Oxford Resources for IB

Biology – 2023 Edition

Answers

Page 8 A1.1 Water

1. a. one intermolecular bond; and four intramolecular bonds

b. hydrogen bond between water molecules: due to polarity of water molecules, weaker interaction;
covalent bonds within water molecules, due to shared pairs of electrons, strong bond
c. water molecules stay together in drop due to cohesion; drop under glass is deeper as it is pull
downwards by gravity; despite this the drop under the glass does not fall due to adhesion between water
molecules and glass
2. a. atom
b. molecule
c. ion
3. a. all processes of life depend on water (in some/all organisms); homeostasis because water is used for
sweating; metabolism because reactions happen in aqueous solution; nutrition because digestion happens in
aqueous solution; movement as water needed for swimming; excretion as waste products are dissolved in
water; growth because water is needed to expand cells; response to stimuli because neurotransmitter diffuse
through water in synapses; reproduction because sperm swim through water

b. water is solid; no oxygen; no carbon dioxide; too cold

c. collision of asteroids; carrying water; early in the history of the solar system

Page 8 A1.2 Nucleic acids

1. a. i. DNA; ii. DNA; iii. RNA

b. experimental error
c. i. DNA is double stranded; A pairs with T and C pairs with G; one base in each pair is therefore A or G,
so A + G = 50%; ii. any two of A = T; C = G; C + G = 50%; A + G/C + G = 1.00
d. i. influenza virus ii. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine; single stranded so amounts of G and C not
equal

2. a. nucleotides shown as a circle, pentagon and rectangle; correctly linked up via C1 and C4 on the
pentagon; labelled as phosphate, deoxyribose and base on at least one nucleotide; nucleotides linked up
correctly into two strands each of three nucleotides; base pairing to link the two strands; adenine to thymine;
cytosine to guanine; hydrogen bonds between bases labelled; strands antiparallel
b. chemically stable; covalently bonded backbone of sugars and phosphates; can store information; four
bases can be arranged in any sequence; copyable; can separate into two strands and complementary base
pairing can replicate sequences
3. a. i. 3’ end has a ribose; 5’ end has a phosphate group ii. ribose has H and OH on C2; deoxyribose has H
and H on C2 iii. purines have two rings; pyrimidines only have one ring iv. nucleotides are monomers of
nucleic acids; nucleosomes are groups of histones th at DNA winds round in eukaryotes

b. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of proteins and different number of neutrons
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c. Radioisotopes of elements have the same chemical properties as other isotopes of an element but can be

distinguished by being radioactive

d. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase chose to use the T2 bacteriophage to identify the genetic material. It has
a coat composed entirely of protein, with DNA inside the coat. In the 1950s, it was known that a virus can
transform a host cell so that it produces viral proteins; for this to happen, viral genes must have been injected
into the host cell. In their experiment, Hershey and Chase took advantage of the fact that DNA contains
phosphorus but not sulfur while proteins contain sulfur but not phosphorus. They cultured some viruses that
contained proteins with radioactive (35S) sulfur and other viruses that contained DNA with radioactive (32P)
phosphorus. Then they infected separate groups of bacteria with the two viruses. For each group of bacterial
cells, they used a blender to separate the non-genetic component of the virus. Then they centrifuged the
culture solution to concentrate the cells in a pellet. The cells were expected to contain the radioactive genetic
component of the virus. Finally, Hershey and Chase measured the radioactivity in the pellet and the
supernatant

Page 18 B1.1 Carbohydrates and lipids

1. a. nano, micro, milli, centi, kilo, mega

b. i. metre/m ii. gram/g iii. second/s iv. kelvin/K v. ampere/A vi. Mole/mole
c. lamb 21.3, lettuce 0.1, pecans 66.9, salmon 9.6
d. i. pecans have a much higher content as lipids used as an energy store; lipids store most energy per gram;
ii. lettuce is a leaf and lamb is muscle; lipids synthesised in lettuce leaves are transported elsewhere in the
plant; lipids stored in muscle to provide energy during contractions; lipids used for thermal insulation in sheep;
iii. salmon has lower proportion of saturated fats; saturated fats have relatively high melting point; salmon live
in cold water; salmon do not maintain constant high body temperatures

2. a. ionic bonds are attractions between positive and negative charges; covalent bonds are shared pairs of
electrons
b. both are monosaccharides; both can form ring structures; pentoses have five carbon atoms and hexoses
have six

c. starch: alpha glucose, helical chain, can be branched, few/no hydrogen bonds, energy storage in plant cells;
cellulose: beta glucose, straight chain, unbranched, hydrogen bonds between chains, tensile strength in plan
walls

3. a. no positive or negative poles/charges; not attracted to polar water molecules; more attracted to other
non-polar water molecules than to water
b. i. not dissolved so no osmotic effects; form droplets in cytoplasm/water; lots stored in a small
volume/compact store ii. passes through (hydrophobic core of) plasma membrane
c. amphipathic means having hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts; non-polar hydrocarbon tails (of fatty acids)
group together in centre; hydrophilic phosphate heads on outside; diagram showing this

Page 18 B1.2 Proteins

1. a. essential amino acids cannot be synthesized in the body; enzymes/metabolic pathways not present; non-
essential amino acids made by conversion from other amino acids

b. i. different amounts amino acids; less histidine than isoleucine in the diet is a larger percentage/other
comparison ii. some amino acids are commoner in human proteins; some amino acids converted into others
so more needed iii leucine

c. not enough lysine (if the recommended total amount of protein was eaten )

d. can supply enough if grain and legumes/a variety of protein sources is used; rice supplies plenty of
methionine and chickpea supplies plenty of lysine

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2. a.

b. i.

ii. dipeptide has 8 hydrogen atoms; and 3 oxygen atoms; two glycine molecules have 10 hydrogen and 4
oxygen atoms iii. H20 removed by the condensation reaction iv. (100 x 5 hydrogens) – (99 x 2 hydrogens) =
302 hydrogens; (100 x 2 oxygens) – (99 x 1 oxygen) = 101 oxygens

3. a. one polypeptide only; secondary structure; three alpha helices; two beta pleated sheets; globular tertiary
structure; conjugated; calcium is the prosthetic group

b. enzyme; digests nucleic acids; hydrolysis reaction

c. hydrogen bonds; ionic bonds; disulfide bonds; hydrophobic interactions

d. primary sequence of the polypeptides; chemical nature of the amino acids in the sequence; how the
polypeptide folds up as it is synthesized; whether the protein is surrounded by water or phospholipids

e. three polypeptides; repeating sequences of amino acids; wound together into a rope-like structure; tensile
strength in tendons/ligaments/skin/bone

Page 38 C1.1 Enzymes and metabolism

1. a.i. temperature ii. time taken for all starch to be digested

b. pH; starch concentration/amylase concentration in saliva

c. best to check reliability by repeating each temperature; 20–60°C is a better range than 20–40°C; higher

temperatures could be tested to show denaturation

d. starch

e. starch to maltose; amylase shown over the arrow

f. i. temperature on x axis and time taken on the y axis; U-shaped curve; minimum time at 40/50 °C ii.
exponential rise from low temperature upwards to a maximum (at 40–50 °C); steeper drop to zero above the
maximum.

2. a. substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction; without being altered itself

b. enzymes are specific; many different metabolic reactions

c. substrate collides with active site on the enzyme

3. Start of both curves is energy level of substrate; end of both curves is energy level of product; lower
curve is energy during progress of uncatalyzed reaction; upper curve is reaction catalysed by an enzyme;

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increase to peak in both curves is activation energy; lower activation energy with an enzyme; but final energy
level of product is unchanged; induced fit allows substrate to bind to active site; bonds within the substrate are
weakened; so less energy is needed to break them

Page 38 C1.2 Cell respiration

1. a. respiration rate increases with decreasing temperature below 12°C; temperature changes between 12°C
and 33°C have no effect on respiration rate; as temperature climbs above 33°C respiration rate begins to
increase (sharply)

b. bird is trying to maintain temperature homeostasis; respiration generates waste heat; rise in metabolic rate
undertaken to preserve core temperature; bird may also increase motion to preserve core temperature;

c. increase in metabolic rate linked to activities to reduce overheating; such as evaporative cooling through
increased ventilation rate

d. random/experimental error; variation in surface area of birds affects heat gain/loss

2. a. pentagon to represent ribose; rectangle representing adenine attached to ribose; chain of three circles
representing phosphates attached to ribose

b. active transport; condensation reactions/synthesis of macromolecules; movement of the cell; movement of

structures within the cell;

c. aerobic produces more (30 –32 versus 2) ATP per glucose; lactic acid is more toxic than CO2; aerobic can
use lipids and sugars but anaerobic can only use sugars; anaerobic respiration can produce large amounts of
ATP very quickly/is not limited by oxygen supply

3. a. B

b. C

c. A

d. C

e. outer surface of C/margin of B where it is in contact with C

Page 38 C1.3 Photosynthesis

1. a. pH falls due to increase in CO2 concentration; due to production by respiration; pH rises due to decreases
in CO2 concentration; due to uptake for photosynthesis

b. i. CO2 concentration falls in the light and rises in the dark; ii. CO2 concentration falls when it is warmer and
rises when it is cooler

c. CO2 concentration is more closely related to light intensity; when there is a temporary dark period during the
third day but it stays warm pH drops so CO2 concentration rises

2. photosynthesis rates may increase; due to increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations; so CO2 limits
photosynthesis less; photosynthesis rates may increase due to global warming; photosynthesis rates may
decrease if temperatures become supra-optimal; photosynthesis rates may not increase if N/P/mineral
nutrients become limiting

3. a. only one carbon dioxide in six in triose phosphate is newly fixed; RuBP runs out if five-sixths of triose
phosphate used to regenerate it

b. ATP and reduced NADP not produced; by the light-dependent reactions; glycerate 3-phosphate cannot be
reduced; RuBP not regenerated

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c. glycerate 3-phosphate not produced; ATP and reduced NADP not used to convert glycerate 3-phospate to
triose phosphate; ATP and reduced NADP accumulate; ADP and NADP run out; electrons from photosystem I
used in cyclic photophosphorylation instead of reduction of NADP; electrons from photosystem II not needed

Page 55 D1.1 DNA replication

1. a. i. short ii. short segments are replicated; on the lagging strand; iii. Okazaki fragments;

b. i. 60 s has much larger peak at 0.5 cm; 120 s has much larger peak at 2 cm; 120 s has more DNA/
radioactivity at all distances from 1 to 3.5;

ii. in the second 60 s period of the 120 s results DNA polymerase continues to add more bases to the leading
strand; DNA ligase links up Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand

2. a. to expose the bases; to allow complementary base pairing; to allow new strands to be assembled

b. i. helicase; unwinds the double helix and breaks H bonds; ii heat breaks hydrogen bonds and separates the
strands

3. a. DNA samples obtained; e.g. from cheek swabs/cells; DNA amplified by PCR; primers select STRs for
amplification; about 15 STRs; separation by gel electrophoresis; DNA moves from wells along tracks; pattern
of bands obtained; father identified if all child’s bands occur in mother or father’s profile

b. right hand profile is the child’s; each of the three bands occurs in one of the two other profiles; the two
parental profiles each have bands that do not occur in the other two

Page 55 D1.2 Protein synthesis

1. a. i. 61; ii. 3 other codons; stop codons

b. 61/20; = 3.05

c. median is 2; mode is 2

d. first two bases in a codon are most important for determining the amino acid; 3rd base not significant for
amino acids with 4 codons; 3rd base can be (U or C) and (A or G) for amino acids with 2 codons; U and C are
both pyrimidines and A and G are both purines

2. a. i. anticodon; consists of sequence of three bases; different sequence coding for different amino acids; ii.
position where amino acid is attached; opposite end from anticodon; same structure in all tRNAs

b. tRNA is produced by transcription; tRNA is used in translation

c. differences allow tRNA activating proteins to recognize a specific tRNA; and attach the correct amino acid

similarities allow tRNAs to bind to the same tRNA binding sites on ribosomes

3. a. site where transcription is initiated; RNA polymerase binds to the promoter

b. 100–200 adenine nucleotides at the 3’ end of mRNA; protects mRNA from digestion by nucleases

c. binding site for tRNA on the ribosome; growing polypeptide on tRNA at P site is transferred to tRNA at A site

d. digests damaged/unwanted proteins that are tagged with ubiquitin

Page 55 D1.3 Mutation and gene editing

1. a. 0 mutations is the smallest % in both N and P; % with only one or two mutations is higher in S; no
significant difference in % with 3 mutations; % with 4 or more mutations much higher in N; more mutations
overall in N

b. not due to difference in lengths; S is longer but has fewer mutations

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c. more common if mutation happened earlier during the time period; so could spread by reproduction of the
virus; more common if the mutation makes the virus more infectious; natural selection for certain mutations;
natural selection against other mutations

2. a. no consequences for amino acid sequence unless mutation is in a protein coding gene; no consequence
if mutation is to another codon for the same amino acid; likely consequences for protein structure if mutation
changes an amino acid in the sequence; especially if change is to an amino acid that is chemically very
different; mutations to a stop codon result in a shortened polypeptide; any change to protein structure is likely
to affect function; most changes make the protein function less well

b. deletion and insertion deletion are similar in their effects; both are frameshift mutations; every codon from
the mutation onwards is changed; unless a multiple of three nucleotides is inserted or deleted; causing protein
function to be lost (almost always); very unlikely to have beneficial effects; base substitutions only affect one
codon; and can be beneficial

3. a. strains of model organisms developed that lack functional versions of a gene; compare mice with a gene
knocked out with a normal mouse; used to deduce gene functions

b. extra digits; 9 instead of 5

Page 69 A2.1 Origins of cells

1. a. 10-6:10-11 = 10-6/10-11:1; =105:1 or 100,000:1

b. pH 8 is a proton concentration of 10-8; ratio is 103:1 or 1000:1

c. across the inner mitochondrial membrane / across the thylakoid membrane

2. a. universal genetic code; shared genes; similarities in metabolism/metabolic pathways

b. 4 billion; Earth/Universe not formed 40 billion years ago; 4 million years not enough time for life to have
evolved from LUCA

3. a. formation of life/living cells; from non-living matter

b. no life on Earth when the planet was formed; unlikely that life arrived on Earth from elsewhere; no scientific
evidence for creation of life rather than spontaneous origin

c. lower levels of UV light; lower CO2 concentrations; lower methane concentrations; higher ocean pH;
atmosphere now oxidising rather than reducing; carbon compounds needed for life not now formed
spontaneously

4. a. needed to pass genes on to offspring; RNA an alternative but only used by viruses; original cells may
have used RNA; needed to store information needed to make proteins; needed to make enzymes and so
control metabolism; can mutate so generating variation; allowing evolution; so cells can adapt to new
conditions; allow differentiation; needed for cell repair; red blood cells lack DNA but only survive for a few
months

b. separate cytoplasm from external environment; concentrate useful substances; maintain concentration
gradients; needed to exclude harmful substances; compartmentalise; move materials inside vesicles in cells

c. forms cell structures; immense range of protein functions; enzymes are proteins; catalysis of metabolic
reactions; receptors; other examples of essential protein functions

Page 69 A2.2 Cell structure

1. a. V chromatin/chromosome; W cytoplasm; X rough ER; Y mitochondria; Z nuclear membrane

b. magnification = size of image/size of specimen; 18,000 μm/2 μm = × 9,000

c. (eukaryotic) because nucleus present; because mitochondria/membrane-bound organelle present

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d. ATP (by mitochondria); proteins (by rough ER)

e. animal/not plant cell as glycogen/not starch stored; liver/muscle cell as these cells store glycogen

2. a cells frozen in liquid nitrogen; in the presence of antifreeze; frozen block cracked with a knife blade; replica
of fracture face made by covering it with platinum; reveals surfaces within cells; fracture plane tends to pass
through centre of membranes; proteins in membranes/integral proteins visible

b. P Golgi apparatus; Q vesicle; R pore in nuclear membrane; S double nuclear membrane

c. fracture plane passes through middle of membrane; proteins are transmembrane/integral/embedded in

membrane

3. cell wall; plasma membrane inside cell wall; double nuclear membrane; nuclear pores; chromatin inside
nucleus; heterochromatin mostly near nuclear membrane; chloroplast with double membrane; thylakoids inside
ch
loroplast; mitochondrion with double membrane; inner membrane of mitochondrion infolded; rough ER; Golgi apparatus; lysosomes

4. double membrane; formed if a single-membraned bacterium is taken in by endocytosis; DNA inside

mitochondrion; naked DNA as in prokaryotes/bacteria; 70S ribosomes inside mitochondria as in bacteria;
proteins synthesized inside mitochondria as in bacteria; mitochondria only formed by division of pre-existing
mitochondria as in bacteria

Page 69 A2.3 Viruses

1. a. numbers of viruses rise in II and IV; numbers remain constant in I, III and V

b. i. bacterial cells burst; viruses released; ii. viruses enter bacterial cells; viral DNA replicated; viral (capsid)
proteins synthesized; new viruses self-assembled; not infectious because still inside the bacterial cell

c. lytic cycle; because numbers increase faster than bacteria reproduce/because there are repeated cycles of
increase in numbers of infective viruses

2. a. small size; fixed size/lack of growth; nucleic acid as genetic material; capsid of protein; few or no
enzymes/metabolism

b. DNA versus RNA; single stranded versus double stranded; enveloped versus non-enveloped; difference use
of RNA in single stranded RNA viruses

c. do not share a common ancestor; because of the fundamental differences in structure; common features
due to viruses all having evolved from living cells which share features; common features due to convergent
evolution

3. a. virus relies on host for energy supply; nutrition; protein synthesis; DNA replication; virus harms its host

b. multiple origins for viruses; no single common ancestor; yet viruses share features; same adaptations; for
parasites that invade living cells

c. mutation; base substitution; high mutation rates in viruses; especially RNA viruses; DNA/RNA codes for
polypeptides/proteins; changes to capsid proteins; natural selection for changed capsid proteins if they help
the virus avoid detection by the immune system

Page 80 B2.1 Membranes and membrane transport

1. a. i. percentage rises; smaller increases as temperature rises (above 20°C); ii. no change in percentage as
temperature rises

b. i. molecules move in fluids; but remain in fixed positions in solids; ii. fluid; graph shows mixing of tagged
membrane proteins at 37°C will be rapid; mixing due to molecular movement in the membrane

c. mixing not due to active processes; mixing due to diffusion

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d. i. curve displaced to the left on the graph; mixing at lower temperatures; membranes adapted to be fluid at
lower temperatures; ii. more unsaturated fatty acids in Arctic fish; more saturated fatty acids in tropical fish;
unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points

d. i. more unsaturated fatty acids in Arctic fish; more saturated fatty acids in tropical fish; unsaturated fatty
acids have lower melting points

2. a hydrophilic heads; hydrophobic tails; phospholipid bilayer; bilayer forms barrier/prevents passage of
hydrophilic particles; peripheral proteins; integral proteins; pump proteins for active transport; channel proteins
for facilitated diffusion; receptors for cell-to-cell communication; CAMS for cell-to-cell adhesion; cholesterol;
modulator of membrane fluidity; glycoproteins; glycolipids; for cell adhesion/cell recognition

b. i. osmosis; ii. simple diffusion; iii. active transport iv. facilitated diffusion

c. both carried out by integral/transmembrane proteins; active transport requires use of energy/ATP whereas
facilitated diffusion does not; active transport can move particles against the concentration gradient whereas
facilitated diffusion cannot

3. a. hydrophobic; four rings of carbon atoms; three 6-C rings and one 5-C ring; attached methyl and hydroxyl
groups

b. makes membranes less fluid at high temperatures and more fluid at low temperatures; maintains orderly
arrangement of phospholipids at high temperatures; prevents solidification of saturated fatty acids at low
temperatures

Page 80 B2.2 Organelles and compartmentalization

1. a. 1780/6 μm2 per side of the cube =297 μm2; square root of 297 μm2; sides of cube are 17.2 μm in length

b. inner membrane is invaginated; to increase its surface area; for ATP production/electron transport chains

c. large area of rough ER for synthesizing proteins for secretion; Golgi apparatus for processing proteins prior
to secretion

d. relatively large area; for synthesis of phospholipids/cholesterol; for detoxification

2. a. rough ER; smooth ER; Golgi apparatus; lysosomes; vesicles; vacuoles; nucleus; chloroplast;
mitochondrion

b. cell wall; cytoplasm; cytoskeleton

3. a. i. both are double membraned; both contain 70S ribosomes; both contain DNA; both contain ATP
synthase; both contain a cytoplasm-like fluid (stroma and matrix); chloroplasts contain thylakoids whereas
mitochondria do not contain such membrane-bound structures; inner membrane invaginated in mitochondria
but not in chloroplasts; chlorophyll/pigments in chloroplasts but not mitochondria; ii. both produce ATP;
photosynthesis in chloroplasts and respiration in mitochondria; carbon dioxide consumed in chloroplasts
whereas produced in mitochondria; oxygen produced in chloroplasts whereas consumed in mitochondria;
anabolic reactions in chloroplasts but catabolic reactions in mitochondria

b. enzymes and substrates can be concentrated; pH can be kept at the optimal level for a process;
incompatible processes can be separated; example of digestion of prey inside a phagocytic vesicle; processes
can carried out in the ideal part of the cell; materials can be moved using vesicles; materials can be stored in a
vesicle; prior to release; example of neurotransmitter stored prior to synaptic transmission; mRNA can be
modified in the nucleus before translation in the cytoplasm

c. small size of prokaryote cells; diffusion between parts of the cell is rapid; high concentrations can develop
more rapidly; simpler metabolism; saves energy in building/maintaining compartmentalization; no/less post-
transcriptional modification; external digestion so no need for endocytosis of undigested food; no genes for
compartmentalization; compartmentalization never evolved

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Page 80 B2.3 Cell specialization

1. a. i. higher volume of mitochondria in hepatocytes; more energy/ATP required; for protein synthesis/anabolic
reactions/metabolic reactions; role of endothelial cells is largely passive; digestion/hydrolysis reactions in
Kupffer cells are exothermic; ii. highest volume in Kupffer cells; for digesting damaged red blood cells; some in
endothelial cells for digesting material absorbed from blood by endocytosis; iii. volume of nucleus is similar;
endothelial cells have much less cytoplasm; endothelial cells are very thin; hepatocytes have much cytoplasm
for carrying out metabolic reaction

b. some other membrane-bound organelles; for example vesicles

2. a. i. 3.5 million:100 = 35,000:1

b. large size allows predators to catch/consume smaller prey; avoids become the prey of a predator; helps
males to compete for mates; allows trees to overtop others in competition for light; reduces problems due to
surface tension

3.

Type I pneumocytes Striated muscle fibres

smaller larger

flattened elongated/cylindrical

single nucleus multiple nuclei

no myofibrils myofibrils present

not striated striated/light and dark bands

no sarcomeres sarcomeres/actin and myosin;

typical cell arguably not a single cell;

Page 93 C2.1 Chemical signalling

1. a. logarithmic

b. emissions are zero until above 0.5 μM; rapid rise between 0.5 and 10 μM; no further rise above 10 μM

c. population density determines the concentration; higher concentration with more cells (per unit volume)

d. i. quorum sensing; ii. light emission only effective if from many cells; energy not wasted on light emission at
low population density; light emission only when threshold concentration of autoinducer reached

2. a. I is a peptide; II is a steroid

b. insulin/glucagon/ADH/leptin/oxytocin/prolactin/other peptide; testosterone/progesterone/estrogen

c. peptide hormone binds to receptor; receptor converts secondary messenger to active form; triggers off
cascade of reactions; steroid hormone enters cell; binds to receptor protein; activated receptor
promotes/inhibits transcription of specific genes

3. a. G-protein is located in the plasma membrane; consists of alpha beta and gamma subunits bound to a G-
protein coupled receptor; G protein with GDP bound to the alpha subunit remains inactive; binding of a ligand
to the receptor causes GTPO to displace GDP; G-protein activated; separates into subunits which dissociate
from the receptor; subunits then trigger changes in the cell

b. binding of insulin causes conformation changes to the insulin receptor; tails of receptor come together; and
phosphorylate each other; by tyrosine kinase activity; phosphorylated receptor conveys signals to the
cytoplasm; causing changes in activity; such as transfer of glucose transporters to the plasma membrane

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Page 93 C2.2 Neural signalling

1. a. (32 mm rise/10 mm scale bar)x20mV; = 64 mV rise; -60 mV + 64 mV; = +4 mV

b. i. rise is depolarization; decrease is repolarization; ii. 0.75 ms to depolarize; 1.5 ms to repolarize

c. i. (12/20)x20ms; = 3 ms; ii. time take for calcium to enter the presynaptic membrane; and for vesicles of
neurotransmitter to move to the membrane; and for exocytosis; and for diffusion of neurotransmitter across the
synaptic gap; and for entry of sodium ions to the postsynaptic neuron

d. i. all action potentials are of the same magnitude; unless the threshold potential is reached there is no action
potential; ii. threshold potential not reached; not enough neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neuron;
inhibitory neurotransmitter released from other neurons preventing action potential

2. a. sodium-potassium pumps; pump sodium ions out of the axon; pumps potassium into axon; 3 Na+ out and
2 K+ in; establishes concentration gradients; establishes the resting potential

b. voltage-gated channels; sodium channels open allowing Na+ to diffuse in; causing depolarization’; K+
channels then open and Na+ channels close; so K+ diffuses out of axon; causing repolarization; sodium
channels open when threshold potential is reached

c. sodium ions diffuse between depolarized and not-yet depolarized sections of the axon; in the direction of
transmission of the impulse inside the axon; in the opposite direction to the impulse outside the axon; reduces
the resting potential in the part of the axon that has not yet depolarized; causing the threshold potential to be
reached; triggering an action potential; causes the impulse to be propagated along the axon

d. sheath around the axon; many layers of phospholipid; prevents movement of Na+ and K+ ions across the
membrane; gaps between lengths of axon; nodes of Ranvier; impulse jumps from node to node/saltatory
conduction; speeds up the movement of a nerve impulse

3. a. cell body; nucleus and cytoplasm (in cell body); dendrites; axon; branches at end of axon

b. cell body needed to repair/service/maintain the neuron; dendrites receive signals from other neurons; axon
conveys nerve impulses; over long distances; branches of axon for synapses with multiple other cells

c. resting potential does not change; action potential is rapid changes in membrane potential; negative mV with
resting potential but rising to positive with action potential; concentration gradients of Na+ and K+ remain steep
during resting potential but become less steep during action potential; voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels
remain closed during resting potential but open during action potential; no signalling with resting potential
versus signal transmitted by action potential

d. both have an axon; axon is long and narrow in both; myelinated have a sheath composed of phospholipid
bilayers/membranes whereas unmyelinated is naked; myelinated are therefore wider; faster transmission of
impulses with myelinated; myelinated used for signals that need to arrive as quickly as possible

Page 104 D2.1 Cell and nuclear division

1. a. I metaphase; II anaphase; III prophase; IV telophase

b. DNA replication; division of mitochondria/chloroplasts

c. mitotic index = number of cells in mitosis/total number of cells; 5/43 ; = 0.12 (± 0.05)

2. a. first; prophase

b. four chromatids

c. i. five chiasmata; ii. breakage of chromatids; re-joining of non-sister chromatids; exchange of material
between chromatids

3. variation in the rate of mitosis/mitotic index and rate of cell growth; faster-growing tumours are more life-
threatening

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metastasis is spreading of cells to form secondary tumours; metastasising tumours are more life-threatening;
tumours that invade neighbouring tissue are more life-threatening; tumours that remain as a discrete body are
less life-threatening

Page 104 D2.2 Gene expression

1. a. many traits are influenced by genes; monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes; whereas dizygotic
twins only share 50% on average

b. some traits are influenced by the environment; differences in environment between monozygotic twins; for
example the position of the placenta in the uterus; more differences during adulthood with different life
choices/events; some traits due to random events/accidents

c. methylation of promoters/other example; differences in environment can cause differences in tags; for
example of one twin lives in a area with more air pollution; most tags are removed during gamete production
so are not inherited; a small proportion of tags are inherited

d. eye colour/blood group/another example

2. a. testosterone diffuses into cells; binds to androgen receptor proteins; testosterone-receptor complexes
bind to specific DNA base sequences; allows transcription factors to bind to some promoters; genes
downstream of these genes are expressed; genes expressed that result on sperm production; and
development of male secondary sexual characteristics

b. i. a necessary transcription factor may not be produced; a repressor protein may block transcription of a
gene; the promoter may be methylated; preventing transcription by RNA polymerase of the downstream gene;
methylation of histones in nucleosomes can decrease transcription by maintaining tight binding of DNA; ii.
mRNA can be broken down; by nuclease; removal following removal of the poly-A tail; which otherwise
protects the mRNA from degradation; iii. ligands may have to bind for a protein to become active; for example
binding of neurotransmitter to a receptor protein; ligands may inhibit protein function if they bind; for example
enzyme inhibition; allosteric sites for enzyme inhibitors to bind; non-competitive/end-product inhibition

3. a. gradients of signalling chemicals/morphogens; indicate position in the embryo; determine which genes
are expressed; trigger different pathways of differentiation

b. difference in traits due to difference in the environment; for example tree growth influenced by wind
direction/another example; differences in phenotype not due to genotype; may be reversible

c. geographical separation; differences in the environment; different adaptations needed; natural selection acts
differently; gene pools diverge

Page 104 D2.3 Water potential

1. a. mass changes are +1.1g and -0.9g (respectively); % mass change = mass change/initial mass × 100%;
% mass changes are -15%, +5% and -4%

b. x axis (horizontal) legend is Concentration of sucrose (mol dm-3) and y axis legend is Percentage mass
change; both scales are evenly spaced and use more than half of the graph paper; all points are plotted to
within 0.5mm of the correct position; data points are joined by ruled straight lines not a line of best fit

c. 0.31 milliosmoles per litre (+/- 0.1) ii. no mass change at this point so no osmosis; tissue must have same
osmolarity as the sucrose solution

2. a. net movement from lower to higher solute concentration; due to attractions between water molecules and
solutes; movement in both directions; more molecules move from lower to higher concentration than vice versa

b. aquaporins are membrane proteins; with a pore through which water molecules can pass; increasing the
rate of water movement across the membrane; more aquaporins in plasma membranes of cells where rapid
water movement is needed; water can pass between phospholipids in the membrane but rate isn’t always
rapid enough because of the polarity of water molecules

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c. water tends to move from higher to lower pressure potential; lowering the energy of the water molecules; but
water movements also affected by solute potential; so water sometimes moves from lower to higher pressure
potential; generating turgidity in plant cells

3. a. water moves from soil to root cortex cells even though the pressure potential is higher in cortex cells;
because solute potential is much lower in cortex than soil; because mineral ions are pumped from soil to cortex
cells; by active transport

b. water moves from root cortex cells to xylem vessels even though the solute potential is less negative in
xylem; because pressure potential is much lower than in cortex cells; because transpiration removes water
from xylem vessels; generating very low pressure/tension

c. water moves from xylem to mesophyll cells even though pressure potential is higher; because solute
potential is more much negative in mesophyll cells than in xylem vessels

d. water is drawn from cytoplasm to cell walls of spongy mesophyll cells due to capillary action/hydrogen bond
formation between water and cellulose; water evaporates from spongy mesophyll cell walls; water vapour
diffuses out through stomata; due to lower humidity in the air outside

4. a. water enters the unicell by osmosis; because the solute concentration of cytoplasm is higher than in
freshwater; water removed using contractile vacuoles; mineral ions pumped from cytoplasm into the vacuole;
water therefore moves from cytoplasm to vacuole by osmosis; contents of vesicle expelled from the cell by
exocytosis; expelled mineral ions reabsorbed by active transport from the freshwater

b. active transport of mineral ions; from root cells into xylem vessels; water therefore moves from root cells to
xylem vessels; by osmosis; generating high pressure/high pressure potential in xylem vessel

Page 114 A3.1 Diversity of organisms

1. a. stain root tips; squash on a microscope slide

b. i. length; position of the constriction where the centromere is located; ii. use a stain that generates bands on
chromosomes; different banding patterns in different chromosome types

c. cut out chromosomes from print/digitally manipulate chromosomes; arrange chromosomes in pairs; from
longest to the shortest

d. Three chromosomes; one of each type

2. a. genome

b. species

c. population

d. chromosome

e. species

3. a. 60; gametes from the parents will contain 28 and 32 chromosomes

b. same number/60 of chromosomes; because members of a species share a chromosome number; so

parents will have 56 and 64 chromosomes; not identical in all traits; because members of a species are not all
genetically identical; vary in single-nucleotide polymorphisms/alleles

c. unlikely to produce gametes; non-homologous chromosomes/chromosomes of different types from the two
parents; some/all chromosomes unable to form pairs; meiosis fails

Page 114 A3.2 Classification and cladistics

1. a. i. 2; ii. 7; iii. 9; iv. 6; v. 9; vi. 7

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b. cladogram with four species; first split between rabbit and other three species; second split between lemur
and other two species; final split between humans and orang-utans

c. rabbits in one group and the other three species in a different group; orang-utans and humans more closely
related to each other than to lemurs

2. a. i. domain; ii. Archaea and eubacteria

b. kingdom; phylum; class; order; family; genus; species

3. a relatedness; common ancestry; time since ancestors diverged; sequence in which divergences occurred

b. Sorhum bicolor and Oryza sativa; because they have the most recent common ancestor/diverged most
recently

c. D. opposita is more closely related to Sorghum bicolor; because they had a more recent common ancestor

d. groups diverge gradually; so the amount of difference between groups varies continuously; decisions over
level in the hierarchy of taxa are subjective; monocots are a larger group than an order but are smaller than a
class

Page 133 B3.1 Gas exchange

1. a. guard cells; other epidermis cells; both have a nucleus; guard cells are banana-shaped; other epidermis
have a wavy/irregular shape; cytoplasm denser in guard cells; chloroplasts only in guard cells; guard cells
have thicker cell walls

b. 11 stomata; area of micrograph = 6 × 4 × 0.1 mm; 2.4 mm2; 11/2.4 stomata per mm2; = 4.6 stomata per mm2

c. paint nail varnish on the leaf; peel off when dry; leaf cast/replica shows shapes of leaf cells and stomata

d. peeled off in the day; because the stomata are open

2. a. I = trachea; II = bronchioles/bronchial tree; III = bronchus

b. maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and CO2 between air in alveoli and blood; ensures rapid
diffusion/gaseous exchange

c. alveolus wall consisting of single layer of very thin cells; blood capillaries adjacent to alveolus; capillary wall
consisting of a thin layer of very thin cells; moist lining of alveolus; bronchiole connected to alveolus; diameter
of alveolus indicated

3. a. sketch graph with partial pressure of oxygen on the x-axis and percentage saturation of haemoglobin with
oxygen on the y-axis; sigmoid curve for haemoglobin in normal/low carbon dioxide concentrations; another
sigmoid curve to the right for haemoglobin in a higher carbon dioxide concentrations; annotation to explain that
in respiring tissues with high carbon dioxide concentrations the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is reduced;
so more oxygen dissociates; in the lungs with low carbon dioxide concentrations the affinity of haemoglobin is
higher; so more oxygen binds

Page 133 B3.2 Transport

1. a. areas of tissue encircled with neat lines; no individual cells shown; star-shaped area of xylem; five areas
of phloem between the points of the star; cortex around the vascular tissue

b. lack of cell contents so sap can flow easily; lack of end walls allowing easy flow; lignified walls to prevent
collapse when pressures in xylem are very low; pits for entry/exit of water

c. high temperatures; daylight; windy weather

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2. a both transport blood; arteries transport blood away from the heart; whereas veins transport it towards the
heart

b. artery walls are much thicker than capillary walls; have multiple layers of tissues versus one single layer of
cells; have no pores through whereas capillaries have pores; have muscle and elastic tissue versus none

c. measured in an artery; because veins do not have a pulse; press fingers against the artery to feel the pulse;
not a thumb because it has its own pulse; count the number of beats per minute/per 30 seconds and multiply
by 2

3. a. sinoatrial node

b. i. atrium contracts; blood pumped from atrium to ventricle; ii. ventricle contracts; atrioventricular and
semilunar valves are both closed so blood cannot exit the ventricle; iii. ventricle continues to contract;
semilunar valve is open so blood flows into the artery so pressure does not rise much and then starts to fall; iv.
ventricle nearly empty and relaxing; semilunar valve is closed so no backflow of high pressure blood from the
from artery; v. atrioventricular valve is open; blood flows from the atrium to the ventricle

c. time on x-axis; blood pressure on y-axis; curve for ventricular pressure following the sequence of changes
listed in b.; atrial pressure always remains relatively low; shows an initial small peak during atrial systole; then
a gentle rise during ventricular systole; then a drop and gentle rise during ventricular diastole; aortic pressure
always remains relatively high; slightly lower than ventricular pressure during ventricular systole; high and
gently decreasing during ventricular diastole

Page 133 B3.2 Muscle and motility

1. use a goniometer; held next to the joint; read the joint angle at extreme end in the range of movement; or
obtain computer images of the range of movement; analyse the images to find the angles of the joint at each
end of the range

2. a. myosin

b. actin

c. i. X stays the same length; Y becomes shorter; ii. X stays the same length; Y becomes longer

d. sarcomere shown from one labelled Z-disc to another; actin filaments attached to each Z-disc; gap between
actin filaments stretching from one Z-disc and those stretching from the other; myosin filaments between
actin filaments; actin and myosin filaments overlap as the myofibril is partly contracted

3. (dolphin) has flippers for steering; tail flukes with left and right lobes; for generating thrust when moved up
and down; dorsal find for stability/to prevent rolling; blubber/thick layer of adipose tissue for buoyancy

Page 150 C3.1 Integration of body systems

1. a. VE increases as CO2 concentration increases; greater increases in VE with successive increases in CO2
concentration

b. increase in carbon dioxide concentration in blood; detected by chemoreceptors for carbon dioxide/pH; in the
brainstem; impulses sent to diaphragm/intercostal muscles; rate/depth of ventilation increased

c. further increases in VE; until maximal VE is reached; fall in blood pH; fatal if blood pH drops below 6.8

d. increased level of exercise/muscle contractions

e. control of heart rate; rate increased by higher CO2

f. reduces the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen; Bohr shift

2. a. I cerebral hemisphere; II cerebellum; III medulla oblongata/brainstem; IV vertebrae/vertebral

column/backbone; V spinal cord
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b. I: learning; memory; voluntary muscle control; II: for control of muscular coordination of skeletal muscle
contraction; balance; III: homeostatic functions; swallowing/other example; IV: support; protection of spinal
cord; V: unconscious control; reflex actions; conveying impulses to and from the brain

3. a. causes hydrogen ion secretion into the wall; loosens cross-links between cellulose molecules; allows
turgor pressure to stretch the wall and elongate the cell

b. i. auxin efflux pumps; in the plasma membrane of shoot apex cells; at one end of the cell; reduce
concentration in the cell and increase it in an adjacent cell; ii. causes more growth on one side of the stem
than the other; causes the stem to bend; response to brighter light on one side; shoot bends towards that side;
phototropism

Page 150 C3.2 Defence against disease

1. a. few cases below 20; most cases in 20–39 age group; few cases 60–79; more cases above 80 than in 60–
79
b. i. more cases in females at all ages; more deaths in males; except age 80 or above; ii. any reasonable
suggestion for more infections in females; fewer deaths in females due to stronger immune system; more
deaths in women above 80 as fewer men are still alive

c. 12,995 infected and 3000 deaths; 3/12995 × 100; = 0.02%

d. men 80 or older; 82/838 × 100; = 9.8%

2. a. 490 (±5)

b. number of cases drops lower than it was before when vaccination starts; and remains lower; stays below 20
cases; steep drop with first mass vaccinations of children; drops lower each year

c. antigens in the vaccine stimulate lymphocytes; T lymphocytes activate B lymphocytes; activated B cells
multiply to form a clone of plasma cells; plasma cells secrete antibodies; activated B cells produce memory
cells

d. i. booster shot stimulates production of memory cells; faster/greater production of antibodies; ii. Some
children may miss the vaccination in one year; babies born who have not yet been vaccinated

e. polio not eliminated globally yet; danger of spread of polio back to Brazil due to travel; need to maintain herd
immunity
3. a. HIV is a pathogen; HIV is a virus/retrovirus; AIDS is a syndrome/group of symptoms; AIDS develops as a
result of HIV infection

b. both are white blood cells; both have a nucleus/cytoplasm; both are part of the immune system/fight
disease; both are produced in bone marrow

c. both kill bacteria/pathogens; antibiotics are produced by fungi/microorganisms whereas antibodies are
produced by lymphocytes; antibodies are proteins whereas antibiotics are other types of chemical; antibodies
are specific to an antigen whereas antibiotics affect a wide range of microorganisms

Page 178 D3.1 Reproduction

1. a. V petals; W ovary; X anthers; Y stigma; Z style

b. six curved petals drawn; for advertising the flower; stamens drawn with anthers and filaments; anthers for
pollen production; filaments for holding the anthers where insects will brush past; stigma and style drawn;
stigma for receiving pollen; style for pollen tube growth to the ovary; ovary drawn above the petals; ovary for
producing ovules/eggs/female gametes; ovary as the site of fertilization; ovary develops into the fruit

c. large petals; brightly coloured petals; scented petals; to advertise the flower to insects; nectary/nectar
production; to reward insects; stigma and anthers in similar position; so pollen is brushed onto insect and
off insect onto stigma

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2. a., b. and e. are sexual as there are gametes and fertilization; c. and d. are asexual as there is mitosis, a
single parent and no meiosis

3. a. both involve mitosis; and cell growth; and two divisions of meiosis; and differentiation; both result in
production of haploid gametes

b. more male gametes produced than female gametes; four per meiosis versus one per meiosis; cytoplasm
eliminated from male gametes but increases in female gametes

c. cortical granules expel contents after one sperm has entered the oocyte; zona pellucida converted into
impenetrable fertilization membrane

d. hCG produced by embryo; stimulates corpus luteum/ovary to secrete progesterone (for about 12 weeks);
placenta takes over from ovary

Page 178 D3.2 Inheritance

1. a. 50

b. mean is the average value; obtained by adding together all the values and dividing by the number of values;
median is the middle value; obtained by arranging the values from smallest to largest; mode is the value
occurring most frequently

c. continuous variation; so could be due to polygenic inheritance; and could be due to environment; such as
nutrition/infectious diseases/number of pregnancies/other reasonable suggestion

2. both are genetic diseases; both are caused by a recessive allele; phenylketonuria is autosomal/gene is on a
non-sex chromosome; haemophilia is sex-linked; gene is on the X-chromosome; boys only have one allele of
the haemophilia gene inherited from their mother

3. a. all AaBb; all blue-flowered

b. all gametes shown with one allele of each gene only; four homozygous genotypes shown AABB AAbb aaBB
and aabb; four double heterozygous genotypes shown AaBb; eight other genotypes shown AABb AAbB aaBb
aabB AaBB aABB Aabb and aAbb; all 16 phenotypes indicated; nine blue, three red, and four white

c. allele A converts white to red; allele B converts red to blue; a and b are inactive/do not catalyse a reaction

Page 178 D3.3 Homeostasis

1. a. both are proteins; both are hormones; both help to regulate blood glucose concentration

b. Type I earlier onset (usually); Type I sudden onset whereas Type II more gradual; Type I due to beta cell
loss; Type II due to insensitivity of target cells to insulin; only Type I is an autoimmune disease; Type I
treatable with insulin whereas Type II treatable with diet; obesity is a risk factor for Type II but not Type I

c. brown adipose tissue generates heat; by uncoupled respiration; (white) adipose tissue for heat insulation;
slow conduction of heat by fats

2. internal conditions kept constant despite external fluctuations; body temperature kept at levels suitable for
enzyme activity; torpor due to low temperatures avoided; pH kept ideal levels for metabolism/enzymes;
osmotic concentrations maintained so cells do not shrink/burst; energy costs of homeostasis are a
disadvantage

3. a. I cortex; II medulla

b. i. V, VI, IV, VII, III (2 marks minus 1 per error); ii. Bowman’s capsule; collects filtrate from the glomerulus;
proximal convoluted tubule; selectively reabsorbs useful substances; loop of Henlé; maintains hypertonic
conditions in the medulla; distal convoluted tubule; regulates water/ion/pH concentration of blood; collecting
duct; osmoregulation by reabsorbing variable amounts of water

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c. ADH

Page 189 A4.1 Evolution and speciation

1. a. only one species per island; albamarlensis in the central islands; outlying islands each have a different
species; no lava lizards on Genovesa

b. migration from mainland to the archipelago; migration from island to island; reproductive isolation of
populations; due to geographical isolation; differential (natural) selection; different conditions on the different
islands; divergence of traits/gene pools; speciation

2. a. evolution is heritable change; in the characteristics of a population; natural selection is the mechanism
that drives evolution; by differential survival and reproduction of different types; speciation is the generation of
new species; by splitting of pre-existing species

b. i. analogous; ii. homologous; iii. homologous; iv. analogous

c. i. similarities in base sequence and explained by common ancestry; differences in base sequence
correspond to relatedness in morphology/other traits; differences correspond to time since evolutionary
divergence; pattern of variation in base sequence across the whole of life matches expectations from the
processes of mutation and natural selection; ii. considerable differences between the breeds of domesticated
livestock and other breeds/a wild progenitor; relatively short time since domestication process started; showing
that selection can cause traits of a population to change rapidly

3. a. hybrid formed; between Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea; with 19 chromosomes; doubling of the
chromosome number; by DNA replication without mitosis

b. different chromosome number form either parent species; different traits from the parent species; cannot
interbreed with either of the parent species and produce fertile offspring

c. selective breeding of Brassica napus; varieties developed with desired traits; such as high yield of
oil/desirable fatty acids

Page 189 A4.2 Conservation of biodiversity

1. a. 32: deforestation by Māori; 22% deforestation by Europeans

b. loss of habitat for forest species; reduced transpiration/rainfall; soil erosion; release of carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere

c. 24%

d. no mammal predators; flight not needed to evade predation; flightless birds easily caught by cats/introduced
predators; no fear of predators; eggs of ground nesting birds eaten by rats/introduced animals

2. strong evidence of species extinctions; extinction at unprecedentedly rapid rates; rapid rate of ecosystem
loss; rapid climate change; no prospect of climate change slowing for some decades; tipping points may be
reached causing even more rapid climate change; climate may exceed species’ range of tolerance; not enough
time for species to migrate/evolve

3. a. should be a priority; only one natural population; with only a few hundred trees; evolutionarily distinct/no
close relatives

b. in situ conservation; protect the ecosystem where the species lives; extend the area over which the species
can live; ex situ conservation; propagate and grow the species elsewhere; in botanic gardens/arboretums; as
widely as possible

c. reduce carbon dioxide emissions; carbon capture to reduce atmospheric concentrations; other measures to
reverse global warming

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Page 199 B4.1 Adaptation to environment

1. a. both occur over a range of depths but not all; angustifolia extending into deeper water; latifolia extending
out of the water

b. –20 to +80 are in limits of tolerance for latifolia; –20 to +115 for angustifolia; –20 is in zone of stress for both
species

c. fundamental niche is wider than realized; includes depths from –20 to +100 cm whereas realized niche
is only from +75 to +100 cm; angustifolia is excluded from shallower depths; by competition from latifolia;

d. transect

2. a. a place/location; where a species lives; where the environment is suitable for the species

b. ecosystem is all species/the whole community in an area; plus the abiotic environment; biome is a group of
ecosystems; that develop globally in similar conditions

c. i. lack of water/dehydration; ii. lack of light/not tall enough to obtain light

d. temperate forest; taiga; grassland; tundra

3. a. sea level rises; coral reefs are in deeper water; lack of light penetration so reduced photosynthesis

b. acidification; coral cannot deposit calcium carbonate; skeletons dissolve

c. bleaching; coral only thrives in a narrow temperature range

d. lack of light penetration; not enough light for zooxanthellae to photosynthesise

Page 199 B4.2 Ecological niches

1. a. both have same number of incisors and canines; and up to two pre-molars and three molars; both have
one missing molar; Neanderthal has larger incisors; larger canines; more wear

b. omnivorous; variety of types of teeth; molars and premolars for grinding plant foods; canines and incisors for
cutting meat; tooth wear at age 25 indicates that tough plant foods were eaten

2. a. habitat is a location whereas niche is a role; niche includes more factors; niche includes food supply
which habitat does not; two species could share a habitat but not a niche

b. photoheterotrophs obtain carbon compounds from other organisms; whereas photosynthesisers make their
own carbon compounds

c. chemoheterotrophs obtain carbon compounds from other organisms; whereas chemoautotrophs make their
own carbon compounds

3. a. i. heterotrophic; feeds on complex carbon compounds; no light for photosynthesis in the intestine; ii.
saprotrophic; bacteria do not have a gut; cannot ingest food and then digest it; secretes enzymes into the
lumen of the intestine

b. must be an obligate anaerobe; cannot carry out aerobic respiration; gut contents must be anaerobic; or F.
prausnitzii would not survive there

c. aerobic respiration; for making ATP; to provide energy for cell activities

Page 214 C4.1 Populations and communities

1. a. sigmoid/s-shaped

b. i. exponential before; increases at a faster and faster rate; transitional after; increases slowing down; ii.

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natality increasing before; mortality low; natality decreasing after; and/or mortality increasing

c. replot with logarithmic scale on the y-axis; straight line increase if population growth is exponential

d. i. line reaching a plateau at 2,000; by year 8 ii. any three of: food supply; predation; breeding sites; disease

e. population would have reached carrying capacity more quickly ii. carrying capacity would have been the
same

2. H0 is that the two species are distributed independently; H1 is that the two species are associated; column
totals are 12 and 8; row totals are 13 and 7; expected frequencies are 7.8, 5.2, 4.2 and 2.8; 1 degree of
freedom (rows – 1)(columns – 1); critical region with significance level of 0.05 is 3.83 or above; chi-squared =
9.38; which is in the critical region; so there is evidence at the 5% level of association between the species

3. a. both are groups of interacting organisms; in an area; population is one species whereas community is
multiple species

b. both are close relationships; between members of different species; both species benefit in mutualism
whereas one species benefits and the other is harmed in parasitism

c. both obtain carbon compounds/energy; from another organism; predators consume their prey; whereas
pathogens infect their host; predators are macroscopic whereas pathogens are microscopic

d. both are chemicals; secreted by an organism/species; to cause harm to another species; allelopathic
compounds are secreted by plants to kill/inhibit other plants; whereas antibiotics are secreted by
fungi/microbes to kill/inhibit bacteria/other microbes

Page 214 C4.2 Transfers of energy and matter

1. a. I = secondary consumers; II = primary consumers; III = producers

b. chemical energy

c. arrows represent heat; produced in organisms; lost from the ecosystem

d. three horizontal bars; showing energy flow to each trophic level; lowest for producers and highest for second
consumers lengths of bars proportional to energy values; bars labelled

e. 117/1278 × 100 = 9.1%

2. a. 8 ppmv (±1)

b. CO2 falls due to photosynthesis; photosynthesis exceeds respiration in summer; respiration exceeds
photosynthesis in winter

c. i. 419.4–410.7; = 8.7 ppmv increase from start of 2019 to end of 2022; 8.7/4 = 2.2 ppmv mean annual
increase

ii. 2050–2022 = 28 years; 2.2 × 28 = 61.6; 419.4 + 61.6 = 481 ppmv in 2050

iii. emissions due to human activities; combustion of fossil fuels; forest fires; drainage of wetlands and
decomposition of peat

3. a. energy enters in the form of sunlight; energy leaves in the form of heat; matter enters/leaves in migrating
organisms/leached nutrients/other example of matter that enter or leave an ecosystem

b. chemical elements can be endlessly converted from compound to compound; without changing; energy
conversions are not 100% efficient; some energy converted to heat; which cannot be converted back to other
energy forms; heat lost from ecosystems; so more must enter the ecosystem to sustain it

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c. energy from each trophic level; less energy available to each successive trophic level; after a few trophic
levels there is too little energy left to sustain another level

Page 233 D4.1 Natural selection

1. a. horn length decreased; males with larger horns killed; shorter-horned males survive; breed; pass on
genes for shorter horns to offspring; artificial selection for shorter horns

b. most large-horned males survive; large-horned males dominant/defeat smaller-horned males in fights;
sexual selection for larger-horned males

c. shows year-to-year fluctuation in horn size is not significant; shows that conclusions should be based on the
trend line rather than annual survey results

2. a. density-dependent factors have more intense effects as population density rises; negative feedback
effects; density-independent factors are not affected by population density; are often abiotic factors

b. predation/competition for food can act as a density-dependent selection pressure; high/low temperatures
can act as a density-independent selection pressure

3. allele frequencies in the gene pool are p and q; calculate genotype frequencies using the Hardy–Weinberg
equation; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0; calculate predicted phenotype frequencies; population is in genetic equilibrium if
predicted and actual phenotype frequencies correspond; suggested that neither allele is selected for

Page 233 D4.2 Stability and change

1. a. biomagnification; absorbed from food but not excreted; higher concentrations at each trophic level;
albatrosses are top carnivores/later stage in food chain

b. i. positive correlation; higher concentration of methyl mercury over time; ii. release of mercury into the
oceans; from industry

c. macroplastic debris; parents feed plastic wastes from the oceans to their young

2. a. many other species affected; keystone species may provide a habitat for other species; may provide food
for other species; may predate species that otherwise would become dominant; biodiversity reduced if
keystone species are lost; topping point may be passed leading to ecosystem collapse

b. high levels of mineral nutrients/nitrogen and phosphate (in water); excessive growth of algae/cyanobacteria;
death of algae/cyanobacteria due to insufficient light; decomposition by bacteria; high biochemical oxygen
demand from bacteria/decomposition; water becomes anoxic; death of fish/obligate aerobes

3. Hinewai/other example; agriculture/grazing ended; ecological succession starts; invasive/alien species

controlled; reintroduction of animals/plants; biodiversity increases; carbon capture; conservation of endangered
species

Page D4.3 Climate change

1. a. fluctuations in solar radiation; changes in weather patterns; such as El Niño

b. rise from 1965/1975; no consistent change between 1940 and 1975; rise from 1920 to 1940

c. burning of fossil fuels; deforestation; methane emissions; no clear evidence; rate of increase not rising

d. accelerating rate of melting of Greenland Ice Sheet; accelerating loss of ice from West Antarctic Ice Sheet;
melting of permafrost in the Arctic; melting of mountain glaciers in the Alps/Andes/other mountain ranges; loss
of resilience in Amazon rainforest

2. a. melting of sea ice; release of freshwater; rise in sea level; changes to ocean currents; changes in nutrient
upwelling; poleward movement of marine species; bleaching/loss of coral reefs; decrease in dissolved
oxygen concentrations

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b. melting of icecaps/glaciers; flooding of low-lying land; changes to weather patterns; more
hurricanes/typhoons/heatwaves/extreme weather events; more flooding; more droughts; changes to
distribution of rainfall; loss of forests; desertification; more forest fires; poleward/upslope movement of species;
species extinctions

3. burn less fossil fuels; use renewable fuels; insulate homes; plant trees; change to a vegan diet; eat locally
produced food; travel less; don’t fly; recycle/reuse everything; educate others; elect democratic representatives
who are committed to minimising climate change

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