Moodle: Module 10

Mind Action Series: pg 201 - 223

CHAPTER 8: EXCRETION IN HUMANS

Introduction

An accumulation of waste is dangerous to the cells, tissues, organs, systems and the
body as a whole. The human body is designed to effectively remove waste.
This chapter will briefly look at excretion in various organs, the substances excreted
by each and the origins of these substances. There will be a detailed focus on the
human urinary system and the structure and functioning of the human kidneys. It is
these organs that filter the blood, regulate water and salt levels and play an
important role in the control of blood pH levels.
Kidney functioning can be weakened by diseases, lifestyle choices and accidental
injuries. Renal or kidney failure can be effectively treated with dialysis or kidney
transplants which are successfully carried out in many hospitals in South Africa.

Key terminology
excretion the removal or elimination of metabolic waste from an organism
the release of a useful substance (enzymes, saliva) from cells or
secretion
glands
the removal of undigested food solid waste from the digestive
egestion
tract in the form of faeces = defaecation
chemical reactions that take place within every cell of the body.
metabolism these can be building up (anabolic) or breaking down (catabolic)
reactions
renal relates to the kidney
deamination removal of an amino group from amino acids

Excretory organs
In human digestion, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins are broken down into
their simplest form and enter the blood stream to be utilized where they are needed.
Excretory waste products include CO2, H2O, bile pigments, urea and mineral salts.
Table 1 summarises how they are produced, the organs involved in their excretion
and the final products of excretion.

205
FOUR MAIN
Table excretory organs:
1: Excretory lungs,
organs skin, waste
and their colon (alimentary canal) and kidneys
/ excreted product
Waste products Origin Excreted product
> Lungs
carbon dioxide and water CO2 and H2O(g) in
cellular respiration
vapour exhaled air
> Skin (sweat glands)
mineral salts, traces of perspiration (sweat)
extracted from the blood
urea, water
Liver - waste products are formed in the liver but excreted elsewhere.

urea deamination of excess amino

acids faeces
bile pigments breakdown of haemoglobin
> Colon
bile pigments, excess from the breakdown of faeces
mineral salts haemoglobin in the liver
> Kidney
deamination of excess amino
urea
acids in the liver
mineral salts excess taken in with food urine
excess water consumed and
water
taken in as food

The urinary system

Key terminology
osmoregulation the control of water levels in the body
adipose fat tissue
aorta the main artery leaving the heart, supplying body with blood
renal artery brings oxygenated, unfiltered blood to the kidneys
renal vein carries deoxygenated, filtered blood, from the kidneys
renal capsule outer membrane covering the kidney

important diagram: pg 203 (memorise functions)

The human urinary system: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2VkW9L5QSU

The two kidneys, two ureters, bladder and urethra form the urinary system. The
renal blood supply, including an extensive network of blood capillaries, ensures that
a steady flow of blood reaches and leaves the kidneys.
* The urinary system maintains homeostasis by regulating the volume and
concentration of body fluids. It does this by filtering and reabsorbing materials from
the blood.
206
The kidney performs the following four main functions of the urinary system
 Osmoregulation – regulation of levels of H2O in body fluids
 Excretion – removal of nitrogenous waste e.g. urea
 Regulation of pH of body fluids
 Regulation of salt concentration of body fluids

adrenal gland secretes aldosterone -

regulates the salt and
water balance of the body
kidney by increasing the retention
of sodium and water and
the excretion of potassium
by the kidneys

ureter: transports
urine to the bladder

bladder: stores urine

urethra: carries urine to exterior

– in males, urine & semen

Figure 1: Structure and functions of the different parts of the urinary system

The structure of the kidney

 The kidneys are bean shaped structures (Figure 2) that are found half-way
down the back just under the ribcage.
 They weigh between 115 and 170 grams each depending on the age and
gender of the person and are about 11 cm long.
 The kidneys are protected by adipose (fat) tissue and each kidney is covered
by a renal capsule which protects the kidney and its internal structures from
infections.
 Blood carrying waste products but rich in oxygen, is taken to the kidneys by
the renal artery which branches off the aorta.
 The blood is filtered by the kidney.
 Deoxygenated blood with the waste products removed, leaves the kidney
through the renal vein.

207
 Important diagram: pg 204 (memorise functions)
Remember rules of biological drawings :)

capsule
adipose
tissue

pyramid
renal artery

renal vein renal column

calyx

renal pelvis

ureter
medulla

cortex

Figure 2: Longitudinal section through a kidney

Activity 1: Excretory organs

1. Supply a caption for the diagram below. (1)

2. Supply labels for A – G. (7)

E B
F

C
D
3. What type of blood does E bring to the kidney? (1)
4. What is the function of the part labelled C? (1)

208
 5. Name 4 important functions of the part labelled B. (4)
6. What 2 substances does the part D carry in adult males? (2)
(16)
Activity 2: Sheep kidney dissection

Dissection of a sheep’s kidney, showing the external and internal structure:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPhzYkq5YWE

Aim: To examine the external and internal structure of a mammalian kidney and
related structures.
What you will need:
 sheep kidney (obtained from local butchery)
 a sharp scalpel or knife, a dissecting needle and a pair of scissors
 a dissection board, dissecting pins, and a hand lens
 disposable rubber gloves and soap
 a ruler, some white paper, writing paper and pen, tissue paper

Instructions
1. Lay out the sheep kidney on the dissection board. Remove the excess fat
off the kidney.
2. Measure the length and width of the kidney.
3. Identify the 3 separate tubes entering and leaving the kidney. [renal artery;
renal vein and the ureter]
4. The renal artery will have thicker walls than the renal vein.
5. Remove the thin strong membrane structure that covers the kidney.

6. Cut along the longitudinal axis of the kidney and open it up into two halves.

cortex

pelvis
medulla

Figure: Longitudinal section through lamb kidney (internal structure)

209
 7. Identify the outer cortex. This should be a deep red-brown colour.
8. Identify the light pink medulla region. Observe the appearance of this area
by using a hand-lens.
9. Identify the pelvic region. This is creamy white in colour. It is the point
where the 3 tubes enter/leave the kidney.
10. Clean all the apparatus and your workstation. Discard the dissection material
as the teacher instructs.
11. Wash your hands thoroughly and answer the activity questions.

Questions:
1. Draw a line diagram of a longitudinal section through the kidney. Label the
sections you can observe from your dissection and the colours you see. (6)

2. State the function of the (a) fat around the kidney?

(b) renal capsule around the kidney? (2)
3. Explain why it is an advantage to have two kidneys instead of one. (2)
4. Name the artery that transports blood to the kidney. (1)
5. Where does the ureter lead to and what is its function? (2)
(13)

The structural and functional unit of the kidney

Key terminology
nephron the microscopic functional unit of the kidney
podocytes specialised cells lining the Bowman’s capsule in the kidney
blood vessel bringing blood from the renal artery into the
afferent arteriole bowman’s capsule of the nephron and forming the
afferent vs efferent arteriole glomerulus
blood vessel taking blood from the glomerulus and into the
efferent arteriole
peritubular capillary
a dense capillary network in the Bowman’s capsule of the
glomerulus
kidney
Bowman’s capsule a cup-shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus
Malpighian body /
made up of the glomerulus plus Bowman’s capsule
renal corpuscle
proximal the folded portion of the nephron that lies between
convoluted tubule Bowman's capsule and the loop of Henle

210
 distal convoluted the folded portion of the nephron between the loop of Henle
tubule and the collecting tubule.
tiny blood vessels, supplied by the efferent arteriole, that
peritubular travel alongside nephrons allowing reabsorption and
capillaries secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the
nephron.

The kidneys are highly complex filtration organs. Once in the kidney the renal artery
branches into narrower blood vessels until they are in contact with the core function-
al unit of the kidney, the nephron (Figure 3 and 4 below).

kidney cortex

Loop of
Henle

medulla collecting duct

Figure 3: Kidney and position of the nephrons

Nephrons are microscopic coiled structures made up of tubes, arterioles, capillaries

and ducts. Each human kidney has about 1 million nephrons.
Their main function is to filter the blood, regulate the waste, water and other
important substances the body needs.

211
 Diagrams: pg 207 + 208 (memorise labels)

efferent arteriole
afferent arteriole
glomerulus
proximal (nearby)
Bowman’s capsule convoluted tubule

distal (far away)

convoluted tubule
descending
Henle’s
limb
Loop
ascending
limb

peritubular capillaries collecting duct

Figure 4: The structure of the nephron

The nephron can be divided into 2 separate sections – the Malpighian body (Figure
6) and the renal tubule.

Bowman’s capsule

glomerulus
efferent
arteriole

afferent
arteriole

proximal convoluted tubule podocyte

Figure 5: Malpighian body of the nephron

212
 1. The Malpighian body (renal corpuscle) (Figure 6) occurs in the cortex region
of the kidney: it includes the cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule and a dense
capillary network in the hollowed-out region of the capsule called the
glomerulus.
The inner lining of the Bowman’s capsule has special cells called podocytes.
These cells have finger-like extensions that wrap around the capillaries of the
glomerulus. There are slits between these extensions to allow substances to
pass through.

2. The renal tubule: This includes the proximal (first, or close to) convoluted
tubule in the cortex, the loop of Henle which runs into the medulla and the
distal (second, or distant, far from) convoluted tubule back in the cortex
(see also Figure 4 / 5 above). The distal tubule feeds into the collecting ducts
that lead to the pelvic region of the kidney. The renal tubule is surrounded by
a secondary capillary network known as the peritubular capillary network.
Cuboidal epithelial cells line the renal tubule and have microvilli extensions
on their surface. Each of these cells has a rich supply of mitochondria.
Energy supplied by cellular respiration can be used to move substances
against a gradient.

Kidney functions performed by the nephron

Key terminology
hypertonic a relatively low water and a high salt concentration
hypotonic a relatively high water and a low salt concentration
permeable allows substances to flow easily
dehydration loss of water

The formation of urine involves the following (see Figure 6 below):

1. glomerular filtration or ultrafiltration

}
2. tubular re-absorption Make sure you know how these
processes function together with
3. tubular secretion their structures within the kidney!
4. excretion STRUCTURE = FUNCTION

213
 blood flow

afferent arteriole efferent arteriole

filtration ①

Malpighian body /
renal corpuscle ② re-absorption
(solutes, water)

peritubular
nephron capillaries

secretion
③ (additional waste)

renal tubule

④ excretion
Figure 6: Diagram of the location of the main processes
as they occur in the nephron

Figure 7 below is a summary of the composition of human blood. It will help

your understanding of kidney functioning

liquid plasma: made up of water, dissolved gases,

useful dissolved substances e.g. glucose, mineral
salts, amino acids and fatty acids, dissolved waste
e.g. urea, uric acid and creatinine and large proteins
55% of total blood

leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets (< 1% of

total blood)

erythrocytes (red blood cells) (45% of total blood)

Figure 7: The composition of human blood

214
1. Glomerular filtration

Glomerular filtration takes place in the Malpighian body of the nephron. Blood enters
the glomerulus from the renal artery in the afferent arteriole and leaves the
glomerulus in the efferent arteriole.

Various adaptations of the Malpighian body ensure that filtration takes place.
 The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole. This results in the
blood being put under high pressure forcing the plasma with dissolved
substances into the capsular space of the Bowman’s capsule.
 The walls of the glomerulus capillaries are thin and consist of a single layer of
squamous epithelial cells. This together with the podocytes found on the inner
wall of the Bowman’s capsule make ultra-filtration possible.
 Only the smaller dissolved substances travel through the filtration slits
between the podocytes. Larger proteins remain in the blood.
 Bowman’s capsule is cup-shaped to enlarge the contact area with the
glomerulus.

The formation of the glomerular filtrate is a non-selective process, i.e. both useful
(e.g. glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals and water) and waste substances
(e.g. urea and uric acid) are filtered through into the capsule.

2. Tubular re-absorption

Tubular re-absorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule and involves
an active re-absorption of the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and other important
substances that ended up in the glomerular filtrate.
About 65% of the water also moves back into the blood of the peritubular capillaries
by osmosis. This process prevents dehydration and any unnecessary loss of
important substances.
Why is tubular re-absorption efficient?
Active transport needs energy. Cuboidal epithelial cells lining the tubules have many
mitochondria (site for cellular respiration). Microvilli on these same cells increase
surface area for maximum re-absorption. The movement of water is by the passive
process of osmosis. The fluid in the renal tubule is now called tubular filtrate.
The Loop of Henle (Figure 8) ensures that water is conserved and recovered from
the filtrate and returned to the blood. The cells lining the ascending loop of Henle are
impermeable (block movement) to water. Salt is actively pumped out of the loop and
into the medulla tissue of the kidney. The medulla becomes hypertonic (very salty)

215
which means it has a low water potential (water does not want to leave). A steep
gradient develops between the tubular filtrate and the medulla tissue.

Tubular filtrate
entering loop of Henle
Medulla region-hypertonic
with low water potential

Loop of Henle

Na+ actively pumped

out into medulla
Cl- ions follow

Figure 8: Section of a Loop of Henle where a steep gradient is created to conserve

water (Sodium ions (Na+) are actively pumped out and the chloride ions (Cl-) follow.)
The distal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts are very permeable to
water so when the filtrate enters these areas water flows passively by osmosis into
the medulla tissue and back into the blood of the peritubular capillaries. The amount
of water that moves out of the filtrate is determined by the level of hydration of the
body fluids and is regulated by the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

3. Tubular secretion

Tubular secretion involves the active removal of unnecessary substances from the
blood in the peritubular capillaries into the tubular filtrate in the distal convoluted
tubule. The substances removed include:
 creatinine  hydrogen ions (H+)
 ammonia  sodium ions (Na+)
 potassium ions (K+)  bicarbonate ions
 drugs e.g. penicillin

Homeostatic control of the blood pH

The ability of the distal convoluted tubule to take up hydrogen and bicarbonate ions
is important in the regulation of the pH of the blood. Homeostasis is maintained.

216
 acidic pH pH 7 alkaline pH

Low pH in the blood due to high High pH due to high bicarbonate

hydrogen ion (H+) concentration (HCO3-) ion concentration
Hydrogen ions move from blood in Bicarbonate ions move from the
peritubular capillaries and into distal blood in the peritubular capillaries
convoluted tubule and into the distal convoluted tubules
Less hydrogen ions in the blood Less bicarbonate ions in the blood
pH returns to normal (pH 7,4) pH returns to normal (pH 7,4)

Figure 9: Homeostatic control of blood pH

4. Excretion of urine

The filtrate that enters the collecting duct is now called urine. Urine consists of urea,
excess water and salts. Useful substances should not be excreted in the urine.
Urine collects from all the collecting ducts in the medulla region and empties into
the pelvic region of the kidney. Urine passes down the ureter and into the bladder.
The bladder has muscles that control the release of urine into the urethra and
urination occurs.

Activity 3: Nephron – Malpighian body

1. Structure and function of Malpighian body.

B A

C
D
Malpighian
E body

217
 1.1 Supply labels for A – F. (6)
1.2 What two structures make up the Malpighian body? (2)
1.3 What cell types line the structures D and F? (2)
1.4 What difference do you notice between structures A and B? (1)
1.5 C has features that assist in the filtration function of the Malpighian
body. Name these 2 features. (2)
1.6 Name four substances found in structure E. (4)
(17)

2. Functions of the nephron:

afferent arteriole efferent arteriole

glomerulus

Bowman’s capsule
①
peritubular
② capillaries

③ renal vein

2.1 Name the processes shown at 1, 2, 3 and 4. (4)

2.2 Mention 3 substances that move back into the blood at process 2. (3)
2.3 Process 3 helps in homeostasis. What does it control? (1)
2.4 What would you expect to be present in urine in a healthy person? (3)
2.5 Explain why a person who regularly smokes marijuana will test
positive for the drug with a urine test? (2)

218
 2.6 Suggest two ways in which the nephrons of a desert mammal would
differ from human nephrons. (2)
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal stability in (15)
an organism in response to the environmental changes.

Homeostatic regulation by the kidneys

The human body has the ability to maintain a stable internal environment – this is
homeostasis. It is important that the body’s temperature is kept within a narrow
range of around 37°C. The pH of the body fluids needs to be regulated and the
composition of these fluids need to be kept within certain limits for effective
metabolism.
The kidney is involved in 3 homeostatic mechanisms:
 the regulation of pH of the blood (considered above)
 the regulation of water levels (osmoregulation)
 the regulation of salt levels in the blood

Osmoregulation

The homeostatic control of water and salt levels in blood and tissue fluid is known as
osmoregulation. ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and secreted from the
pituitary gland and helps to limit water loss in the urine and prevent dehydration (see
Table 2 and Figure 10).

Table 2: Osmoregulation

Too little water in the blood Too much water in the blood

Dehydration is when the blood and Overhydration occurs when the blood
tissue fluid are short of water and tissue fluids are very dilute.
This can be brought about by excessive This can be because of cooler tempera-
exercise, hot temperatures, increased tures, little exercise with no sweating
sweating or decreased water intake. and an excessive intake of water.
This low level of H2O is detected by the Water levels are elevated, and this is
hypothalamus of the brain. detected by the hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland releases antidiuretic
The pituitary gland releases less ADH.
hormone (ADH)

219
 The hormone is transported in the blood
Collecting ducts and distal convoluted
to the kidney. The permeability of the
tubules in the kidney become less
collecting duct and the distal convoluted
permeable.
tubule is increased.
More H2O is absorbed and passed into
Less H2O is absorbed into the blood.
the blood.
The blood becomes more dilute and Less water leaves the collecting duct
less, concentrated urine is excreted. and more, dilute urine is excreted.

Pituitary secretes more ADH Permeability of collecting

ducts and distal convoluted
tubules increases

Water level decreases More water reabsorbed into

blood

Normal water levels in blood

Water level increases Less water reabsorbed into

blood / more water is lost

Pituitary stops secreting Permeability of collecting

ADH / less ADH secreted ducts and distal convoluted
tubules decreases

Figure 10: Homeostatic control of water in the body fluids

Alcoholic and caffeine containing drinks act as diuretics (they cause you to lose
water by urinating frequently). ADH acts in an opposite way as it helps the body
retain water.

Regulation of salt levels in the blood

The blood and tissue fluids are affected by the presence of solutes (dissolved
substances). Sodium and potassium are salts that are found in the body fluids.
Sodium is important in the body for good nerve and muscle functioning. Constant
levels must be maintained (see Table 3 and Figure 11).

220
Table 3: Homeostatic control of salt concentrations

Low salt levels in blood and tissue Elevated salt levels in the blood / tissue
fluids make these fluids hypotonic fluids make these fluids hypertonic.
Receptor cells in the afferent and Receptor cells in the afferent and
efferent arterioles of the glomeruli of the efferent arterioles will detect an
kidney will detect decreased Na+ levels. increased presence of Na+.
The adrenal gland in the kidney The adrenal gland will stop releasing
secretes the hormone aldosterone. aldosterone.
Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption
of Na+ from the filtrate and back into the Na+ will not be reabsorbed.
blood.
Less sodium is excreted in the urine. More sodium is excreted in the urine.

The blood and tissue fluid returns to normal and HOMEOSTASIS is maintained. The
homeostatic cycles for control of salt levels in the blood are illustrated in Figure 11.

Adrenal gland secretes Re-absorption of sodium

more aldosterone ions increases

Salt level decreases Salt level increases

Normal salt levels in blood

Salt level increases Salt level decreases

Adrenal gland stops Re-absorption of sodium

secreting aldosterone / less ions decreases
aldosterone secreted

Figure 11: Homeostatic control of salt concentrations

221
Kidney diseases

Kidney diseases (see Table 4) can be life-threatening and require different

treatments. Ineffective kidney function results in an imbalance of salts, water and pH
in the blood which may reach toxic levels.
Kidney failure can happen over a period of time due to a chronic condition e.g.
diabetes. A sudden injury, kidney infection or severe dehydration can lead to acute
kidney failure. Severe cases of kidney failure require dialysis or even a kidney
transplant.

Table 4: Diseases affecting the kidneys

Hard calcium granules that form in the pelvic region of the kidney.
kidney Caused by a diet high in protein, sugars and coca cola, dehydration and
stones / or inherited conditions. Symptoms include severe back pain and blood
in the urine

kidney Caused by the abuse of pain medication and illegal drugs. Long term
failure kidney damage may occur.

This disease is common in Africa, South America and Asia. It is caused

by a parasitic flatworm, Schistosoma, which is found in rivers and dams.
The worm larvae which are hosted by snails in the water, attach to the
bilharzia skin of a human. They travel in the blood stream and then release their
infection eggs. These eggs damage the kidneys, ureters and the bladder. The
infected person will pass blood in the urine, have a fever and rashes,
will be tired and often anaemic. Bilharzia can be prevented by avoiding
infected water and treatment to ease the symptoms are available.

Dialysis treatment for chronic and acute kidney failure

Kidney dialysis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNX65X2iQCA

A dialysis machine is sometimes called an artificial kidney machine. Dialysis (Figure

12) involves a process where a patient’s blood is passed through a filtration system
and returned to the body. Certain hospitals in South Africa have dialysis centres and
patients have to book a time because of the demand for these machines. Dialysis is
an expensive treatment and is scarce in the public health hospitals.

222
 blood thinner dialysis fluid
dialysis
added to blood waste drain
fluid
blood pump

filters
dialyser (artificial kidney)

blood
from arm
blood back
to arm bubble
trap

Figure 12: Functioning of a dialysis machine

Dialysis has the following disadvantages:

 Dialysis is time consuming and expensive.
 The patient is often tired after dialysis and cannot work.
 Dialysis cannot remove all the waste in the blood.
 The only long-term solution to kidney failure, is a kidney transplant.

Kidney transplants

A patient with both kidneys seriously damaged could be considered for a kidney
transplant. A donor donates one of their kidneys to the patient with kidney failure
(the recipient).
A person would be a suitable donor if he or she has the same blood group (A, B, AB
or O) as the intended recipient, and if they have a very close tissue match. The ideal
donor would be a blood relative of the patient.
The recipient might reject the donated kidney and is given immunosuppressive drugs
to reduce the chances of organ rejection. These drugs can have bad side-effects
and there is often a shortage of organ donors.
There are legal and ethical aspects of organ donation that need to be considered by
donors and recipients in South Africa.

223
Excretion in humans: End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A- D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 Which of the following is the correct sequence of activities that

occurs during kidney functioning?

A pressure filtration→ excretion → re-absorption

B re-absorption → pressure filtration → excretion
C excretion → pressure filtration → re-absorption
D pressure filtration → re-absorption → excretion

1.1.2 Which of the following is part of the circulatory system of blood?

A glomerulus
B convoluted tubules
C Loop of Henle
D Bowman’s capsule

1.1.3 Which of the following will cause the kidneys to reabsorb more
sodium ions?

A A decrease in blood pressure

B An increase in the volume of blood
C Constriction of the afferent arterioles
D A decrease in the amount of ADH secreted

1.1.4 If a drop in pH of the blood occurs, the kidneys will…

A increase the absorption of urea
B decrease the absorption of sodium ions
C decrease the secretion of hydrogen ions
D increase the re-absorption of bicarbonate ions

224
 1.1.5 Which ONE of the following is a direct cause of kidney damage?
A High cholesterol
B Too little physical exercise
C Drinking hot tea
D High blood pressure
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.
1.2.1 The process of filtering the accumulated waste products of
metabolism from the blood of a patient whose kidneys are not
functioning properly.
1.2.2 The functional and structural unit of the human kidney.
1.2.3 The control of water content and salt balances in the blood and
tissue fluid.
1.2.4 Specialised cells with filtration slits found lining Bowman’s capsule.
1.2.5 A network of capillary blood vessels inside Bowman’s capsule.
1.2.6 Blood vessel that carries purified deoxygenated blood away from the
kidney.
1.2.7 Outer fibrous membrane that protects the kidney against infection.
1.2.8 Tube that transports urine from the bladder to outside the body.
1.2.9 The blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood filled with waste to
the kidney.
1.2.10 Part of the kidney where the Malpighian bodies are found.
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY,

B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A
only, B only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 Blood leaving the kidney contains
A: amino acids
more of this substance than the
B: carbon dioxide
blood entering the kidney
A: kidneys
1.3.2 Affected by bilharzia
B: lungs
A: ADH
1.3.3 Osmoregulation
B: TSH

225
 1.3.4 Tube that carries urine from the A: ureter
kidney to the bladder. B: urethra
1.3.5 The hormone(s) secreted by the
A: ADH
adrenal gland to regulate the salt
B: aldosterone
concentration of the blood.
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.4 Study the longitudinal section through the human kidney and answer the
questions that follow.

E B

1.4.1 Label parts A, B and C. (3)

1.4.2 Which labelled part becomes a site of obstruction to the flow of
urine when a pellet or renal stone is dislodged. (1)
1.4.3 Mention two ways in which kidney stones can be prevented. (2)
1.4.4 Mention one way in which kidney stones can be treated. (1)
1.4.5 State the name and letter of the blood vessel that contains a higher
percentage of waste products. (2)
1.4.6 Which one of the labelled blood vessels has the lowest blood
pressure? (1)
(10)

1.5 The diagram below shows the structure of the human urinary system.

226
 C D
A A
E
A
B
A

A
A

1.5.1 Give labels for the following parts:

a) B (1)
b) E (1)
c) A (1)
1.5.2 Mention ONE difference between the composition of the blood
in C and D. (2)
1.5.3 Although bilharzia it is not a notifiable disease in South Africa, in
2015 approximately 2 million children were infected with it. More
than 200 million people worldwide have bilharzia. There is no
vaccine for the disease, but treatment can reduce its impact on the
body.
a) Name the parasite that causes bilharzia. (1)
b) The kidneys, ureters and bladder are affected by the parasite.
Name 3 symptoms of the disease. (3)
c) What should you avoid doing if you are in an infected area in
South Africa? (1)

(10)

Section A: [50]

227
Section B
Question 2

2.1 The accompanying diagram shows part of the excretory system of the
human body. Study the diagram and the table below before answering the
questions that follow.

2.1.1 Identify the labels marked A, B and C. (3)

The table below shows the composition of fluid in Structure A and
Structure B of the diagram.

Structure A Structure B
Component Concentration (%) Concentration (%)
Urea 3 200
Glucose 10 0
Amino acids 5 0
Salts 72 150
Proteins 800 0

2.1.2 By comparing the contents of structures A and B, what conclusion

can be drawn regarding the functions of the kidney? (1)
2.1.3 Would you consider that the person with the medical report shown
above suffers from diabetes mellitus? Explain your answer. (4)
2.1.4 Which organic substances in the table are considered to be
useful? Give a reason for your answer. (4)
(12)

2.2 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

228
 2.2.1 In which region of the kidney would you find this structure? (1)
2.2.2 Name the process in urine formation that occurs in this structure. (1)
2.2.3 Identify the part C. (1)
2.2.4 Describe two structural adaptations of part C for the process in
question 2.2.3 above. (4)
2.2.5 Part A is wider than part B. What is the importance of this? (2)
2.2.6 Name the hormone secreted when there is a storage of water
in A. (1)
2.2.7 Describe how the hormone named in question 2.2.6 plays its
role under such conditions. (3)
(13)
[25]
Question 3
3.1 An extract on renal failure and its treatment is given below (the diagram
represents a dialysis machine, used to treat patients with renal failure).

dialysis fluid dialysis fluid

to patient’s A
blood vessels

B
from patient’s
Pump
blood vessels
Dialysis membrane (Dialysis tubing)

229
 Extract:
Kidneys can become so damaged that they no longer function properly, and
we say that the person has renal failure. People with severe renal failure can
be treated by dialysis, using a dialysis machine, to purify the blood. Dialysis is
the separation of molecules by size, the smaller molecules diffusing through a
dialysis tubing (selectively permeable membrane). The process takes
between three and six hours and needs to be done two or three times a week.

3.1.1 Describe what renal failure is. (2)

3.1.2 Which process is illustrated in the diagram above? (1)
3.1.3 At what point in the diagram (A or B) would you expect the highest
concentration of urea? (1)
3.1.4 Describe how blood is purified in the dialysis machine. (2)
3.1.5 Explain why dialysis tubing needs to be selectively permeable. (2)
3.1.6 Renal failure affects the osmoregulatory function of the kidney, so
that it no longer excretes water efficiently. Explain the effect of renal
failure on the patient’s blood pressure. (3)
(11)

3.2 Study the following table that shows the flow rate and concentration of
certain substances taken at regions A, B, C and D of the nephron in the
human kidney.

Part of Flow rate Solute concentrations

nephron (cm3/min) (g/100 cm3)
Sodium Ammonium
Proteins Glucose Urea
ions salts
A 4 0 0 0,6 0,04 1,80
B 200 0 0,10 0,72 0 0,05
C 4 0 0 0,3 0 0,15
D 2000 7 0,10 0,72 0 0,05

3.2.1 State, with a reason, which of the following parts (A, B, C or D) of the
nephron represents the following:
a) afferent arteriole (2)
b) Bowman’s capsule (capsular space) (2)
c) Loop of Henle (2)
d) Collecting duct / Duct of Bellini (2)

230
3.2.2 Explain the difference in the flow rate between B and D. (4)
3.2.3 State two functions of the kidneys, other than pH regulation,
that can be supported by the data given. (2)
(14)
[25]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [100]

231