Solar Energy

Solar Energy Conversions

Solar energy harnesses the power of the sun to generate electricity and heat. It is a
renewable, abundant, and sustainable energy source that plays a crucial role in
reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental impacts.

Solar energy originates from nuclear fusion reactions in the sun's core, releasing
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation reaches Earth, providing
a continuous supply of energy.

Solar Energy Conversion Methods

There are two primary methods for converting solar energy into usable forms:
• Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
• Solar Thermal Systems
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Photoelectric Effect: When photons from sunlight strike a semiconductor material
(typically silicon), they transfer energy to electrons, allowing them to flow and
generate an electric current.

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Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

Key Components:
• Solar Cells: The basic unit of a PV system, typically made of silicon, which
converts sunlight into electricity.
• PV Modules/Panels: Multiple solar cells connected together to form a module or
panel.
• Inverter: Converts direct current (DC) generated by the solar cells into alternating
current (AC) for use in homes and businesses.
• Mounting System: Structures that hold the solar panels in place.
• Battery Storage (optional): Stores excess energy for use when sunlight is not
available.
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Working Mechanism:

• Absorption of Sunlight: Solar cells absorb photons from sunlight.

• Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs: The energy from the photons excites
electrons, creating electron-hole pairs.
• Electric Field: An internal electric field in the cell drives the electrons towards the
front surface and holes towards the back surface.
• Flow of Electricity: This movement generates a flow of electric current, which
can be harnessed for power.
• The inverter converts DC to AC.
• Electricity is either used immediately, stored in batteries, or fed into the grid.
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Efficiency and Performance Factors
• Solar Cell Efficiency: Ratio of electrical output to the incident solar energy,
affected by material properties and cell design.
• Sunlight Availability: Varies with geographic location, weather conditions, and
time of year.
• Orientation and Tilt: Optimal angles maximize solar energy capture.
• Temperature: Higher temperatures can reduce PV efficiency; proper ventilation
and cooling are necessary.
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems Applications

• Residential Power: Provides electricity for homes, reducing dependency on grid

power and lowering electricity bills.
• Commercial Power: Supplies power for businesses, contributing to energy cost
savings and sustainability goals.
• Utility-Scale Power: Large solar farms generate electricity on a massive scale,
feeding power into the grid to support community energy needs.
• Remote Power: Supplies electricity to remote areas where grid access is
unavailable, such as rural villages or remote communication stations.
Solar Thermal Systems
Heat Capture: Solar thermal systems capture and concentrate sunlight to generate
heat, which can be used directly or converted into mechanical energy and then
electricity.

Types of Solar Thermal Systems:

1. Solar Water Heaters: Use solar collectors to heat water for domestic or industrial
use.
2. Solar Space Heating: Uses solar collectors to heat air or water, which is then
circulated to heat buildings.
3. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight
onto a small area, generating high temperatures to produce steam that drives a
turbine connected to a generator.
Solar Thermal Systems
1. Solar Water Heaters: Use solar collectors to heat water for domestic or industrial use.

• Passive water heaters rely on a

combination of gravity, water
pressure, and convection, which is
the tendency of hot water to rise
above cold water.
• Active water heaters use solar
collectors to warm water for
household use. These collectors
are typically flat-plate collectors or
evacuated-tube collectors.
However, active systems use Passive water heaters
pumps for circulation
Active water heaters
Solar Thermal Systems

2. Solar Space Heating:

Uses solar collectors to
heat air or water, which is
then circulated to heat
buildings.
Solar Thermal Systems
3. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto
a small area, generating high temperatures to produce steam that drives a turbine
connected to a generator.

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Solar Thermal Systems
Key Components:

• Solar Collectors: Devices that capture and concentrate sunlight, commonly

using mirrors or lenses.
• Heat Transfer Fluid: A medium (such as water, oil, or molten salt) that absorbs
and transfers the heat.
• Thermal Storage: Stores heat for use when sunlight is not available.
• Heat Exchanger: Transfers heat from the fluid to the water or air in the heating
system.
• Turbine/Generator (for electricity): Converts thermal energy into mechanical
energy and then into electricity.
Solar Thermal Systems
Working Mechanism:

• Concentration of Sunlight: Mirrors or lenses concentrate sunlight onto a

receiver.
• Absorption of Heat: The receiver absorbs the concentrated sunlight, heating the
transfer fluid.
• Heat Transfer: The heated fluid transfers energy to a storage system or directly to
a heat exchanger.
• Electricity Generation (CSP): The heat generates steam that drives a turbine
connected to an electrical generator.
Solar Thermal Systems

Types of Solar Thermal Systems:

• Low-Temperature Systems: Used for residential heating and hot water. Flat-plate
collectors and evacuated tube collectors are common.
• Medium-Temperature Systems: Used for industrial processes and solar cooling.
These often use concentrating collectors.
• High-Temperature Systems: Used for electricity generation. Concentrated Solar
Power (CSP) technologies, such as parabolic troughs, solar towers, and Stirling
engines, focus sunlight to produce high temperatures.
Solar Thermal System Applications

Domestic Hot Water: Heats water for residential use, reducing the need for
conventional water heating methods.
Space Heating: Provides heating for buildings, either through direct air heating or
via hydronic systems that circulate heated water.
Industrial Process Heat: Supplies high-temperature heat for industrial processes,
such as food processing, chemical production, and metal processing.
Solar Cooling: Uses thermal energy to drive absorption chillers, providing an
environmentally friendly way to cool buildings.
Hybrid Systems

Photovoltaic-Thermal (PVT) Systems: Combine PV and solar thermal

technologies in a single system to produce both electricity and heat.
Advantages and Applications: Increased overall efficiency, useful for residential
and commercial applications requiring both electrical power and hot water.
Energy Storage
Technologies
Energy Storage Plants and Technologies

• Energy storage plants and technologies are crucial for balancing

supply and demand in energy systems, integrating renewable
energy sources, and enhancing grid stability.
• Energy Storage Plant is a facility that captures energy produced
at one time for use later.
• The main purpose is to store energy when production exceeds
demand and release it when demand exceeds production.
Energy Storage Plants and Technologies

Most Common Energy Technologies include:

1. Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS)

2. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
3. Lithium-Ion Batteries
4. Flow Batteries
5. Flywheel Energy Storage
6. Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

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Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS)

• Mechanism: Uses excess electricity

to pump water from a lower reservoir
to an upper reservoir. When energy is
needed, water flows back down,
driving turbines to generate Watch Me
electricity.
• Applications: Large-scale energy
storage, grid balancing.
• Advantages: High capacity, long
lifespan, low operational costs.
• Disadvantages: Requires specific
geographical features, high upfront
costs, long construction times.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

• Mechanism: Uses excess electricity

to compress air stored in
underground caverns or tanks. When
energy is needed, the compressed air Watch Me
is heated and expanded to drive
turbines.
• Applications: Grid balancing,
backup power.
• Advantages: Large storage capacity,
long lifespan.
• Disadvantages: Requires specific
geological conditions, lower
efficiency compared to other
technologies.
Flywheel Energy Storage

• Mechanism: Stores energy by

accelerating a rotor (flywheel)
to high speeds. Energy is
released by decelerating the
rotor to drive a generator.
• Applications: Frequency
regulation, uninterruptible
power supply (UPS).
• Advantages: High power
output, long cycle life, minimal
maintenance.
• Disadvantages: High self-
discharge rates, limited energy
storage capacity.
Flywheel Energy Storage
Lithium-Ion Batteries

• Mechanism: Stores energy through

chemical reactions in lithium-ion cells.
Energy is released by reversing the Watch Me
chemical reaction.
• Applications: Portable electronics,
electric vehicles, grid storage.
• Advantages: High energy density, fast
response times, declining costs.
• Disadvantages: Limited lifespan,
potential safety risks, resource-
intensive production.
Flow Batteries

• Mechanism: Stores energy in liquid

electrolytes contained in external tanks.
Energy is converted to electricity via
electrochemical reactions in a cell
stack.
• Applications: Grid storage, renewable
integration.
• Advantages: Scalability, long cycle life,
easy to recycle.
• Disadvantages: Lower energy density,
complexity of system design.
Flow Batteries
Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
• Mechanism: Stores energy by heating or cooling a storage
medium (e.g., molten salt, water) which can later be used
to produce electricity or heating/cooling services.
• Applications: Solar power plants, district heating, and
cooling.
• Advantages: Long storage durations, high efficiency for
heating/cooling applications.

• Disadvantages:
Limited applications,
high costs for certain
media.
Technology Mechanism Applications Advantages Disadvantages
Geographically
Pumped Hydro Water pumped Large-scale storage, High capacity, long
limited, high upfront
Storage (PHS) between reservoirs grid balancing lifespan, low cost
cost
Lithium-Ion Chemical reactions Electronics, EVs, High energy density, Limited lifespan,
Batteries in lithium cells grid storage fast response safety risks
Grid storage,
Liquid electrolytes in Scalability, long Low energy density,
Flow Batteries renewable
external tanks cycle life, recyclable system complexity
integration
Long storage Limited
Thermal Energy Heating/cooling a Solar plants, district
durations, high applications, high
Storage (TES) storage medium heating/cooling
efficiency cost for media
Compressed Air Requires specific
Compressed air in Grid balancing, Large capacity, long
Energy Storage geology, lower
caverns/tanks backup power lifespan
(CAES) efficiency
High power output,
Flywheel Energy Accelerating a rotor Frequency High self-discharge,
long cycle life, low
Storage to high speeds regulation, UPS limited capacity
maintenance