similar equations for shear
and punching. By using the proposed equations for shear and punching for fibre concrete, these aims are reached.
In a Master Thesis at KTH (Tazaly, 2011) 131, no other model was found to be an improvement when applying it to
the test data available in the literature.

For fibre concrete ground-supported slabs and column bases without conventional bar reinforcement:

(6.4)

where

k is thickness dependent factor defined in 6.2.2

C is coefficient= 0,45

NOTE The equation for this second case is based on Silfwerbrand (2000) 14 1_

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6. 7 Partially loaded areas

(4) Reinforcement should be provided for the tensile force due to the effect of the action. For fibre
concrete this can be designed in accordance with 6.5.

6.8 Fatigue

6.8.2 Internal forces and stresses for fatigue verification

(1) The stress calculation shall be based on the assumption of cracked cross sections neglecting the
tensile strength of concrete but satisfying compatibility of strains. For fibre concrete the residual tensile
strength should be accounted for, see figure 6.1.

6.8.7 Verification of concrete under compression or shear

NOTE Generally it can be assumed that fibre addition improves the fatigue resistance. However, due to the
complex nature of fatigue failure and the limited test data and design models available no fatigue enhancement
can be provided at this stage.

7 Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

7.2 Stress limitation

(4) Tensile stresses in the bar reinforcement shall be limited in order to avoid inelastic strain,
unacceptable cracking or deformation. For members with fibre concrete only the crack width shall be
limited in order to avoid inelastic creep strain, unacceptable cracking or deformation. The allowable
crack width shall also consider durability aspects.

(5) For fibre concrete members with fibres only, unacceptable cracking or deformation may be assumed
to be avoided if, under the characteristic combination of loads, the crack width is limited depending
on the application and exposure class according to SS EN 1992-1-1 Table 7.1N.

7 .3 Crack control

7 .3.1 General considerations

(5) A limiting calculated crack width, Wmax, taking into account the proposed function and nature of the
structure and the costs of limiting cracking , should be established .

NOTE The value of Wmax for use in a country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended values for
relevant exposure classes are given in SS EN 1992-1-1 Table 7.1N.

(6) Proposed values for fibre concrete members (structural and semi-structural) are given in Table 4.

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Table 4 - Recommended values of Wmax for fibre concrete only with respect to durability

L50 Wmaxa) L 100 Wmaxa)

Exposure class
mm mm
XO, XC1 - b) - b)

XC2 , XC3 0,5 0,4

XC4 0,4 0,3

XS1 , XS2, XD1 , XD2 0,3 0,2

XS3 XD3 c) 0,2 0, 1

'
a For members with a combination of fibres and conventional bar or pre-stressed
reinforcement, see SS EN 1992-1-1 concerning allowable crack widths with respect to
exposure conditions.
b For XO, XC1 exposure classes, crack width has no influence on durability. Therefore its
limit should be set to guarantee acceptable appearance and deformations.
C
In exposure class XS3 or XD3 corroding steel fibres must be combined with
conventional bar reinforcement for suspended decks, slabs or beams.
NOTE LS0 and L 100 refer to intended working life of at least 50 years and 100 years,
respectively.

7.3.2 Minimum reinforcement areas

(0) This section is valid for concrete containing both fibre and bar reinforcement.

(1) If crack control is required, a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement is required to control
cracking in areas where tension is expected. The amount may be estimated from equilibrium between
the tensile force in concrete just before cracking and the tensile force in the fibre concrete and the
reinforcement at yielding or at a lower stress if necessary to limit the crack width.

NOTE The same principle as in SS EN 1992-1-1 is valid but with the following amendments.

(2) Unless a more rigorous calculation shows lesser areas to be adequate, the required minimum areas
of reinforcement may be calculated as follows in equation.

(7 .1)

Where

kf =f rtd,RI < 1.0 (with fttct, R1 in SLS) (7.2)

fctm

7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calcullation

(0) This section is valid for concrete containing both fibre and bar reinforcement.

(2) The rules given in 7.3.4 may be presented in a tabular form by restricting the reinforcing bar diameter
or spacing as a simplification. For reinforced fibre concrete the maximum bar size in SS EN 1992-1-1
Table 7.2N is modified according to the following equation:

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,I, ,I, CJ' s . As / b

lf/s,f = lf/s . 4 . (h - d)· Jt ct,O
(7.3)
Where:

¢s.t is the modified bar reinforcement size for fibre concrete

o-s is the steel stress according to SS EN 1992-1-1 Table 7.2N

As is the area of the bar reinforcement within the tensile zone

h is the height of the member

d is internal level arm for the bar reinforcement

b is the width of the tensile zone

fct,o = 2.9 MPa is the tensile strength used to calculate maximum bar reinforcement size in SS EN 1992-
1-1 Table 7.2N

7.3.4 Calculation of crack widths

(0) The same principle is used as in SS EN 1992-1-1 but with the following modifications.

(1) The crack width, Wk, may be calculated from equation:

(7.5)

The strain difference ( &sm - &cm ) can be determined by calculating the stress in the tension
reinforcement assuming a cracked section with the effects of the fibres (fttd,R1 ) taken into account. The
strain difference (&sm - &cm) may be calculated from the expression:

(csm -&cm )=
(7.6)

where:

o-s is the stress in the tension bar reinforcement assuming a cracked section with the effects of the fibres
(fttd,R1) taken into account.

Alternatively, the strain difference (&sm - &cm) may be calculated by determining a fictitious stress in
the tension bar reinforcement assuming a cracked section but neglecting the effects of the fibres (fttd,R1 ).
The strain difference (&sm - &cm) may be calculated from the expression:

p s,eff )
(J' s,fict - kt f ct,eff
. --.
(l + a ef .

(csm -&cm ) = s,e_ff_______ > 0.6· (1 - kr )·

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _P_ CJ's,fict
Es Es (7.7)

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where:

is the fictitious stress in the tension bar reinforcement assuming a cracked section but neglecting
as,fict
the effects of the fibres (fttd,R1 ).

(3) The maximum final crack spacing may be calculated as follows:

(7.8)

Where the spacing of the bonded bar reinforcement exceeds 5( c+$/2) (see SS EN 1992-1-1 Figure 7 .2)
or where there is no bonded bar reinforcement within the tension zone, an upper bound to the crack
width may be found by assuming a maximum crack spacing , as follows:

(7.9)

For fibre concrete members subjected to bending (with or without compressive normal force), but
without any additional bar reinforcement, the crack width (at the surface) may be estimated as follows:

wmax = & ft · 2 · (h - x) (7 .10)

Where &tt is the maximum tensile strain for the relevant load combination .

(6) Crack widths for elements subjected to restraint stresses with fibre concrete only (without any
additional bar reinforcement) can be estimated as follows:

wmax = Rax . &cs . sr,max - f ;RI ·(1 + q,,r)-

C
s,,m,x = R,x. Ii" - f ;RI ·(1 + 17',r) .
C
s,,m,x >0 (7.11)

Where &cs is the strain due to for example, thermal and/or shrinkage movements, R ax (0 < R ax < 1) is
the degree of axial restraint, and S r.max is the crack spacing. For ground-supported slabs Sr,max can be
assumed to be equal to 1/2 of the distance between free-movement joints. Rax should not be chosen
less than 0,5. Values for Rax can be found in SS EN 1992-3:2005, Annex L 151_

7 .4 Deflection control

7.4.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted

(1) For fibre concrete with bar reinforcement the simplified expressions in 7.4.2(2) of SS EN 1992-1-1
may be used without any modification. This is a conservative simplification . For a more rigorous and
accurate calculation , use the procedure in 7.4.3 . For a member with fibres only a deflection calculation
according to 7.4 .3 shall be carried out.

7.4.3 Checking deflections by calculation

(1) For structural elements of fibre concrete and bar reinforcement, the deflection may be calculated
using the same principle as presented in Section 7 .4 .3(3) of SS EN 1992-1-1. When determining the
moment-curvature relationship for a cross-section, the influence of the residual tensile strength of the
fibre concrete shall be considered, see 0 .3.

For structural elements with fibres only, the deflection of un-cracked elements, under load conditions
which are appropriate to the purpose of the check, may be based on elastic analysis using an effective
elastic modulus to account for creep. For checking if the element is un-cracked, restraint forces should be
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considered in combination with other loads. For structural elements with fibres only, the deflection of
cracked elements may be assessed by describing the structural member as consisting of cracked and
un-cracked elastic parts, see Figure 7 .1. For the cracked part the length of the disturbed zone
which describes the crack is determined by the characteristic length /cs defined in 3.5.3.

h[ £::,.
,- <5

\.....
}0
j, L '1
l
i
;
'
L.
;'
'
;
i
'
~
'
3 '

\
-.i
X
h-x

p ~~
w
elastic elastic

,Lcracked
--,f-_f
-,#--,~

lcs Simplified

Curvature

Figure 7.1 - Description of curvature for cracked and un-cracked sections

8 Detailing of reinforcement and pre-stressing tendons - General

8.2 Spacing of bars

(5) The clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel reinforcement bars or
horizontal layers of parallel reinforcement bars should be not less than 1,5 times the fibre length.

NOTE In thin sections the distance between formwork panels might be narrow promoting a two -dimensional
fibre orientation. If such a fibre orientation compromises structural design and performance the clear distance
between the panels should be not less than 1,5 times the fibre length .

9 Detailing of members and particular rules

9.2 Beams
9.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
9.2.1.1 Minimum and maximum reinforcement areas

(1) Sufficient tensile capacity for flexural ductility shall be provided when using fibre concrete or in
a combination with bar reinforcement. The residual tensile strength may be taken into account on the
moment capacity and the A s.min is calculated as follows:

(9.1)

NOTE Valid for 7Jdet case 1, 2, 3.

Where:
Act is the area in tension in bending , hct =h/2
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kc stress distribution prior to cracking (in bending) (Refer to clause 7 .3.2(2), SS EN 1992-1-1)

Solutions with fibre only may be used if the following condition is fulfilled

(9.2)

NOTE For fibre concrete the maximum reinforcement areas are not relevant.

9.3 Solid slabs

9.3.1 Flexural reinforcement

9.3.1.1 General

(1) For the minimum flexural ductility reinforcement when using fibre concrete or in combination with
bar reinforcement section 9.2.1.1 applies.

11 Lightweight aggregate concrete structures

11.3 Materials

11.3.3 Creep and shrinkage

(4) Creep of fibre reinforced LWAC members has to be determined experimentally in particular if the
member will be subjected to flexure.

11.6 Ultimate limit states

11.6.1 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement

(0) Due to lack of test data, design by testing is the recommended method.

11.6.4 Punching

(0) Due to lack of test data, design by testing is the recommended method.

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Annex 0
(Normative)

Calculation of strains and stresses in bending

0.1 Simplified approach for fibre concrete with conventional bar

reinforcement

,
, r r ;
,
1 ·x/2

h/2 A·X , -
X ;
-
, Fee
fttd,Rl ~
· - · - ·- ·- · ·- ·- ·- ·- ·-, /
-;,,-,..:.-
~ -
I

d ...:::
Nd '-'

-
.
h Ft2 -
• ,
I/ M
.......
-
- .
Fn
6st
--
-
_j
l
7J
l
7J
0-ft > /ftd,R3

Figure 0.1 - Strain and stress distribution for fibre concrete with bar reinforcement

It is assumed that the concrete in the compressive zone has reached its ultimate compressive strain
(denoted &cu3 in accordance with SS EN 1992-1-1). The tensile zone is assumed to be cracked and
the tensile strain on the tension face is equal to or less than the ultimate tensile strain capacity.
Equilibrium in a cracked fibre-reinforced cross section in combination with bar reinforcement gives the
following relationships:

Fcc = l·x•n• 1
'I J ed ·b (01.1)

F fl = b · (h - X )· /ftd,Rl - £ ft . ( Jftd,Rl - /ftd,R3 ) (01.2)

£ ftu

(01.3)

h-x
Where £ ft = --• £ c check that &tt < &ftu (01.4)
X

d-x
Fst = Ast . erst = Ast . Es . 6 st = Ast . Es . - - • 6 c where erst < /yd (01.5)
X

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Horizontal force equilibrium :

"'""H ➔ Fcc
L..J = O yields -Fst + Ff l + Ff 2 + N d
- (01.6)

Bending moment equilibrium:

A +F •-
M Rd = F cc · x · ( 1- -
2
f1
J
h --
2
x +F •-
f2
h --
3
x +F · ( d - x ) +N · --x
st d
2
(h J (01.7)

0.2 Simplified approach for fibre concrete without bar reinforcement

a ·x

Zi

.- .- .- .- .-
h/2
/ftd,RI
X

- . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - .---..,-+--r---f"- . - . - . - . - . -
F ee
- ,..-._ -
k
- .- .
,,-..
I .
Mct I
,-.s;:!
k

. - -~
I
N.d '-'
. .....;:!
'-'
h ~ .
- ....-( ~
....-(

Fn

_J
l ·O"ft > /ftd,R3

Figure 0.2 - Strain and stress distribution for fibre concrete without bar reinforcement

It is assumed that the concrete in the compressive zone is less than or equal to the ultimate compressive
strain (denoted &cu3 in accordance with SS EN 1992-1-1). The tensile zone is assumed to be cracked
and the tensile strain on the tension face is equal to or less than the ultimate tensile strain capacity. As
a start value it can be assumed that the height of compressive zone x is approximately Ta l\ to Ta l\
for maximum moment resistance. Equilibrium in a cracked fibre-reinforced cross section without bar
reinforcement gives the following relationships:

X i

Fee = b · fa c( z) · dx ~ b · Lac(z i)• dzi (02.1)

0 0

(02.2)

(02.3)

(02.4)

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h-x
Where & ft = - -· & c check that & ft < & ftu (02.5)
X

Horizontal force equilibrium:

y ields ) Fcc = Ff 1 + Ff2 + Nd (02.6)

Bending moment equilibrium:

MRd= Fcc ·X· (1- a ) + Fr1 ·h-

-- x
+ ~- 2·h-
-- x
+ Nd · - - x
2 3
(h )
2
(02.7)

(02.8)

0.3 General approach for fibre concrete with or without bar reinforcement

·=-
Jr t . hll

-----b--- ---·---·
d
111

Figure 0.3 - Strain and stress distribution for fibre concrete with or without bar reinforcement

By numerical integration applying a step change in the compressive strain until ccu is reached, and for
each step the position of the neutral axis and the moment of resistance calculated, the complete
response of the section can be determined (i.e. moment-curvature relationship). This may be achieved
with the following approach:

X i

Fcc = b · fa c ( z) · dx ~ b · Lac(zi )· ~ i (03.1)

0 0

(03.2)

h- x i

Fft = b· fa ft (z )· dx ~ b· La ft (zi )· ~i (03.3)

0 0

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(03.4)

d-x
Fst =Ast . (j st =Ast . Es . 8 st =Ast . Es. - - • 8 c where a st </ yd (03.5)
X

Horizontal force equilibrium:

yields ) Fcc = Fst + Fft + N d (03.6)

Bending moment equilibrium:

(03.7)

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Annex P
(Normative)

Production and conformity control of fibre concrete

P.1 General

(1) The same rules as for plain concrete as given in SS EN 206 apply for fibre concrete.

(2) Additional rules for production control and conformity of fibre concrete are given in the following
sections.

NOTE The requirements given in the following sections shall be followed by the producer of fibre concrete.
Control procedures for verifying the properties of fibre concrete on the construction site are described in
Appendix Q.

P .2 Fibre concrete composition and initial testing

(1) Initial testing shall be performed in each case where a new fibre concrete composition is to be used
to provide a fibre concrete that achieves the specified properties or intended performance with an
adequate margin.

(2) New fibre concrete compositions may be obtained by interpolation between known fibre
concrete compositions provided that the following requirements are fulfilled :

- The concrete strength class shall be the same

- The type of fibres shall be the same

- The difference in fibre content between the fibre concrete compositions with known
performance shall not exceed 20 kg/m 3 .

(3) If the above demands are fulfilled the performance, i.e. the residual flexural tensile strength
values (fR,1 and fR,3), of a new fibre concrete composition, with a fibre content that falls between the
limits, can be obtained by linear interpolation.

(4) Initial testing shall be repeated if there has been a significant change either in the constituent
materials or in the specified requirements on which the previous tests were based and at least annually.

(5) In addition to the rules given in Annex A of SS EN 206 the initial testing for fibre concrete shall
comprise the tests given in Table P.1.

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Table P.1 - Properties to be determined during initial testing of fibre concrete, in addition to
the requirements in SS EN 206

Number of samples per test

Test item Test method Purpose of the test
occasion

To determine the residual

Residual flexural tensile
EN 14651 flexural tensile strength At least 12 beams
strength at 28 days
classes (R1 and R3)
To verify that a
Steel fibre distribution in horn ogeneous fibre
EN 14721 At least 3
fresh concrete distribution is achieved
throughout the batch

To verify that a
Polymer fibre distribution homogeneous fibre
I in fresh concrete
EN 14488-7
distribution is achieved
throughout the batch
At least 3

(6) The mean residual flexural tensile strength (fR,1m and fR,3m) obtained shall exceed the characteristic
residual flexural tensile strength values given in Table 3.1 in 3.5.2 by an adequate margin. This margin
shall be at least that needed to satisfy the conformity criteria given in equation P.1 and P .2, where kn is a
statistical factor that shall be 1,77 for a test series of 6 beams. Guidance on the selection of kn where a
higher number of beams is used in the evaluation is given in Table P.2.

(P.1)

(P.2)

Table P .2 - Values for factor kn to be used for different number of beams in evaluation

Number of
kn-value
beams

6 1,77

8 1,74

10 1,72

12 1,71

15 1,70

20 1,68

30 1,67

100 1,64

(7) The homogeneity of the fibre distribution throughout a batch is tested using three samples from a
load, taken from the first, second and last third during discharge. Both criteria, for the individual sample
and for the mean value, in Table P.3 shall be fulfilled.

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Table P.3 - Acceptance criteria for fibre content and homogeneity of fibre distribution in fresh
fibre concrete

Applicable to Criterion

Every sample > 0,80 of the specified minimum value

Average of 3 samples from a load > 0,85 of the specified minimum value

NOTE The rules for initial testing given in th is clause· only apply to designed fibre concrete. For prescribed
fibre concrete the responsibility for verification of the residual flexural tensile strength lies on the specifier.

P .3 Conformity control for designed fibre concrete

(1) For designed fibre concrete, sampling and testing shall be performed on individual fibre concrete
compositions.

(2) The minimum rate of sampling and testing of fibre content and homogeneity of fibre concrete shall
be in accordance with Table 21 and 22 of SS EN 206.

(3) Conformity assessment shall be made on running basis of individual loads.

(4) Conformity with the required property is confirmed where all individual test results are within the
maximum allowed deviation given in Table 21 and 22 of EN 206.

NOTE Designed fibre concrete has a specified performance in accordance with the R-classes defined
in Section 3.5.2.

P .4 Conformity control for prescribed fibre concrete

(1) Each batch or load of prescribed fibre concrete shall be assessed for conformity with the fibre
content. The amount of fibres as recorded in the production record or the printout from the batch
recorder shall be within the limit values given in Table P.3.

(2) For the type of fibre in prescribed fibre concrete, the conformity shall be assessed by comparison of
the production record and the delivery documents for the fibres with the specified requirements.

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Annex Q
(Normative)

Execution control of fibre concrete

Q.1 Execution classes for fibre concrete

(1) The level of execution control to be specified depends on the type of structure and the consequences
of a non-conforming fibre concrete.

(2) Guidance for the specification of execution class for different type of structures is provided in Table
Q.1.

Table Q.1 - Execution classes for fibre concrete

Execution
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
class

Function of Structural
Non-structural (system 38 ) Part-structural (system 18 )
fibres (system 18 )

Slabs on ground designed for

significant loadings or high
Slabs on ground not designed
demands on crack control,
Examples of for external loading , overlays
slabs on piles, walls under Decks, beams etc.
structures only exposed to restraint
compressive loading, elevated
stresses
slabs with fibre concrete and
bar reinforcement, etc.

Note Prescribed fibre concrete is only possible in execution class 1.

a System 1 or 3 in accordance to BS EN 14889-1 and 2.

Q.2 Execution control of fibre concrete

(1) Minimum requirements for the control of fibre concrete in different execution classes are specified
in Table Q.2.

Table Q.2 -Test frequency for the execution control of fibre concrete

Execution classes
Test item Test method Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

BS EN 14721 (steel fibres) 1 per 100 m3 3 per 100 m3

I Fibre content
BS EN 14488-7 (polymer fibres)
Not required
or 3 per pour or 3 per pour

Residual flexural 2 per 100 m3 or 2

I tensile strength
BS EN 14651 Not required Not required
per pour

Note 1 At least 12 beams must be produced for a construction project in Class 3.

I
Note 2 Acceptance is assessed for individual test results.
Note 3 Results of the determination of fibre content shall be evaluated according to the criteria given in Table P.2
of Annex P. If all individual test results fulfil the requirement, the fibre concrete is deemed to come from a
conforming population.
Note 4 Acceptance of residual flexural tensile strength is confirmed where all individual test results (fR,1 ,i and fR,3,i)
exceed the corresponding characteristic residual flexural tensile strength (fR,1 and fR,3 ).

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Annex R
(Informative)

Expected Coefficient of Variation for beam tests according to BS

EN 14651

R.1 General

Steel fibre reinforced concrete is a material that normally exhibit low variance on flexural properties in
real slab type structures. This can for example be demonstrated in standardized crushing tests of pipes
as specified in BS EN 1916 (61. The performance is dependent on the fracture zone and for small
samples a significant spread in the results is expected. This is not only true for BS EN 14651 beam
tests but also true for all beam tests with a small fracture plane.

R.2 Coefficient of variation

The Coefficient of variation (COV) is defined as the standard deviation divided by the mean result of a
test series. In order to obtain reliable results a test series of 12 beams is recommended as specified in
BS EN 14845-2 (71. For practical and economic reason s series of minimum 6 beams may be accepted
to verify the material properties of a specific recipe.

R.3 Expected coefficient of variation

The expected average COV for BS EN 14651 beam tests is around 20 % but it can be larger or smaller.
Up to 30 % COV is normal.

R.4 Influencing factors

The variation will be influenced by the test execution and equipment but also other factors such as
concrete composition, fibre length and dosage. Comprehensive knowledge about all factors and their
role on the variation is not currently available. In general , fibre concentration and orientation are
important influences on the variation.

R.5 Examples of COV with different concrete compositions

30 ;-------""""=. . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25 - + - - - - - - ~

~ 20 ■ Ave raae of cov fll

,..:.
""' : 15 II Av,erage of COV ftR,1
V
I Averaaeof COVflR,2
10
11 Av,erage of COV flR,3
5
■ Ave raae of cov flR,4
0
B4 B5 MB ME Li 51 S7
,concr,ete composition

Figure R.1 - Expected COV for BS EN 14651

In these examples the average variance ranges between 15 % and 30 %.

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Annex S
(Informative)

Fibre concrete, statically indeterminate structures, and

magnification factors

S.1 Background

Testing fibre concrete typically produces a relatively large scatter in the measured results. In real
structures, this scatter may be of less significance partly through averaging across long distances and
partly through redistribution of stresses in statically indeterminate structures. The aim of this Annex is
to quantify these effects and to develop recommendations to assist the structural engineer in developing
practical structural designs for fibre concrete structures.

S.2 Statically determinate beams

L/2 L/2

Figure 5.1 - Simply supported beam loaded with a point load at midspan

The simply supported beam is the simplest statically determinate structure. If it is loaded with a point
load at midspan (Figure S.1 ), the fibre concrete will crack when the flexural moment M = PL/4 equals
the cracking moment Mer, i.e. , when the load equals the following value:

p = 4. Mer (S.1)
er L

No crack redistribution is possible. That means that the ultimate load can be determined by the following
equation:

(S.2)

where, Mu is the ultimate moment capacity of the fibre concrete section. Assuming that the cracking
moment is normal distributed and has a mean value m and a standard deviation s, it may be written:

(S.3)

and

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p = N( 4 · m 4 · s) (S.4)
u L ' L

if it is assumed that the span length L is a scalar (Blom, 1970) [81. If the relative scatter s/m is 40 % for
the cracking moment, this level is the same for the relative scatter of the cracking load .

S.3 Statically indeterminate beams

p p

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

PL/8 p

PL/8
~ (cy

M ~ .______ ____, ~ M'

k L/2 k

a) Moment distribution according to theory of

elasticity b) Moment equilibrium at plasticity

Figure 5.2 - Fixed-end beam loaded with a point load at midspan

The simply supported beam is now replaced by a statically indeterminate beam but still loaded with a
point load at midspan. Using theory of elasticity as a first step, the field and support moments are equal.
Cracking occurs when M = M' = PL/8 = Mer (Figure S.2a), or when:

p = 8· Mer (S.5)
er L

It is observed that the cracking load is twice as high as the cracking load for the simply supported beam,
but this is not the most important finding.

The difference compared to the statically determinate case is that stress redistribution is possible. Three
rotation joints are introduced, two at both supports and one at midspan (Figure S.2b ). Using theory of
plasticity, the following equation by investigating moment equilibrium may be derived:

M +M' = P·L = P·L (S:6)

2 2 4

In the general case, the positive moment M need not be equal to the negative moment M . The ultimate
load may be computed by the following equation:

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(S.7)

Assuming that both the ultimate moments are normal distributed according to these expressions:

(S.8a)

(S.8b)

When adding two normal distributed functions, the mean values are added whereas the standard
deviation is computed as the square root of the sum of the squares (Blom, 1970) l81, i.e., the following
distribution for the ultimate load is valid:

(S.9)

For simplicity, it is assumed that m1 = m2 = m and s1 = s2 =sand that s/m = 0,40, and the following level
for the scatter of Pu may thus be computed:

4 · ✓s 5
2
s + s2 I L s 1 s
r;:; · - ~ 0,707 · 0,40 = 0,28 (S.10)
4-(m+m) / L 2·m -v L m

It may be concluded that the statically indeterminate member not only is beneficial by stress distribution,
which leads to an enhanced ultimate load, but also to a reduced total relative scatter.

The effect of the scatter reduction on design values can be determined through the following
relationships. Usually, the characteristic strength value fk is determined through the mean value fm (=
m), the standard deviation s, and the following equation:

(S.11)

where, k = 1,2816 for the 90 % fractile and k = 1,6449 for the 95 % fractile. Denoting the relative scatter
with c = slm, the ratio K between the characteristic values for the ultimate load for a statically
indeterminate beam and that of a statically determinate beam may be determined with the following
expression:

1 k·s 1 1
m- -= m- ✓2k · c ·m l- -=k · c
K = ✓2 ✓2
(S.12)
m -k · s m - k· c ·m 1- .k · c
The value of K for various values of c (= s/m) is shown in Figure S.3. Note that 1,3 < K < 2,4 is valid for
0,3 < c < 0.5 and the 95 % fractile. A value K :::= 1,4 may be useful for normal cases.

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2,5

2
/
1,5
-- --
V
1
95%
0,5
90%

0
0 0, 1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
C = s/m

Figure S.3 - K values for varying relative scatter and two different fractile values. The figure is
applicable for statically indeterminate beams

S.4 Slabs

p
circulo r cr.ocK

C
t

~ 0.__,,__
•

Po ~------.,,,.._...,_
.
I r,
_g_,
t
Po

Figure S.4 - Yield line pattern for a slab-on-grade according to Losberg (1961) cs1

The ultimate load for the ground-supported slab shown in Figure S.4 can be determined by the following
equation :

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(S.13)

where, mu = ultimate flexural moment capacity in positive yield lines (tension at slab bottom), mu' =
ultimate flexural moment capacity in negative yield lines (tension at slab top), c = radius of the
loaded surface , I= elastic radius of rigidity of the slab, and K= non-dimensional function (K > 1 ). Values
of K can be found in Concrete Report No. 4 (1997) c1o1 or Losberg (1961) (91.

The influence of the material scatter will be even less in slabs, that are multi-degree statically
indeterminate, than in statically indeterminate beams. If the yield line theory (Figure S.4) is investigated ,
it may be observed that there are several cracks and that the total crack length is several times larger
than the beam's crack length that is limited to the beam width. One way to consider this beneficial fact
would be to determine the probability that a local weakness zone covers the entire crack length and
compare this probability with the probability that a local weakness zone appears close to the section of
maximum moment in the loaded beam. Theoretically, this would lead to dramatic reductions in scatter.
However, this simple method may be criticized from several aspects. First, test results do not verify
that the difference in scatter is that large. Second , the strength distribution in a concrete member is likely
to be dependent on the production technology, e.g., the various batches, the different casting lifts, the
positions of the vibrating poker (if not self-compacting concrete is used), and the time and efficiency of
the vibration labour that is carried out in each position.

When using fibre concrete, the fibre orientation may differ from an even three-dimensional model. This
may lead to differences in strength properties in the three different, perpendicular directions. The moment
capacity in the both horizontal directions may, for example, be somewhat different. In two
perpendicular directions x and y , the positive moment capacities mx and my and the negative moment
capacities may be denoted mx' and my', respectively. The ultimate load for slab with different moment
capacities in different directions may be determined by the following equation:

Pu = g 1( ... )·{(mxu + mxu ') + g 2( ...)·(myu + myu ')}

(S.14)

where, g1( .. . ) and g2(... ) are unknown functions that depend on the geometry of the load arrangement,
the slab and its boundary and support conditions, and the yield line pattern. Solutions for elevated slabs
may be found in Nylander & Kinnunen (1974) 111 1.

By making one simplification, it is assumed that g2 is independent of the ratio between the moment
capacities, i.e., independent of mx/my and mx'lmy' .

Assuming that all four moment capacities are normal distributed, i.e.,

(S.15a)

(S.15b)

(S.15c)

(S.15d)

For this case, the ultimate load will also be normal distributed with the following distribution (Blom, 1970)
[8] ·

(S.16)

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By studying a special case where m1 = m2 = m3 = m4 =m, s1 = s2 = S3 = S4 = s, 92 = 1; and s/m = 0,40,

the following level for the scatter of Pu may be determined:

(S.17)

Compared to the simply supported beam , the scatter is reduced to 50 percent.

By reusing Equations S.11 and S.12, the following relationship may be determined:

1 1 1
m- - k· s m- - k· c· m 1- - k · c
K= 2 2 2 (S.18)
m - k· s m - k ·c· m l- k·C

The value of K for various values of c (= s/m) is shown in Figure S.5. Please, note that 1,5 < K < 3,3 is
valid for 0,3 < c < 0,5 and the 95 % fractile. A practical value can be taken as K == 2.

3,5

3
/
2,5
/
2
/ .....
~
1,5

1 95%
90%
0,5

0
0 0, 1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
c=x/m

Figure 5.5 - K values for varying relative scatter and two different fractile values. The figure is
applicable for slabs with both positive and negative yield lines

S.5 Alternative estimation for statically indeterminate structures

In Section S.4 and S.5 above, the ultimate load has been determined by adding two or more moment
capacities. This concept means that the computation rules for normal distributions can be used . If addition
is not possible the two capacities may still be considered as two independent stochastic variables. The
probability that both should show minimum values is much less than the likelihood that one variable
shows minimum value. By way of example, the probability of throwing a 6 with a single die is 1/6 and
for a double 6 from two dice the probability is just 1/36 Assuming that both M1 and M2 are normal
distributed, i.e.,

(S.19a)

(S.19b)

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Figure S.6 shows the probability for both M1 < t and M2 < t compared with the simple case that M1 < t
for the special case m = 1 and s = 0,4. Whereas the probability for M1 being less than 0 ,5 is 10 % , the
probability is the same for both M1 and M2 at just 1 % . Corresponding probabilities for M1 and both M1
and M2 =1 is 50 % and 27 % , respectively.

1
0,9
~ --
~ , / /"
=
·- 0,8
.g 0,7 / /
.0
e o,6
/ /
C.
a, 0,5
/ /
~ 0,4 / /
-
c,s
::::s O, 3
/ /
M1
E
::::, 0,2
/
0 / / M1 & M2
0, 1
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
Value t m = 1; s = 0.4

Figure S.6 - Cumulative probabilities p(M1 S t) and p([M1 S t] and [M2 S t]) for a special
case where m = 1 ands= 0,4

S.6 Cases with lower scatter

In some laboratories the development of mechanized production methods and good quality control has
led to a reduction of scatter. For example, one fibre producer has presented a scatter in the range of 15 to
30 percent.

First, the case in Figure S.6 is considered . The two curves will look the same but the width is more
narrow.

Figure S.7 shows the probability both M1 < t and M2 < t compared with the simple case that M1 < t for
the special case m = 1 and s = 0 ,3. Whereas the probability for M1 being less than 0,5 is 5 % , the
probability is the same for both M1 and M2 at just 0,2 %. However, probabilities for M1 and both M1 and M2
=1 is 50% and 27 %, respectively. The probability for both M1 and M2 being less than 0,76 is 5 % . The
ratio between 0, 76 and 0 ,5 is 1,52. This value could be compared with the value K::::: 1,4 derived in
Section S.3.

Returning to Figures S .3 and S .5 , it is observed that K = 1, 1 to 1,3 for c = 0, 15 to 0,3 for the
statically indeterminate beam and K = 1,2 to 1,5 for the slab (95 % fractile). These values are
substantially lower than the values determined for c = 0,4 in the previous sections. However, the K
values determined for c < 0 ,3 seem to be unnecessarily low. There are several reasons for this:

i) The scatter in a real project, where the concrete is batched by a supplier and later cast by a
contractor, is usually substantially higher than the one obtained in the fibre producer's
laboratory.

ii) The discussion behind Figures S.6 and S. 7 shows that the simplest approaches in sections 3
and 4 are conservative.

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iii) There are further conditions that provide further security against failure in statically
indeterminate structures than those considered in current analysis. The crack length increases
often more than twice as considered in the beam analysis. The weakest cross section is
supposed to crack first but it is composed of two independent variables; tensile strength and
section height.

1
~
-
,_,,,,.
0,9
~ 0,8
/ /
·-
i 0,7
/ /
.c
e o,6
/ /
Q.
Cl) 0,5
/ /
~n:I 0,4 / /
-:, 0,3 / /
M1
E
:, 0,2
/ /
u
0, 1
/ / M1 & M2

0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
Value t m = 1; s = 0.3

Figure S.7 - Cumulative probabilities p(M1 S t) and p([M1 S t] and [M2 S t]) for a special
case where m = 1 and s = 0,3

S. 7 Recommended values

Based on the examples in sections S.3-S.5 above, the following recommendations are given. The
magnification factor ✓n should be used as a multiplier to determine the design strength for practical
cases, 1.e.,

fd,actual case = ✓n, f~

•

(S.20)

where, fd ,actua1 case =

design strength value for the structural fibre concrete member and fd = design
strength value for the corresponding fibre concrete.

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Table S.1 - Proposed magnification factors for different structural cases

Case No. Type of structural member Magnification factor 1'/det

1 Statically determinate beams 1

2 Statically indeterminate beams 1.4

3 Rectangular slabs with two opposite edges simply 1

supported and the other two edges free

4 (a) Simply supported circular slabs 1.4

(b) Rectangular slabs with at least three edges simply
supported

5 (a) Circular slabs with clamped edges 2

(b) Rectangular slabs with at least one edge clamped
and the other edges simply supported
(c) Slabs-on-grade

(d) Interior spans of pile-supported slabs

(e) Interior spans of column-supported slabs
(f) Interior spans of simply supported continuous slabs

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——

LA VIGNE
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ROMAN

PARIS
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PLON-NOURRIT ET Cⁱᵉ, IMPRIMEURS-ÉDITEURS
8, RUE GARANCIÈRE-6ᵉ
—
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«Pour y laisser entrer, avec la tiède aurore,

Les nocturnes parfums de nos vignes en
fleur.»

(Lamartine, la Vigne et la Maison.)

I
Il y avait des mois que Mme Dupouy était très malade. Ses robes noires,
rétrécies plusieurs fois par la couturière, flottaient autour d’elle. Quand elle
descendait la rue du village, allant à la gare pour prendre le train, des
regards curieux ou compatissants traversaient les vitres. Il n’était guère de
maison où son amaigrissement ne fût commenté. Beaucoup s’indignaient
que le médecin ne lui donnât pas l’ordre de rester chez elle et prédisaient
qu’elle tomberait morte sur la grand’route; d’autres ressassaient que sa fille
ne paraissait s’inquiéter de rien.
Il était vrai que la jeunesse élancée de Paule, à côté du dépérissement de
la pauvre femme, créait une opposition dont les esprits chagrins se sentaient
choqués. On ne pouvait lui reprocher d’avoir l’éclat de ses vingt et un ans.
Il semblait pourtant que la sensibilité et les convenances eussent exigé que
cette lumière fût atténuée, filtrée avec soin. On lui aurait su gré de
s’apitoyer sur la malade et sur elle-même. On eût aimé l’encourager. Les
événements qui se préparaient ne vont pas habituellement sans un prélude
d’attendrissement et de bavardage, dont certaines personnes se trouvaient
frustrées.
Elle parut plus blâmable encore le jour où sa mère s’éteignit enfin. La
famille, prévenue trop tard, arriva à grand’peine pour l’enterrement: un
groupe mécontent d’oncles, de tantes et de cousins venus de tous les coins
du département. Chacun trouvait quelque chose à redire dans la lettre qu’il
avait reçue. Le temps était maussade. Il y avait dans le ciel d’avril un grand
mouvement de nuées grises qui par moments se fondaient en pluie. La
Garonne souillée par de récentes inondations traînait une eau rouge.
 Dans l’omnibus qui la ramenait du cimetière, au trot pesant d’un lourd
cheval noir, Paule avait écarté ses voiles de crêpe. La voiture descendit la
pente raide du coteau. Elle tourna dans le village adossé au flanc du rocher
et prit la route qui conduit au fleuve. La jeune fille avait les yeux fixés sur
sa maison qui se rapprochait—une grosse maison de maître, carrée, en belle
pierre, entourée d’arbres et de bâtiments d’exploitation. Elle se détachait sur
le gris du ciel.
Les yeux de Paule se remplissaient peu à peu de larmes. Qu’elle était
vide, cette demeure, et grande, et muette! Il y avait là toute la solitude. Mais
elle avait pourtant envie d’y rentrer, de s’y enfoncer, les portes fermées. Un
désir lui venait de la presser entre ses bras, comme si la vieille maison était
le seul être qui l’aimât vraiment et pût la comprendre!
Il y eut, dans la salle à manger boisée de panneaux peints en couleur
brune, un déjeuner improvisé. On parla de la cérémonie, du curé, des
chants. Les dames donnèrent des détails sur le voyage qu’elles avaient dû
faire et se plaignirent d’être fatiguées. Chacun pensait à repartir. Mais il
fallait auparavant régler le sort de la jeune fille. La famille, ainsi réunie en
assises exceptionnelles, était pleine du sentiment de son importance. Son
désir de tout décider par elle-même éclata enfin: ce fut au salon, dans
l’après-midi, comme on finissait de prendre le café. Paule rangeait les tasses
sur une console aux pieds cannelés, ornée de guirlandes, qui se trouvait
placée entre deux fenêtres; quand elle se retourna, une impression de
tristesse se répandit qui fut absorbée par les choses seules:
—Ce que je compte faire, mais rester ici...
Le salon carré était sombre, les volets ayant été presque fermés comme il
est d’usage quand la mort est dans la maison ou vient d’en sortir. Tous les
regards furent fixés sur la jeune fille. Elle était grande, élancée, flexible.
Ainsi debout, dans sa robe noire, seulement parée du double anneau royal
de ses tresses, elle était tout enveloppée des ombres que le malheur prête à
la jeunesse.
Peu à peu pourtant sa physionomie se détacha mieux. Ses cheveux
châtains qui s’ensoleillaient au grand jour paraissaient éteints; leur coiffure
extrêmement simple entourait un visage rond, un peu aplati, creusé par les
larmes; la bouche forte avait une expression de bonté meurtrie. Le
mouvement qu’elle venait de faire présentait de trois quarts les lignes
robustes de son cou nu, d’un blanc admirable, et qui empruntait à ce grand
deuil une beauté de mélancolie.
—Où voulez-vous que j’aille vivre?
Elle avait parlé gravement. Un reproche s’élevait du fond de son âme. Il
n’en fallut pas davantage pour ouvrir la discussion qui se préparait. Les
lamentations alternaient avec les conseils: elle ne pouvait pas demeurer
seule dans cette maison. Que penserait-on? Que dirait-on dans le pays? Une
de ses tantes surtout s’alarmait, partagée entre le désir de ne rien changer à
sa propre vie et l’inquiétude d’être critiquée. Elle craignait qu’on lui
reprochât de laisser sa nièce abandonnée à elle-même:
—Ce ne serait pas du tout convenable.
Elle soupira deux ou trois fois, se tourna vers la jeune fille qui ne
bougeait pas, puis vers son mari:
—Ton oncle d’ailleurs est de mon avis!
Une dame de compagnie lui paraissait indispensable.
Paule se taisait, laissant discuter les uns et les autres. La prétention
qu’avait sa famille de la diriger lui paraissait ridicule et inacceptable. Elle
en éprouvait du ressentiment et de la révolte. Qui donc, parmi ceux qui se
trouvaient là, lui avait jamais montré une affection vraie? Dans les partages,
tous ne s’étaient-ils pas efforcés de la dépouiller, profitant des indécisions
de sa mère et de ses scrupules. Ils représentaient un égoïsme qu’elle
détestait.
Son oncle, Charles Dupouy, dont on demandait l’approbation, parla des
affaires. C’était un homme de cinquante ans, fort, coloré, le poil déjà blanc,
qui appuyait sur ses deux genoux écartés des mains de campagnard. Il lâcha
lentement de lourdes paroles:
—Il faut que tu te maries ou bien que tu vendes. Tu es trop jeune. Tu
seras volée. Les propriétés, c’est une grosse charge pour une femme. Ta
pauvre mère aurait fini par se ruiner.
Paule avait eu un tressaillement, mais se ressaisit, cachant ses sentiments
véritables sous une apparence de tranquillité. De quoi s’inquiétait-on? Elle
ne demandait qu’à rester chez elle. Les affaires, il y avait longtemps qu’elle
s’en occupait. Sa mère l’avait mise au courant de tout. Elle avait assez de
chagrin sans qu’on lui demandât encore de bouleverser sa façon de vivre.
Une dame de compagnie, qu’en ferait-elle à la campagne? Elle en serait
bientôt réduite à lui chercher des distractions.
Sa tante insistait, d’un air plein de sous-entendus et de réticences. C’était
une femme petite et grasse, dodue, boursouflée, avec un visage insignifiant
noyé dans la graisse. Elle avait été de bonne heure informe, sans taille,
embarrassée de son embonpoint. Cette obésité était pour elle un sujet de
désolation; sans énergie pour l’accepter ni pour la combattre, elle faisait de
molles tentatives pour se modérer, essayant d’un régime, de légumes frais,
mais toujours prête aux concessions, s’accordant un plat défendu ou un
dîner fin. Une femme sotte et empêtrée, sans idée sur la manière de
s’habiller, incapable d’accorder une robe avec un chapeau. La digestion
congestionnait sa face bouffie; son double menton ressortait sur un col trop
haut qui ne lui permettait pas de tourner la tête. Et c’était elle qui répétait,
confortablement installée, dans une bergère profonde et basse, qu’une jeune
fille a besoin d’être conseillée.
Paule se taisait, indifférente, sa douleur même comme desséchée par les
figures de componction qui tournaient vers elle des yeux scrutateurs. De
quoi sa tante se mêlait-elle? Pouvait-elle parler de sagesse et d’expérience,
elle dont la vie gravitait autour de la table, et dont la conversation
s’engraissait des commérages de l’office? Quel rapport y avait-il entre ce
caractère engourdi et vide et ses jeunes énergies vaillantes?
Après une averse qui avait longuement battu les volets, le ciel avait dû
s’éclaircir et s’ensoleiller. Quelques fils de lumière traversèrent les rideaux
empesés de mousseline blanche, relevés par des embrasses sur de gros
champignons dorés, de chaque côté des portes-fenêtres. Puis, de nouveau,
tout s’assombrit. Les portraits de famille, suspendus aux boiseries par des
cordons verts, présidaient cette scène où des sentiments si divers étaient
comprimés; le demi-cercle formé par les robes noires et les redingotes se
tenait en face de Paule, sur un grand tapis d’Aubusson usé. L’espace qui la
séparait de ce concile lui semblait immense.
Sur la cheminée, un balancier en forme de lyre allait et venait, entre les
colonnes d’une pendule qui figurait un petit temple en bronze doré. Les
regards se tournaient vers le cadran à la dérobée.
L’heure du train approchant enfin, il y eut un grand remue-ménage.
Chacun ne parut plus occupé que de trouver ses gants ou son parapluie. Le
ton changea, comme si la famille avait eu conscience que son rôle était
terminé, qu’elle avait fait tout son devoir, et qu’elle pourrait dorénavant se
laver les mains des choses fâcheuses qu’elle avait prédites. Un peu de
précipitation abrégea les derniers attendrissements:
—Allons, du courage!
L’omnibus lourdement chargé s’ébranla dans l’allée boueuse que
bordaient le chai et les écuries.
Paule resta un moment debout dans l’embrasure de la porte. La vue de la
campagne verte la rafraîchissait. Le jardin était détrempé et quelques
branches de bois mort jonchaient les pelouses mal entretenues, sur
lesquelles un rouleau de pierre et une herse avaient été abandonnés. A
travers la grille du portail, elle apercevait la coulée du fleuve et l’autre rive
profilée sur les tons ardoisés du ciel. Tout paraissait indifférent. Elle était
chez elle. Il n’y avait pas de dangers à craindre. Personne ne l’aimait ni ne
la détestait. Les choses resteraient pareilles à ce qu’elles étaient ce soir-là,
telles que sa mère les lui laissait. Sa mère, sa mère, elle allait enfin pouvoir
la pleurer. Comment eût-elle imaginé que la mort porte en elle d’autres
conséquences que le vide, les larmes, le trou béant du premier jour?

II
La propriété de Paule Dupouy, les Tilleuls, s’ouvrait par un portail en
face du fleuve. Un autre, simple claire-voie en barreaux de fer, au bout d’un
chemin de propriété, donnait sur la route. C’était par là que les voitures
entraient et sortaient; les roues y creusaient l’hiver de profondes ornières
que l’on remplissait de tuiles cassées.
La façade qui regardait l’eau avait, les jours gris, un air de tristesse. Un
cordon de glycine courait au-dessus du rez-de-chaussée. Le jardin, humide,
étouffé d’arbres, était séparé du chemin de halage par une haie d’aubépine.
Il y avait un décrottoir à côté de la porte, des sabots épars au seuil de la
cuisine. Mais, par les mauvais temps, aucune précaution n’empêchait
l’entrée de la terrible boue que les pas transportaient dans toutes les pièces.
De l’autre côté, la vue n’était que gaieté et animation. Elle s’étendait au-
dessus de la bande verte de la «palud». Les coteaux bleuâtres qui dessinent
la rive droite de la Garonne s’abaissaient en face du domaine. Leurs pentes
cultivées formaient un vallon, au fond duquel coulait la Pimpine, petit cours
d’eau qui faisait marcher deux moulins avant de se perdre dans le fleuve.
Un village aux toits roses et violets s’était niché dans cette ouverture parmi
les feuillages; ses petites maisons se superposaient au bas du rocher.
Un hospice se dressait sur une des crêtes, grand bâtiment neuf, à demi
caché dans un parc touffu, d’où jaillissait un clocher pointu. Les gens du
pays l’appelaient la Chapelle. Au-dessus du porche était une horloge qui
réglait le travail aussi loin qu’on pouvait l’entendre; ses coups espacés
tombaient lentement, comptés un par un au fond des cuisines et dans les
vignobles.
Sur l’autre versant, à mi-hauteur dans la verdure, c’était le Château: une
construction de style Henri IV qui tournait de ce côté une façade terminée
par deux gros pavillons carrés. Les arbres dissimulaient les grandes
terrasses, des pièces d’eau, un ensemble presque royal.
Il y avait aussi le bourg en haut de la vallée, invisible dans un repli, avec
quelques maisons et de vieilles haines. La possession de l’église paroissiale,
qui était pour lui comme un centre de résistance, le défendait de l’oubli
total. Les gens «du haut», toujours en conflit avec ceux «du bas», se
cramponnaient à sa plate-forme, à ses murs romans, à son cimetière,
cependant que la vie glissait vers la gare, le mouvement et l’activité.
Une grand’route suivait le bas de la colline, au-dessus de la ligne du
chemin de fer. Les trains ne montaient et redescendaient que trois fois par
jour. La campagne souriante les voyait passer. Avril remplissait les petits
jardins de giroflées et de myosotis, les lilas débordaient les murs, et un
parfum d’amande amère flottait sur les haies.
Le printemps... Paule se refusait à le regarder. Pendant une semaine, elle
éprouva de la répugnance à franchir le seuil de sa maison. La grande
lumière la blessait de sensations aiguës: il lui semblait qu’au dehors vivait
un monde de joie, et devant ce jaillissement de fête, elle se dérobait,
fouillant le fond âpre de sa douleur.
Elle pensait à sa mère, avec une obstination cruelle et presque farouche.
Elle la revoyait, au fond de sa chambre, abattant le tablier du secrétaire en
bois de noyer, et reprenant la besogne ingrate des comptes et des écritures.
Mme Dupouy paraissait toujours tourmentée, de cette inquiétude spéciale
aux veuves qui sentent sur elles un poids trop lourd et redoutent de ne le
pouvoir porter jusqu’au bout. Dépositaire des biens de sa fille, elle avait eu
de sa responsabilité un souci qui l’avait minée.
Presque chaque jour, Paule lui disait:
 —Ma pauvre maman, vous exagérez!
Son visage alors se rétrécissait, il y avait une rétraction de toute sa
personne comme si elle se trouvait attaquée, blessée par la pire des
injustices:
—Mais c’est pour toi! C’est ta fortune!
Cette idée la martyrisait, absorbant peu à peu le sang de sa chair, la pulpe
de ses os, faisant d’elle cette créature desséchée, blanchie, qui semblait
toujours égrener un chapelet d’incertitudes. Sa vie, profondément ancrée
dans les tracas de chaque jour, était en même temps troublée par la
conviction qu’une femme est faible, impuissante à bien diriger et destinée à
être trompée. Cette disposition provoquait en Paule des sentiments tout à
fait contraires; et maintenant que le souvenir était sans cesse à son côté,
faisant revivre les yeux pâles, la figure à la fin presque transparente, le
désespoir encore protestait en elle.
Les choses matérielles lui étaient tellement indifférentes! Depuis la mort
de son père, leur intimité s’était resserrée, leurs vies confondues, annihilant
tout ce qui eût été banal et superficiel. Elles s’étaient aimées comme on
s’aime dans la solitude, la vie soucieuse, où les peines mêmes sont une
raison d’aimer davantage. Si Paule n’avait pas eu d’amies, c’était sans
doute parce qu’elle avait été élevée aux Tilleuls, tenue à l’écart, mais aussi
parce que leur commune tendresse lui avait suffi. Cette mort, qu’elle n’avait
pas vu venir, lui paraissait une trahison inexplicable. Comment sa mère
n’avait-elle pas su se garder pour elle, ménager ses forces? Et maintenant la
vie continuait, indifférente à son absence, comme dans le passé à ses
tourments et à ses scrupules.
Paule regardait, par la fenêtre de sa chambre, le dos blanc des bœufs
aller et venir dans son vignoble. Les gelées, dont la crainte arrachait de son
lit Mme Dupouy plusieurs fois par nuit, n’avaient pas fait de dégâts
sensibles. De petites feuilles s’étiraient au-dessus des rangées de ceps. Les
pruniers en fleurs pavoisaient la campagne de couronnes immaculées.
Son domaine, ainsi étalé entre le fleuve et le coteau, le long de la route,
respirait la paix. Les travaux s’y succédaient dans leur ordre immuable,
comme chez tous les autres propriétaires de ces terres grasses, dont elle
apercevait les maisons blanches et délicates dans les parterres semblables à
de gracieux îlots de verdure. Cette campagne girondine cultivée comme un