Unit 4

Genetics Material - I understand/can explain:

4.1 DNA, In prokaryotic cells, DNA molecules are short, circular and not associated with proteins.
genes and In the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, DNA molecules are very long, linear and associated
chromosomes with proteins, called histones. Together a DNA molecule and its associated proteins form
a chromosome.
The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells also contain DNA which, like the
DNA of prokaryotes, is short, circular and not associated with protein.
A gene is a base sequence of DNA that codes for:
 the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
 a functional RNA (including ribosomal RNA and tRNAs).
A gene occupies a fixed position, called a locus, on a particular DNA molecule.
A sequence of three DNA bases, called a triplet, codes for a specific amino acid. The
genetic code is universal, non-overlapping and degenerate.
In eukaryotes, much of the nuclear DNA does not code for polypeptides. There are non-
coding multiple repeats of base sequences between genes.
Even within a gene only some sequences, called exons, code for amino acid sequences.
Within the gene, these exons are separated by one or more non-coding
sequences, called introns.
4.2 DNA and The concept of the genome as the complete set of genes in a cell and of the proteome as
protein the full range of proteins that a cell is able to produce.
synthesis The structure of messenger RNA (mRNA) and of transfer RNA (tRNA).
Transcription as the production of mRNA from DNA. The role of RNA
polymerase in joining mRNA nucleotides.
In prokaryotes, transcription results directly in mRNA production from DNA.
In eukaryotes, transcription results in the production of pre-mRNA; this is then spliced to
form mRNA.
Translation as the production of polypeptides from the sequence of codons carried by
mRNA. The roles of ribosomes, tRNA and ATP.
Relate the base sequence of nucleic acids to the amino acid sequence of polypeptides,
when provided with suitable data about the genetic code
Interpret data from experimental work investigating the role of nucleic acids.
4.3 Genetic Gene mutations involve a change in the base sequence of chromosomes.
diversity They can arise spontaneously during DNA replication and include base deletion and base
from substitution.
mutation or Due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code, not all base substitutions
meiosis cause a change in the sequence of encoded amino acids.
Mutagenic agents can increase the rate of gene mutation.
Mutations in the number of chromosomes can arise spontaneously by chromosome non-
disjunction during meiosis.
Meiosis produces daughter cells that are genetically different from each other.
The process of meiosis only in sufficient detail to show how:
 two nuclear divisions result usually in the formation of four haploid daughter
cells from a single diploid parent cell
 genetically different daughter cells result from the independent segregation of
homologous chromosomes
 crossing over between homologous chromosomes results in further genetic
variation among daughter cells.
Complete diagrams showing the chromosome content of cells after the first and second
meiotic division, when given the chromosome content of the parent cell
Explain the different outcome of mitosis and meiosis
Recognise meiosis occurrence when given data about an unfamiliar life cycle
Explain how random fertilisation of haploid gametes further increases genetic variation
within a species.
4.4 Genetic Genetic diversity as the number of different alleles of genes in a population.
diversity and Genetic diversity is a factor enabling natural selection to occur.
adaptation The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations.
 Random mutation can result in new alleles of a gene.
 Many mutations are harmful but, in certain environments, the new allele of a
 gene might benefit its possessor, leading to increased reproductive success.
 The advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation.
Over many generations, the new allele increases in frequency in the population.
Directional selection, exemplified by antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and stabilising
selection, exemplified by human birth weights.
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment. These
adaptations may be anatomical, physiological or behavioural.
Use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a
population of a species
Interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations
Show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and
contribute to the diversity of living organisms.
RP6 Required practical 6: Use of aseptic techniques to investigate the
effect of antimicrobial substances on microbial growth.
4.5 Species Two organisms belong to the same species if they produce fertile offspring.
and Courtship behaviour as a necessary precursor to successful mating and the role of
taxonomy courtship in species recognition.
A phylogenetic classification system attempts to arrange species into groups based on
their evolutionary origins and relationships.
It uses a hierarchy in which smaller groups are placed within larger groups, with no
overlap between groups.
Each group is called a taxon (plural taxa).
One hierarchy comprises the taxa: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus
and species.
Each species is universally identified by a binomial consisting of the name of its genus
and species, eg, Homo sapiens. Recall of different taxonomic systems, such as the three
domain or five kingdom systems, will not be required.
Appreciate that advances in immunology and genome sequencing help to clarify
evolutionary relationships between organisms.
4.6 Biodiversity relates to a range of habitats, from a small local habitat to the Earth.
Biodiversity Species richness is a measure of the number of different species in a community.
within a An index of diversity describes the relationship between the number of species in a
community community and the number of individuals in each species.
Calculation of an index of diversity (d) from the diversity formula
Farming techniques reduce biodiversity.
The balance between conservation and farming.
4.7 Genetic diversity within, or between species, can be made by comparing:
Investigating  the frequency of measurable or observable characteristics
biodiversity  the base sequence of DNA
 the base sequence of mRNA
 the amino acid sequence of the proteins encoded by DNA and mRNA.
Interpret data relating to similarities and differences in the base sequences of DNA and
in the amino acid sequences of proteins to suggest relationships between different
organisms within a species and between species
Knowledge of gene Appreciate that gene technology caused a change in the methods of genetic diversity
technologies will not
be tested investigation; inferring DNA differences from measurable or observable characteristics
has been replaced by direct investigation of DNA sequences..
Quantitative investigations of variation within a species involve:
 collecting data from random samples
 calculating a mean value of the data and standard deviation of that mean
 interpreting mean values and their standard deviations.
Students will not be required to calculate standard deviations in written papers.