APPLIED PHYSICS

MODULE – 1

WAVE
OPTICS
N.R.K.MURTHY
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
 INTERFERENCE
Wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens’s explains many phenomena of
light like interference, diffraction, polarization, etc…
In 1801,Thomas Young experimentally demonstrated the phenomena of interference
of light. Principle of superposition forms the basis for the explanation of interference of light.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION:

When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium superimpose together,
resultant displacement at any point in a medium is equal to algebraic sum of displacements
due to individual waves.

INTERFERENCE:
The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of super
position of waves is known as interference.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
Consider two waves which are in same phase. Let a1,a2 be amplitudes of these two
waves. When these two waves super impose together, if amplitude of resultant wave
a=a1+a2, it is known as constructive interference.

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
Consider two waves which are opposite in phase. Let a1,a2 be amplitudes of these
waves. When these waves super impose together, if resultant amplitude a=a1-a2, it is known
as destructive interference.

THOMAS YOUNG EXPERIMENT:

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 Experimental arrangement for Thomas young experiment is as shown in the figure.

It consists of a pin hole‘s’ and two pin holes s1 and s2. s1 and s2 are at equal
distances from s. when sunlight passes through s, spherical waves are produced. When
spherical wave front incident on pin holes s1 and s2, secondary waves are produced from
them. These secondary waves travel in all possible directions. Due to superposition of these
waves an interference pattern consists of alternatively bright and dark fringes is obtained on
the screen.

Let s1p be the distance travelled by a wave front from s1 top.

Let s2p be the distance travelled by a wave front from s2 top.
Therefore, path difference between the waves at p=s2p-s1p.
Phase difference between the waves at p, δ =(2π/λ)( s2p-s1p)
Expression for a wave at the point p originating from s1, y1=a1sinωt
Expression for a wave at the point p originating from s2, y2=a2sin(ωt+δ)
When these two waves superimpose resultant displacement can be expressed as y=y1+y2
Y=a1sinωt+a2sin(ωt+δ)
=a1sinωt+a2sinωcosδ+a2cosωtsinδ
Sinωt(a1+a2cosδ)+a2cosωtsinδ
a1+a2cosδ=Rcosθ
a2sinδ=Rsinθ
y=sinωtRcosθ+cosωtRsinθ
y=Rsin(ωt+θ) R is amplitude of resultant wave
R²cos²θ+R²sin²θ=(a1+a2cosδ)²+(a2sinδ)²
R²(cos²θ+sin²θ)=a1²+a2²cos²δ+2a1a2cosδ+a2²sin²δ
I²=R²=a1²+a2²+2a1a2cosδ (where I is intensity of resultant wave)
Condition for Maximum Intensity:
I=Imax ,whencosδ=+1
δ=±2nπ
δ=(2π/λ)( s2p-s1p)=2nπ
s2p-s1p =nλ
Imax=a1²+a2²+2a1a2

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 Imax=(a1+a2)2
If a1=a2=a
Imax=4a²
Condition for Minimum intensity:
I=Imin when cosδ=-1
δ=±(2n+1)π
δ=(2π/λ) (s2p-s1p)=(2n+1)π
(s2p-s1p)=(2n+1)λ/2
Imin=a1²+a2²-2a1a2
=(a1-a2)²
Imax=4a² when δ=0,±2,±4π,±6π
Imin=0 When δ=±1,±3,±5.

The graph between I and δ is as shown in the figure. It is known as intensity

distinguisher curve.

INTERFERENCE OF REFLECTED LIGHT FROM A THIN FILM:

Consider a plane parallel thin film of thickness ‘t’ and refractive index ’μ’. Let AB is
a light ray incidenting at an angle of incidence i at the top surface of film. This ray undergoes
partial reflection along the direction BE and partial refraction along the direction BC. r is
angle of refraction. The ray BC again undergoes reflection at the bottom surface of the film
along the direction CD and finally emerges from the film along the direction DF. From D
draw a normal DG on to the ray BE.

From figure GE=DF

Therefore, path difference between rays BE and BCDF =μ(BC+CD)-BG
From triangle BCH, cosr=CH/BC=t/BC

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 BC=t/cosr
From triangle CHD, cosr=CH/CD=t/CD
CD=t/cosr
From triangle BCH, tanr=BH/CH
BH=CH tanr= t tanr
From triangle CHD, tanr=HD/CH
HD=CH tanr=t tanr
BD=2t tanr
From triangle BDG, sini=BG/BD
BG=BDsini=2t tanrsini
According to snells law,
μ=sini/sinr
sini=μ sinr
BG=2t tanrμsinr = 2μt tanrsinr
Path difference= μ(BC+CD)-BG
=μ[(t/cosr)+(t/cosr)]-2μt tanrsinr
=(2μt/cosr)-2μtsin²r/cosr
=(2μt/cosr)(1-sin²r)
=2μt cosr
Since the ray PQ undergoes reflection at the boundary surface of rarer and denser
medium it undergoes a phase change of π or path difference of λ/2.
Total path difference between reflected rays, 2μtcosr-λ/2
For constructive interference between reflected rayS
Path difference=nλ
2μtcosr-λ/2=nλ
2μtcosr=nλ+λ/2=(2n+1)λ/2
2μtcosr=(2n+1)λ/2
For destructive interference between reflected rays
Path difference=(2n+1)λ/2
2μtcosr-λ/2=(2n+1)λ/2
2μtcosr=(2n+1)λ/2+λ/2
2μtcosr=nλ+λ=(n+1)λ where n=0,1,2,3,4, . . . . . .

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 2μtcosr=nλ where n=1,2,3,4, . . . . . .

NEWTONS RINGS:

Experimental arrangement for Newton’s rings equipment is as shown in the figure. It

consists of a Plano convex lens which is placed on a plane glass plate in such a way that its
curved surface is towards glass plate. Due to this arrangement an air film of varying thickness
is formed between lens and glass plate. Thickness of air film is constant along circle. When
parallel beam of monochromatic light falls on a glass plate ‘G’ which is inclined at an angle
45° with respect to vertical direction, the glass plate partly reflects incident beam normally
towards air film. Some light is reflected from top surface of the film and some light is
reflected from bottom surface of the film. These reflected rays superimpose together and
produce interference pattern. This pattern consists of alternatively bright and dark rings with
a dark spot at the centre.

THEORY OF NEWTONS RINGS:

AB is incident ray incidenting normally on the top surface of the film at the point ’B’ .
This incident beam is partly reflected as ray1 and partly transmitted along direction BC. The
ray BC again undergoes reflection at the point C and emerges as ray2. Ray1 and ray 2
superimpose together and produce interference pattern.

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Path difference between reflected rays 1&2=2μtcosr+λ/2
For air medium, μ=1
For normal incidence, i=0
Path difference between reflected rays=2t+λ/2
For bright rings, 2t+λ/2=nλ
2t = nλ-λ/2
= (2n-1)λ/2
2t=(2n-1)λ/2
For dark rings, 2t+λ/2=(2n+1)λ/2
2t = (2n+1)λ/2-λ/2
2t = nλ
Plano convex lens is a part of spherical surface having radius of curvature ’R’. ‘r’ is
radius of the ring corresponding to the thickness ‘t’.

From the property of circle, BN*NA=ON*ND

r*r=t(2R-t)
r²=2Rt-t²
r²=2Rt
t=r²/2R
Diameter of Bright Rings:

2t=(2n-1)λ/2
2r²/2R=(2n-1)λ/2
r²=(2n-1)λR/2
D²/4=(2n-1)λR/2
D²=2(2n-1)λR
D=(2(2n-1)λR)1/2
Diameter of Dark Rings:

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 2t=nλ
2r²/2R=nλ
r²=nλR
D²/4=nλR
D²=4nλR
D=2(nλR)1/2
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF GIVEN MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT
SOURCE:
By using Newton’s rings apparatus we can determine wavelength of a given
monochromatic source of light. Form Newton’s rings and measure diameters of various dark
rings. Draw the graph between square of diameters of dark rings and number of rings. The
graph is a straight line as shown in the figure. On the graph note down square of diameters of
mth and nth rings.

Let Dn ,Dmare diameters of nth , mth rings.

Therefore, Dn²=4nλR
Dm²=4mλR
Dn²-Dm²=4λR(n-m)
λ=(Dn²-Dm²)/4R(n-m)
Dn²-Dm²=AB
n-m=CD
λ=AB/4R(CD)
Radius of curvature of Plano convex lens(R) can be determined by using spherometer.
Therefore by substituting the values AB,CD and R values in above equation we can
determine wavelength of given monochromatic source of light.

DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GIVEN LIQUID:

By using Newton’s rings experimental arrangement we can determine refractive index

of a given liquid. With air film between Plano convex lens and plane glass plates from

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newtons rings and measure diameters of nth, m th dark rings. Let they are Dm , Dn. Now place
plano convex lens and plane glass plates in a glass container and pour liquid into the
container until a liquid film is formed between lens and glass plates. Now again form
newtons rings and measure diameters of nth ,mth dark rings.

Let they are Dn’ ,Dm’

Dn²-Dm²=4Rλ(n-m)
Dn’²-Dm’²=4λR(n-m) /μ
Dn²-Dm²/Dn’²-Dm’² =4Rλ(n-m)/4Rλ(n-m)/μ =μ
μ=Dn²-Dm²/Dn’²-Dm’²
by substituting Dn, Dm, Dn’, Dm’ . We can determine refractive index of
given liquid.
COHERENT SOURCES:
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they have some frequency (or) wavelength
and they are in same phase (or) having constant phase difference between them.
They are two types of coherences:
1. Temporal coherence
2. Spatial coherence
Temporal coherence: If phase relation exist between two points which are on the same wave
then that type of coherence called as temporal coherence.
Spatial coherence: If phase relation exist between two points which are on two different
waves then the type of coherence is called as spatial coherence.

Condition for sustained interference:

 Two light sources should be coherent.

 Separation between two sources should be small.
 Separation between source and screen should be large
 The two sources must emit continuous waves of same wavelength or frequency.
 Background should be dark .
 The two light sources should be narrow.
 The two light sources should be monochromatic.
 Amplitudes of two waves should be equal (or) nearly equal.

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 DIFFRACTION

Bending of light ray around the corners of an obstacle whose size is comparable to
wavelength of light is known as diffraction.
The difference between interference and diffraction are as follows:
Interference Diffraction
It is the phenomenon of interaction of
It is the phenomenon of interaction of
light coming from two different wave
light coming from different parts of the
fronts originating from two coherent
same wave front.
sources.
Interference fringes normally have Diffraction fringes are not of the same
equal widths. width.

All the dark fringes have zero intensity. The intensity of dark fringes is not zero

The intensity of bright fringes usually

All bright fringes have same intensity..
decreases with increase of order

Fresnel and Fraunhofferdiffraction :

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhoffer diffraction
Either a point source or an illuminated Extended souorce at infinite distance is
narrow slit is used used

The wavefront undergoing diffraction is The wavefront undergoing diffraction is

either spherical or cylindrical. a plane wavefront.

The source and the screen are at finite The source and the screen are at infinite
distance from the obstacle producing distance from the obstacle producing
diffraction. diffraction..

No lens is used to focus the rays Converging lens is used to focus parallel
rays..

FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT A SINGLE SLIT:

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 Consider a plane wave front ’ww’ of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’
travelling normally towards a narrow single slit of width ‘e’. When wave front incident on the
slit, diffracted rays are produced from the slit. These diffracted waves are allowed to focus on
the screen using a convex lens. Screen is placed at the focal plane of the lens. According to
Huygens wave theory each point on the wave front in the plane of slit acts as source of
secondary waves. These waves travel in all possible directions. The waves which are
travelling in the direction parallel to normal to the slit are brought to focus at the point ‘p₀’ on
the screen. The waves which are making an angle ‘θ’ with respect to normal to the slit are
brought to focus at the point ‘p₁’ . From ‘A’ draw a normal AC on to the ray ‘BP₁’.

From figure AP₁=CP₁

Therefore path difference between the rays AP₁ and BP₁ is equal to BC.
From triangle ABC, sinθ=BC/AB=BC/e
BC=esinθ
Therefore phase difference between the waves =(2π/λ)(esinθ)
Let there are ‘n’ no.of sources in the slit.
Therefore, phase difference between successive waves δ =(2π/λ)(esinθ/n)
δ =(2π/λ) (esinθ/n)
δ =(2π/λ)(esinθ/n)
Resultant amplitude, at P₁
R=asin(nδ/2)/sin(δ/2) a=amplitude of each wave
R=asin[(n2π/λ)(esinθ/2n)]/sin[(2π/λ)(esinθ/2n)]
=asin(πesinθ/λ)/sin(πesinθ/λ n)
=asin(α)/sin(α/n)
=asinα/α/n
=na(sinα/α)
Resultant intensity, I=n²a²(sinα/α)²

CONDITION FOR PRINCIPLE MAXIMUM:

Principle maximum occurs when α=0

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 I=n²a²
Condition for Minima:
Minima occurreswhen sinα=0, α=±mπ
πesinθ/λ=±mπ
esinθ=±mλ
Condition for secondary maxima
dI/dα=0
/dα[n²a²(sinα/α)²]=0
n²a²(2sinα/α)[(αcosα-sinα)/α²] =0
(αcosα-sinα)/α²=0
αcosα-sinα=0
αcosα=sinα
α=tanα
Secondary maxima occur when above equation α=tanα is satisfied
To find α values where above equation is satisfied, we have to draw two curves y=α,y=tanα.
The values of α where these two curves intersect gives positions of secondary maxima.

From the above graph it is clear that the two curves intersect at α=±3π/2,±5π/2,±7π/2,etc……
Those α values represent positions of secondary maxima
I=n²a²=I₀(principal maximum)
Graph between I and α is as shown in the figure known as intensity curve

FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT A DOUBLE SLIT:

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 Consider a double slit that ‘e’ is the width of the slit ‘d’ be the separation between two
slits. Therefore, the distance between corresponding points in the slits is equal to e+d. when a
plane wave front is incidenting on double slit, diffracted rays are produced from two slits.
These diffracted rays are allowed to focus on the screen using a convex lens ‘l₂’. According
to Huygens wave theory each point on the wave front in the plane of slits acts as source of
secondary waves. These waves travel in all possible directions. The waves which are
travelling in the direction of incidenting beam are brought to focus at the point p0. The waves
which are making an angle ‘θ’ with respect to incident direction are brought to focus at the
point p1.
According to theory of diffraction at a single slit, a slit produces the resultant wave of
amplitude is(Asinα/α). Therefore resultant intensity at the point ‘p₁’ depends upon phase
difference between resultant waves from two slits. From S1 draw a normal S1K on to the ray
S2 P₁. Therefore path difference between the rays S1P₁ and S2P₁ is S2 K

From triangle S1 S2K,

Sinθ= S2K / S1 S2
BC=(e+d)sinθ
Phase difference between the rays S1P₁ and S2P₁ at the point p1 = (2π/λ)(e+d)sinθ=δ
Resultant amplitude, R=[(Asinα/α)²+(Asinα/α)²+2(Asinα/α)²cosδ]1/2
=[2(Asinα/α)²(1+cosδ)]1/2
=[4(Asinα/α)²cos²(δ/2)]1/2
Resultant intensity, I= 4(Asinα/α)²cos²β
(Asinα/α)² represents diffraction pattern & cos²β represents interference pattern.

Condition For Diffraction Principle Maximum:

Principle max will occur when α=0
Condition for Diffraction Principle Minima
Diffraction minima occur when α=±mπ
πesinθ/λ=±mπ

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 esinθ=±m λ
Condition For Diffraction Secondary Maxima: secondary maxima occur
when α= ±3π/2, ±5π/2 , ±7π/2
Condition For Interference Maxima:
Interference maxima occurs when cosβ=±1
β=±nπ
π(e+d)sinθ/ λ =±nπ
(e+d)sinθ=±n λ
Condition For Interference Minima:
Interference minima occurs when cosβ=0
β=±(2n+1)π/2
π(e+d)sinθ/λ=±(2n+1)π/2
(e+d)sinθ=±(2n+1)λ/2

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Diffraction Grating:

A plane transmission diffraction grating consists of a number of parallel slits having

equal width ‘e’ and separated by equal opaque spaces. A diffraction grating can be
constructed by drawing a large number of parallel lines on a thin transparent material like
glass using a fine diamond point. Line portion acts as opaque light and spacing between lines
act as transparent to light. Let ‘e’ is width of each slit and ‘d’ is with of line portion.
Therefore ‘e+d’ is known as grating element and 1/(e+d) represents number of lines per unit
distance.

Consider a plane transmission diffraction grating containing ‘N’ no. of slits. When a
plane wave front of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ incident on grating, diffracted
rays are produced from grating. These diffracted rays are allowed to focus on to the screen
using a convex lens.
According to Huygens wave theory, each point on the wave front in the plane of slit
acts as source of secondary waves. These waves travel in all possible directions. Waves
which are travelling in the direction of incident waves are brought to focus at the point p₀.
waves which are traveling in the direction making an angle ‘θ’ with respect to incident
direction are brought to focus at the point ‘p₁’. According to theory diffraction at a single slit
each slit produces resultant wave of altitude is Asinα/α. Resultant intensity at p₁ depends
upon phase difference between successive waves from slits.

Phase difference between successive resultant waves, δ=2π(e+dsinθ)/λ

Resultant amplitude at the point P₁ =A(sinα/α)[sinNβ/sinβ]
Resultant intensity, I=A²(sinα/α)²[sin(Nβ)/sin(β)]²

DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT SOURCE

USING DIFFRACTION GRATING

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 By using diffraction grating, spectrometer we can determine wavelength of a given
monochromatic source of light.
Important parts of spectrometer are:
1. Collimator
2. Prism Table
3. Telescope
The function of collimator is to produce parallel beam. The function of prism table is
to act as platform for grating. The function of telescope is to receive parallel beam. Initially
place grating on prism table in such a way that it is normal to plane of paper. When light
beam from collimator falls normally on grating, it is diffracted into different directions. Light
rays which are diffracted in the direction of incident beam produce zero order principle
maxima. On both sides of zero order principal maximum 1st, 2nd, 3rd … etc orders of
principle maxima are obtained. Now move telescope to one side of zero order principle
maximum and focus on 1st order principle maximum and take reading of telescope. Let it be
‘S₁’. Again move telescope to the other side of zero order principle maximum and focus on
1st order principle maximum and take reading.

Let it be ‘S₂’. S₁ difference S₂=2θ

θ₁=(S₁-S₂)/2
for 1st order principle maxima
(e+d)sinθ₁=λ
(1/N’)sinθ₁=λ
N’=no. of lines per unit distance of grating
N’ value will be given by the supplier (manufacturer)
Hence by substituting values N’ and θ₁ we can determine wavelength of a given
monochromatic source of light.

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