COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PHYF 121

LABORATORY MANUAL

Trimester 1, 2019/20
 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ III

LABORATORY REPORT .................................................................................. IV

EXPERIMENT 1: ELECTRIC FIELDS AND POTENTIALS ..................... 1

EXPERIMENT 2: OHM’S LAW (ACTIVITY P48) ...................................... 4

EXPERIMENT 3: RC CIRCUIT: OSCILLOSCOPE STUDY .....................13

EXPERIMENT 4: RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT ..................................18

EXPERIMENT 5: ELECTROMAGNETISM .................................................21

EXPERIMENT 6: INTERACTIVE PHYSICS: ELECTRODYNAMICS ..25

EXPERIMENT 7: LR CIRCUIT (ACTIVITY P51) .....................................39

EXPERIMENT 8: LRC CIRCUIT (ACTIVITY P52)...................................44

EXPERIMENT 9: INDUCTION – MAGNET THROUGH A COIL .........51

EXPERIMENT 10: GEOMETRIC OPTICS: REFLECTION AND

REFRACTION......................................................................................................55

ii
 Introduction

The purpose of the experiments in this laboratory manual is to provide you a practical
approach to the concepts discussed in lectures.

The laboratory experiments will provide students the opportunity to acquire physical
measurements, using many different measuring devices. By using these devices, students
will benefit by learning various techniques during measurements. In addition, a virtual
experiment (interactive physics) allows students to see the motion of a charged particle
in electric and magnetic fields in various conditions. Furthermore, the usage of computer
for data acquisition is to prepare the students for more advance experiments in the future.

Students should read the instructions in this manual before attending each
laboratory session. There will be a brief presentation by the laboratory
instructor/demonstrator at the beginning of each session to introduce equipment and
techniques, with the assumption that students have read the instructions for that session.

iii
 Laboratory report

1. Cover Sheet. This should consist the title of the lab, the date on which the experiment
was done, and the names and student IDs of the group members.

2. Purpose. The report should begin with one or a few brief statements about the purpose
or purposes of the experiment. It should be consistent with the statement(s) in this
laboratory manual.

3. Equipment. A list of the equipment used should be included. This may be the same as
the list in this manual.

4. Procedure. The procedure used to do the experiment should be briefly described. The
procedure listed in the experiment instructions may be used as a guide, but it should
not be written in that form, which is called the imperative form (example: Measure
the temperature). In some fields, active form is used (example: I/We measured the
temperature). In writing the reports, passive form should be used (example: The
temperature was measured). The description does not have to be very lengthy, but
should have enough detail so that a reader knowledgeable in the field would
understand what was done.

5. Data. The data obtained in the experiment should be presented in an orderly form - in
a data table if possible. Include units for all quantities.

6. Analysis. The data will be analyzed with a view toward fulfilling the purpose stated at
the beginning of the report. When possible, part of the analysis may be combined
with the data table. If there is an accepted or expected value for a quantity that is to
be obtained via the experiment, the percentage error between the expected and
experimental value should be calculated. If the comparison is between two
experimental values, the percentage difference should be calculated. In many cases,
another part of the analysis will be the construction of a graph, which is often a very
helpful way of showing the relationship between two quantities.

7. Discussion. This section should tie the results of the experiment to the purpose(s).
Discuss your results. Sources of error and uncertainty should be discussed and how
they might affect the results. Suggest ways the experiment could be improved. Do not
use the vague term “human error”.

8. Conclusion. Any conclusions drawn from the results must refer back to the purpose(s)
of the experiment.

Notes:
-Each group submits only one report.
-NO PART of the report may be copied or paraphrased from another group. In
any such case both the groups will be given ZERO.
The instructions in the manual should not be submitted as part of the report.

iv
 Experiment 1: Electric Fields and Potentials

Purpose:
To investigate the electric field lines and the equipotential surfaces around charged
conductors, and the relationship between them.

Equipment:
A sheet of carbon-impregnated paper with a configuration of conductors, power supply,
multimeter, corkboard, patch cord wire, alligator clips.

Theory:
Electric field lines, also sometimes called lines of force, are imaginary lines in space that
are parallel to the electric field vectors E. The E is defined as the force F acting on a positive
test charge at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge, qo.
 
E  F qo

A convenient aid to visualize electric field patterns is to draw lines pointing in the same
direction as the electric field vector, E at any point. This vector is tangent to the electric
field line at each point. The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular
to the lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field in that region. In other words,
E is large when the electric field lines are close together and small when they are far apart.

Equipotential surfaces are imaginary surfaces in space over which the electric potential is
constant. The surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an equipotential surface.
If it were not, then the free electrons in the conductor would move about, meaning that
electric currents would exist in the conductor. But any currents that may temporarily exist
at the moment that a charge is put on a conductor quickly decay, which in turn means that
all points inside and on the surface of the conductor must be at the same potential.

Ex   V x
The electric field, E is proportional to the rate of change of the electric potential, V as shown
above. Since the rate of change is zero parallel to an equipotential surface (the potential
remains constant), there is no component of the field parallel to the equipotential surface.
So the electric field, and therefore the electric field lines, must be always perpendicular to
the equipotential surfaces and its direction is from higher to lower potential.

1
Procedure:

28 V
To power supply
Alligator clip

Tack Conducting dot

Carbon-impregnated
sheet

Corkboard

Figure 1

Constructing equipotential curves

a) Center the carbon-impregnated sheet on the corkboard.
b) Push a tack through the center of the conducting dot (already placed on the sheet) so that
it is tightly against the dot, making good electrical contact.
c) Push another tack through the other conducting dot (already placed on the sheet).
d) Draw the identical design on the graph paper provided.
e) Set the power supply to 28 volts.
f) Connect the ground (power supply) to the tack, using a black wire and alligator clip and
the positive terminal (power supply) to the other tack, using a red wire and alligator clip.
g) Connect the banana plug end of the red pointy probe to the positive terminal of the
multimeter. Connect another banana plug end of the black pointy probe to the negative
terminal of the multimeter.
h) Touch or clip the black probe to the tack that connected to the ground of the power
supply.
i) Touch the red probe to the carbon sheet near the conducting dot and find the point on
the carbon sheet where the multimeter reads 2.00 volts. (Do not push down so hard
that the probe makes a hole in the carbon sheet. Find the corresponding spot on your
graph paper and make a small mark there. Do not make any marks on the carbon
sheets).
Note: Do not attempt to make any measurements by placing the leads on the grid
marks on the conductive paper. Touch the voltmeter leads only on solid
black areas of the paper.
j) Move the probe about 2.0 centimeters from the spot found in step i) and find another
point where the potential is 2.00 volts.
k) Mark this spot on your graph also.
l) Continue in this manner until you have enough marks on your graph paper so that you
can draw a line corresponding to the 2.00-volt equipotential. (Note: Since we are
restricted to two dimensions, we will get equipotential lines instead of surfaces, but the
principle is still the same.
m) Repeat the steps above and find the points where the potential is 6.0 V, 10.0 V, 14.0 V,
18.0 V and 22.0 V.
n) Label each line/curve on your graph paper.

2
 Constructing the field lines
a) Connect the banana plug end of the black and red pointy probes, respectively, into the
ground and positive terminals of the multimeter.
b) Set the multimeter to the 3-volt range.
c) Touch the black probe to the carbon sheet about ½ centimeter away from the conducting
dot.
d) Now hold the red probe parallel to and touching the black probe. (Note: Their pointy
ends are then about one centimeter apart).
e) Without moving the black probe, move the red one around the black one until the
multimeter reading is maximum. (Note: The two probes should continue to be in contact
during this process. This will take a little practice. You can tape them together if that is
more convenient).
f) Get the point of maximum voltage as accurately as you can, and then make marks on
your graph paper corresponding to the positions of both probes. Also observe exactly
where the red probe is.
g) Now put the black probe on the spot where the red probe was and repeat the operation.
Work your way one centimeter at a time all the way to the dot.
h) Connect all the marks that you have just made on your graph paper with a smooth line.
This is one field line.
i) Now start at one end of the conducting dot and get another field line in the same way.
(Note: You will find that this one will curve very noticeably towards the dot).
j) Find a third field line starting about halfway between your other two starting points.
Then find a fourth field line starting at the other end of the conducting line.
k) Show where the electric field is relatively strong and weak on your drawing (graph
paper).

Analysis and Discussions:

1) Look at the drawing you have made. What can you say about the directions of the field
lines relative to the equipotentials? Do your results agree approximately with theory?
Think about how the magnitude of the electric field is related to the rate of change of
the potential with distance.
2) Observe on the separation of the equipotentials. Are they same distance apart
everywhere? Why?
3) Use the technique you have learnt to draw the equipotential curves and electric field
lines for the following figures:
a)

+ +

b) c)
- +
-
- +
+ -
- +
-
- +
-
- +
-

3
 Experiment 2: Ohm’s Law (Activity P48)

Purpose:
Section A
To verify the expressions for the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in parallel and
in series.

Section B and C
To investigate the relationship between current and voltage for Ohmic and non-Ohmic
resistive elements.

Equipment:
3 resistors (220 , 330 , and 560 )
1 multimeter
1 breadboard
ScienceWorkshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
DataStudio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) – 10  Resistor, 100  Resistor, 0.22 A Bulb
Patch Cords

Theory:
Section A
When several resistors are connected in series, their combined resistance is the sum of their
individual resistances:
Req = i Ri (1)

When several resistors are connected in parallel, their combined resistance is given by:
1/Req = i 1/Ri (2)

Section B and C
Ohm discovered that when the voltage (potential difference) across a resistor changes, the
current through the resistor changes. He expressed this as
V
I
R

where I is current, V is voltage (potential difference), and R is resistance. Current is directly

proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. In other words, as the
voltage increases, so does the current. The proportionality constant is the value of the
resistance. Since the current is inversely proportional to the resistance, as the resistance
increases, the current decreases.

4
A resistor is ‘Ohmic’ if as voltage across the resistor is increased, a graph of voltage versus
current shows a straight line (indicating a constant resistance). The slope of the line is the
value of the resistance. A resistor is ‘non-Ohmic’ if the graph of voltage versus current is
not a straight line. For example, if resistance changes as voltage changes, the graph of
voltage versus current might show a curve with a changing slope.

For certain resistor, the value of its resistance does not change appreciably. However, for a
light bulb, the resistance of the filament will change as it heats up and cools down. At high
AC frequencies, the filament doesn’t have time to cool down, so it remains at a nearly
constant temperature and the resistance stays relatively constant. At low AC frequencies
(e.g., less than one Hertz), the filament has time to change temperature. As a consequence,
the resistance of the filament changes dramatically and the resulting change in current
through the filament is interesting to watch.

Procedure and Data Analysis:

Section A
1. Examine the three small resistors. Note that they have several color bands. Use the color
code given on page 838 of your textbook to determine their resistance and tolerance.
2. Now use one of the multimeters to measure the resistance of each. Record the nominal
and the measured resistance.
3. Use the breadboard on the electronics kit to connect the three resistors in series. Measure
the equivalent resistance of this combination using a multimeter.
4. Connect the three resistors in parallel and measure the resistance of this combination
using a multimeter.
5. Now connect the two largest resistors in parallel and the smallest one in series with the
parallel pair. Measure the resistance of this combination using a multimeter.
6. Verify the expressions for the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in steps 4
and 5. Calculate the percentage error.

Table 1
Resistor Theoretical value Experimental % error
() value ()
R1 220
R2 330
R3 560
Three resistors in
series
Three resistors in
parallel
Two largest
resistors in parallel
and the smallest
one in series

5
 Section B: Activity P48 Resistor
Use the ‘Output’ feature of the interface (Figure 1) to supply voltage to a ten-ohm resistor.
Use DataStudio to measure the output voltage across the resistor and the current through the
resistor (the current drawn from the interface)

Use the program to display the voltage and current. Use a plot of voltage versus current to
confirm the resistance value of the resistor.

Figure 1

Part I: Computer Setup for Resistor

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn
on the computer.
2. Connect banana plug patch cords into the ‘OUTPUT’ ports on the interface.
3. Open the document titled by following the procedure mentioned below:
 On the desktop, double-click the DataStudio icon.
 Double-click Open Activity.
 Select DataStudio folder.
 Double-click Library.
 Double-click Physics
 Select P48 Ohm’s Law.DS
4. The DataStudio document opens with a Signal Generator window and a Scope display.
The document also has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the Workbook.
5. If the Signal Generator doesn’t pop up, you can get it by following the procedure below:
 Click the ‘Setup’ button on top of the DataStudio window.
 The list of Sensors will pop up.
 Double-click ‘Output’ at the end of the Sensor lists.
 The Signal Generator will come out (Figure 2)

Figure 2

6. The Scope display will show the voltage from the ‘Output’ of the interface to the ten-
ohm resistor and the output current from the interface through the resistor.
7. The Signal Generator is set to produce a triangle wave at 60 Hz. It is set to ‘Auto’ so it
will automatically start or stop the signal when you start or stop measuring data.
8. Set the amplitude value to 3V.

6
9. In DataStudio, make sure that ‘Measure Output Voltage’ and ‘Measure Output
Current’ are checked in the Signal Generator window.
10. Arrange the Scope display and the Signal Generator window so you can see both of
them.
11. Sketch the graph.

Part II: Equipment Setup for Resistor

You do not need to calibrate a sensor because, in this activity, the interface is the sensor.
1. Construct the circuit shown in the Figure 3 using the output from the Signal Interface as
the voltage source.

Part III: Data Recording for Resistor

1. Begin measuring data. (Click ‘Start’ in DataStudio.)
 Observe the Scope display of Voltage and Current. Adjust the vertical axis or the
horizontal axis if necessary.
2. Observe the trace of voltage vs current for a few seconds and then stop measuring data.

Signal Interface
A B C Output

Model CI-6512
KIT 8.2mH R L C Circuit
Maximum Working
Voltage: 10V

100 150

33 Bulb

100
10 7.5V
0.22A 330

Figure 3

7
 Adjust vertical
axis here

Figure 4

Adjust horizontal
axis here

Part IV: Analyzing the Data for Resistor

1. Use the ‘Scope’s built-in analysis tools to determine the voltage and current for the ten-
ohm resistor. Take at least 3 set of data and record them in Table 2.
 In DataStudio, click the ‘Smart Tool’. Move the ‘Smart Tool’ so it shows the
coordinates of a point on the trace of voltage versus current. Result: The ‘X-Y’
coordinates are current and voltage.

Table 2
10 ohms
No. X (Current) Y (Voltage) R = V/I
1

Average Resistance

8
 Figure 5

2. Use the coordinates of the point on the trace to determine the ratio of voltage versus
current. Record the ratio as the resistance of the resistor in Table 2.
 In DataStudio, the ‘X’ coordinate is the current and the ‘Y’ coordinate is the voltage.
Divide one by the other to calculate the resistance.
3. Sketch the graph.
4. Replace the ten-ohm resistor with a 100-ohm resistor.
5. Adjust the horizontal scaling (x-axis) in the Scope display as needed.
6. Repeat the experiment. Record the new ratio as the resistance of the resistor in Table 3.
7. Find the percentage error between the nominal and the measurement resistance in Table
4.

Table 3
100 ohms
No. X (Current) Y (Voltage) R = V/I
1

Average Resistance

Table 4
Ohmic Resistor
Theory Experiment % error
10 
100 

9
 Section C: Activity P48  Light Bulb
Use the ‘Output’ feature of the interface to supply voltage to small light bulb. Use
DataStudio to measure the output voltage across the light bulb filament and the current
through the filament (the current drawn from the interface).

Use the program to display the voltage and current. Use a plot of voltage versus current to
confirm the resistance value of the resistor.

Part I: Computer Setup for Light Bulb Filament

1. Change the Amplitude and Frequency of the output AC waveform. Click the Signal
Generator window to make it active.
2. Click the Amplitude value to highlight it. Type in ‘2.5’ as the new value. Press <enter>
or <return> on the keyboard to record your change.

Figure 6

3. Click the Frequency value to highlight it. Type in ‘0.30’ as the new value. Press <enter>
or <return> on the keyboard to record your change.
4. Adjust the sweep speed in the Scope display to 50 samples/second.
 In DataStudio, click the ‘down’ arrow next to ‘samples/s’.

Part II: Equipment Setup for Light Bulb Filament

1. Construct the circuit shown in the Figure 7 using the output from the Signal Interface as
the voltage source.

Part III: Data Recording for Light Bulb Filament

1. Start measuring data. Observe the Scope display of voltage versus current for the light
bulb filament. Adjust the vertical and horizontal scales if necessary.
2. Wait a few seconds and then stop measuring data.

10
 Signal Interface
A B C Output

Model CI-6512
KIT 8.2mH R L C Circuit
Maximum Working
Voltage: 10V

100 150

33 Bulb

100
10 7.5V
0.22A 330

Figure 7

Part IV: Analyzing the Data for Light Bulb Filament

1. Use the built-in analysis tools in the Scope display to find the coordinates at several
points on the trace of voltage versus current. Take at least 3 set of data and record them
in Table 5. Calculate the ratio of voltage to current at each point.
2. Sketch the graph.

Table 5
Light bulb
No. X (Current) Y (Voltage) R = V/I
1

11
Average resistance (ten-ohm resistor) = ___________ volt/amp

Average resistance (100 ) = ___________ volt/amp

Questions:
1. What is the relationship between current and voltage in a simple resistor? What is the
relationship between current and voltage in the filament of an incandescent light bulb?
2. Compare the ratio of voltage and current from the Scope display to the resistance of the
resistor(s) used.
3. Does each resistor you used have a constant resistance?
4. Does the light bulb filament have a constant resistance (constant ratio of voltage to
current? Why or why not?)
5. The slope of the graph for the light bulb is not symmetric. Why is the trace on the Scope
different when the filament is heating up compared to the trace when the filament is
cooling down?

12
 Experiment 3: RC Circuit: Oscilloscope Study

Purpose:
In this experiment, the oscilloscope will be used to determine the time constant of an RC
circuit as the capacitor is continually charged and discharged by an ac signal voltage. After
performing this experiment and analyzing the data, you should be able to:
1. Explain the charging characteristics of a capacitor with ac voltage.
2. Appreciate how the oscilloscope can be used to monitor electrical characteristics and
to make electrical measurements.
3. Describe how an RC time constant may be measured from an oscilloscope trace.

Equipment:
Function generator (square wave), oscilloscope, three resistors (R1 = 2.2 k, R2 = 1 k, and
R3 = 4.7 k), three capacitors (C1 = 0.1 F, C2 = 0.047 F, and C3 = 0.22 F, connecting
wires, multimeter, (Optional) unknown resistor wrapped in masking tape to conceal value.

Theory:
The oscilloscope can be used to study many ac circuit characteristics. The screen display of
voltage versus time allows observation of a variety of measurements. In particular, in an RC
(resistance-capacitance) circuit, the charging effect of the capacitor can be visually
observed. And using the horizontal time scale, the time constant of the charging process can
be readily determined.

When an RC circuit is connected to a dc voltage source, charge must flow into the capacitor
before the voltage across the capacitor can change. This takes time. As the voltage across
the capacitor becomes closer to that of the source, the flow of charge becomes slower and
slower. The capacitor voltage approaches the supply voltage as an asymptote—coming ever
closer, but never getting there.

When the capacitor starts with no voltage across it, V = 0 at t = 0, the changing voltage is
given by the formula
  
V  Vo 1  e t / RC  Vo 1  e t /   (1)
where e is the base of the natural logarithms (e = 2.718 ..), Vo is the voltage of the dc source,
R is the resistance in the circuit, and C is the capacitance. The quantity  = RC is the time
constant of the circuit.

After a time of one time constant, t =  = RC, the voltage is

   
V  Vo 1  e RC / RC  Vo 1  e 1  Vo 0.63
V
or  0.63 (2)
Vo
That is, the voltage cross the capacitor is 0.63 (or 63%) of its maximum value (Fig. 1). For
a dc voltage source, the capacitor voltage further increases to Vo and maintains this voltage

13
unless discharged.

However, for an ac voltage source, the capacitor voltage increases and decreases as the
voltage of the applied signal alternately increases and decreases. For example, suppose that
a square-wave ac signal as illustrated in Fig. 2 is applied to the circuit. This has the effect
of continuously charging and discharging the capacitor. The voltage across the capacitor
increases according to Eq. 1 and then decreases according to the relationship*
V  Vo e t / RC (3)
* It should be noted that the high point on the charging curve and the low point on the decay
curve in Fig. 2 are not V = Vo and V = 0, respectively, since it takes infinite times for the
capacitor to charge and discharge to these values. However, if the time constant is several
times smaller than one-half the period T of the square wave, T = 1/f, then to a good approx-
imation the high and low points of the curve may be taken to correspond to V= Vo and V=0,
respectively.

Voltage, V

Vo

t = RC Time, t

Figure 1: Voltage rise. A typical graph of voltage versus time for a capacitor charging in an
RC circuit. In a time t = RC, the capacitor charges to 63% of its maximum value.

On an oscilloscope, the time base or the magnitude of the horizontal time axis is determined
by the TIME/DIV knob. From this control setting, you can determine time functions for
traces on the screen. For example, suppose two complete wave cycles of a stationary sinu-
soidal pattern covers 6.66 horizontal divisions with a TIME/DIV setting of 5 ms/div.

Then, the time for these two cycles is time = Time/div  div = 5 ms/div  6.66 div = 33.3
ms. So, the time for one cycle or the period of the wave is T = 33.3 ms/2 = 16.7 ms. (What
is the frequency of the wave?)

The time constant of an RC circuit can be determined from a stationary oscilloscope pattern
of the capacitor voltage versus time. This is done by finding the horizontal distance (time)
needed for the trace to reach 0.63 Vo.

14
 charge charge
Vo

Voltage
Applied
signal
discharge discharge

V
Capacitor
Voltage V = 0.63 Vo
voltage

Time
t = RC
Time for one cycle
(period T)

Figure 2: Charging and discharging. When a square-wave signal is applied to a capacitor in

an RC circuit, the capacitor periodically charges and discharges, as shown here on a voltage
versus time graph.

On an oscilloscope, time is measured as a horizontal distance. The scale is set by the knob
marked TIME/DIV.

Example 1: If the horizontal distance from the starting point to the point where the trace
reaches 63% of the maximum voltage Vo, as shown in Fig. 1, is 4.4 divisions (1 division 
1 cm), the time for 4.4 horizontal divisions is equal to one time constant ().

With the TIME/DIV set at 50 s/div, the value of the RC time constant would be (4.4 div)
 (50 s/div) = 220 s.

Procedure:
1. Turn on the oscilloscope and function generator. Set the function generator frequency
to 100 Hz. Connect the square-wave (TTL) output (or OUTPUT SYNC) of the function
generator directly to the vertical input terminal of the oscilloscope (CH1 or CH2).
Obtain a stationary trace of one or two cycles of the square-wave pattern on the
screen. Adjust the vertical VOLTS/DIV until the pattern covers at least 4 divisions,
high.
2. Then, set up the circuit as shown in Fig. 3, with R = R1 = 2.2 k and C = C1 = 0.1 F.
Have the instructor check the circuit before attaching the final lead to the oscilloscope.
3. Close the oscilloscope circuit by connecting the wire to the circuit and note the pattern.
Carefully adjust the trigger controls so that the curve starts upward at the left end of the
trace. The exponential rise time can be observed in greater detail by increasing the
sweep rate (decreasing the TIME/DIV). Adjust the time (TIME/DIV) until the rising
curve extends well across the screen.
4. The time constant is represented by the horizontal distance from the point where the
trace starts to move up to the point where it reaches 63% of its maximum value (see Fig.
1. The time is found by multiplying the horizontal distance by the TIME/DIV setting

15
 (see Example 1). Record in the data table.

Signal Oscilloscope
generator
C

Figure 3: RC circuit. Circuit diagram for the experimental

procedure for studying RC circuits.

 If you are using Tektronix TBS 1202B-EDU Digital Oscilloscope, replace the above Steps
1 to 4 with the following:
1) Turn on the oscilloscope and function generator. Set the function generator frequency
to 100 Hz.
2) Then, set up the circuit as shown in Fig. 3, with R = R1 = 2.2 k and C = C1 = 0.1 F.
3) Close the oscilloscope circuit by connecting the wire from vertical input terminal of
the oscilloscope (CH1 or CH2) to the circuit. Push the Autoset button and note the
pattern.
The oscilloscope sets the vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls automatically. If you want
to optimize the display of the waveform, you can manually adjust these controls.
4) The time constant is represented by the horizontal distance from the point where the
trace starts to move up to the point where it reaches 63% of its maximum value (see
Fig. 1. The time is found by multiplying the horizontal distance by the TIME/DIV
setting (see Example 1). Alternatively, you can execute the following steps to find the
time:
i. Push the Measure button to see the Measure Menu.
ii. Turn the Multipurpose knob to highlight and push the knob to select Minimum and
Maximum. Take note of the values. The minimum should be zero, and maximum
should be around 5.0 V.
iii. Push the Menu On/Off button to hide the menu.
iv. Adjust the Horizontal Scale (seconds/division), Horizontal Position,
Vertical Scale (volts/division), and Vertical Position knobs until the pattern
covers most of the screen.
v. Push the Cursor button to see the Cursor Menu.
vi. Push the Type Off side-menu button and select Time.
vii. Push the Cursor 1 option button and turn the Multipurpose knob to place the cursor
at the point where voltage is zero.
viii. Push the Cursor 2 option button and turn the Multipurpose knob to place the cursor
at the point where voltage is 0.63 of the noted maximum voltage in Step 4) ii.
ix. Record the  time in the data table

5. Open the circuit and repeat procedures 3 and 4 with R = R2 = 1 k and R = R3 = 4.7 k.
6. On a Cartesian graph, plot the experimental  versus R. Determine the slope of the
straight line that best fits the data. To what does the value of the slope correspond?
7. Replace R with R1 = 2.2 k, and repeat procedures 3 and 4 with C = C2 = 0.047 F and
C = C3 = 0.22 F.

16
8. On a Cartesian graph, plot the experimental  versus C. (You should have three data
points for  with R1. Why?) Determine the slope of the straight line that best fits the data.
To what does the value of the slope correspond?
9. Compute the time constants for each of the RC combinations using the known R and C
values and compare with the experimentally determined values by finding the
percentage errors.
10. (Optional) Use your knowledge gained in this experiment to experimentally determine
the value of the unknown resistor. Remove the masking tape after doing so and compute
the percentage error

Data:
Table 1 (Purpose: To determine the effect of R on the time constant.)
R C Divisions Sweep Exp. time Computed % error
( ) ( ) for 0.63 rise time/div constant RC
Case 1
R1C1
Case 2
R2C1
Case 3
R3C1

Slope of the  versus R plot: ____________________

Percentage error between slope and C1: _________________

Table 2 (Purpose: To determine the effect of C on the time constant)

R C Divisions Sweep Exp. time Computed % error
( ) ( ) for 0.63 rise time/div constant RC
Case 1
R1C2
Case 2
R1C3

Slope of the  versus C plot: ____________________

Percentage error between slope and R1: _____________________

Questions:
1. Based on experimental results, under what conditions are the charging times of different
RC circuits the same?
2. 
In the form V  Vo 1  e
t / 

, the  = RC in the exponential must have units of time.
(Why?) Show that this is the case.
3. How could the value of an unknown capacitance be determined using the experimental
procedures? Show explicitly by assuming a value for an experimentally determined
time constant.

17
 Experiment 4: Resistivity Measurement

Purpose:
To determine the resistivity of a piece of wire using the Wheatstone Bridge

Equipment:
Wheatstone/meter bridge, 5.1  carbon resistor, 2 V dryfit battery, switch, 70 cm constantan
SWG26 wire, one micrometer screw gauge, one meter rule, one zero-centered
galvanometer, one jockey.

Theory:
The resistance R of a wire is related to the wire length l and cross sectional area A of the
wire by the formula below:
l
R
A

Where  represents a characteristic of a wire material called resistivity. To determine  the

predetermined values of R, l and A has to be found for that metal. SI unit for resistivity is
m (Ohmmeter)

Determination of R can be obtained by a Wheatstone Bridge or a potentiometer experiment.

When a Wheatstone bridge is balanced. Resistance x and y in the two fixed arms will be in
ratio with the length of the corresponding bridge wires l1 and l2.
Therefore
x l1

y l2

Procedure:
1. Prepare the apparatus shown in Figure 1. Do not switch on the circuit at S until all the
connection is done.
X P

G Figure 1

a b

2. Cut approximately 70 cm of the Constantan wire SWG 26 provided and screw it to the
X arm of the Wheatstone bridge.
3. Connect the 5.1  carbon resistor on the other arm as P. Use the connection wires

18
 provided to fasten the connections.
4. Now switch on the circuit. Touch jockey on one end of the sliding wire
5. Now, place jockey on the other end of the sliding wire.
Observation: You should see the galvanometer pointer deflecting right and left of
each ends of the meter as procedure 4) and 5) are carried out. If the observation is
true, then you may proceed with the next step. Otherwise, check the connections again
for any open circuit in the connected resistors.
6. Balance the bridge by sliding the jockey on the bridge wire. Observe the galvanometer
pointer deflects from left to right or otherwise. Practice sliding the jockey on the bridge
once or twice. Observe the Galvanometer as you slide the jockey slowly from left to
right. (Do not press the jockey while sliding on the wire).
7. Find the balance position using the sliding jockey. The balanced bridge should be in
the 30 cm to 70 cm region of the sliding wire. If the balanced bridge is outside the
specified range, adjust the length of wire X to make it either shorter or longer to achieve
the desired results.
8. Record the values of P, a1 and b1.
9. Reverse the polarity of the battery and balance the bridge once again. Measure the
length of a2 and b2 for the second equilibrium position.
10. Now, change the positions of X and P and determine the third balanced positions.
Record them as a3 and b3.
11. Change the polarity of the battery once more and balance the bridge again. Record the
values as a4 and b4.
(Note: The purpose of changing the positions of X and P is to eliminate errors in end-
corrections of the Wheatstone bridge)
12. Calculate the l1 by averaging the values of a1 a2, b3 and b4.
13. Calculate the l2 by averaging the values of b1, b2, a3 and a4.
R l1
14. Calculate the resistance of X using 
P l2
l1
(Resistance of X will be R  P)
l2
15. Determine the length x of wire X between the two terminals C and D. Use a micrometer
screw gauge and determine the diameter of X. Measure the diameter in 3 different
places along the wire and calculate the average diameter. Record the readings.
16. Calculate the resistivity of the wire using the expression below:
RA D 2
 where A = Cross sectional area of wire ( )
x 4
R  resistanceof wire
and
x  Length of wire X
Therefore
RA l1 D2
  P
x l2 4x

17. Calculate the % error between the measured and standard value of the wire.
18. Explain the rationale for switching the circuits as in procedure (f). (g) and (h).

19
Data and Analysis:
Resistance for P: 5.1 

a) Average measurement for l1 and l2

l1 measurement (cm)
a1 a2 b3 b4 Average l1

l2 measurement (cm)
b1 b2 a3 a4 Average l2

b) Wire length measurement

Length of wire X (x  0.05) cm

c) Diameter measurement
Wire Diameter (D  0.005) mm
1 2 3 Average Diameter, D

Resistivity of wire X is _______________m

Note:

Typical value of the resistivity of Constantan wire of SWG 26 will be 4.4710-7 m. The
SWG (Standard Wire Gauge) reading will adhere to the 1EC standard and therefore will
have a diameter of approximate 0.45 mm. Confirm this with the micrometer screw gauge
measurement.

20
 Experiment 5: Electromagnetism

Purpose:
The purpose pf the experiment is to give the student a clearer picture of what actually
electromagnetism is all about. They are required to relate what they have been taught in
their lectures in this experiment.

Equipment:
Compass, solenoids, DC power supply, AC power supply (0-6 V), galvanometer, digital
multimeter, 2 bar magnets, spring, iron core, blank A4 papers, 2 retort stands, connecting
wires.

Procedure:
Part I: Constructing magnetic field lines produced by a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet
Place the bar magnet on a blank paper which is on a flat table. Sketch the outline of he
magnet. Now place the compass at the left and along the center of the bar magnet. Sketch
the direction (by using arrow) of the north shown by the compass needle. Then move the
compass up by 0.5 cm and record the direction on the paper. Repeat the “direction finding”
procedure for every 0.5 cm steps all along the perimeter of the bar magnet, After finish
performing just along the perimeter, join all the arrows and the resulting line is called a
magnetic field line or magnetic field contour. After understanding the method to construct
the field line, generate 2nd field line further away from the 1st line on the same sheet of paper.

After finishing with the bar magnet, place the 400-turn solenoid on a new blank shet of
paper. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1. Pass a small current though the solenoid.
Repeat the procedure of “direction finding” along the solenoid. Construct more than one
field line.

What can you deduce from these constructions?

Part II: Solenoid and Electromagnetic induction

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2. You can use the same 400-turn solenoid. With
the core in the solenoid, use a magnetic material (pin, clip or metallic ruler) to test the
strength of the attraction force produced by the magnetic field. Now remove the core
and repeat the experiment. Note: do not change the current in the circuit. What can
you deduce about the strength of the magnetic field with and without the core?

2. Now using the same circuit but without the core deduce qualitatively the strength for
different solenoids (200 and 800-turn). Which solenoid produces higher field strength?

3. Fig. 3 shows a core place only slight inside a 400-turn solenoid. The power supply used
in this investigation is AC. What will happen to the iron core when the power supply is
turned on?

21
4. Fig. 4 shows a bar magnet, which is moved up and down into the solenoid (200, 400 or
800-turn) connected to a galvanometer. What happens to the indicator of the
galvanometer? Explain your observation using Faraday’s and Lenz’s law.

5. Now instead of moving the bar magnet with your hands, connect it to a spring and then
allow it to oscillate up and down into the solenoid. What is the effect of the induced emf
in the coil on the oscillation? Hint: compare its oscillation without the solenoid.

Part III: Transformer

1. Set up the coils and core as shown in Fig. 5. In the diagram, the coil to the left will be
referred to as the primary coil, and the one to the right will be the secondary coil. Note
that we are putting in an AC to the primary at a fixed voltage, and reading the output at
the secondary.
2. With the 400-turn coil as the primary and the 400-turn coil as the secondary, adjust the
input voltage to 6 volts AC. Measure the output voltage and record your results in Table
1.
3. Repeat step 2 after inserting the straight iron core piece (Fig. 6a). Record your results.
4. Instead of using the straight iron core, use the open U-shaped core (Fig. 6b). Record
your results.
5. Now by placing the straight iron core over the U-shaped core, record your results.
6. Using the core configuration, which gives the highest output voltage ratio (transformer
ratio), try all combinations of primary and secondary coils. Use a constant input voltage
of 6 volts AC. Record your results in Table 2.

Voltage ratio = Secondary voltage / Primary

voltage

Compass
dc
Figure 1

Iron core

dc Figure 2

ac Figure 3

22
 Bar magnet Galvanometer

Figure 4

ac Figure 5
ac volts

Iron core

Figure 6
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
(a) (b) (c)

Data:
Table 1
Number of Turns Input V Output V Core Voltage
Primary Coil Secondary Coil Ratio
400 400 6.0 V -
400 400 6.0 V Straight-shaped
400 400 6.0 V U-shaped
400 400 6.0 V -shaped

Core configuration: ________________________

Table 2
Number of Turns Input V Output V Voltage
Primary Coil Secondary Coil Ratio
400 400 6V
200 400 6V
200 800 6V
400 800 6V
400 200 6V
800 200 6V
800 400 6V

23
Analysis:
1. Which core configuration gives the maximum transfer of electromagnetic effect to the
secondary coil? Develop a theory to explain the differences between configurations.

2. From your data in Table 2, for a primary having a constant number of turns, graph the
resulting output voltage versus the number of turns in the secondary. What type of
mathematical relationship exists between numbers of turns of wire and the resulting
output voltage? Is the data ideal? Why or why not?

3. Consider further improvements to your transformer. What additional changes might you
make to increase the transfer from one coil to the other?

24
 Experiment 6: Interactive Physics: Electrodynamics

Introduction
In this exploration, you will investigate the electric field of electric charges, the magnetic
field of a bar magnet, and the electric flux through a surface. You will also investigate the
behavior of a charged particle in electric and magnetic fields. You can changes the velocity
of the particle, the sign of its charge and the magnitude of the electric field and magnetic
field.

This lab contains explorations to introduce you to the physics of charged particles in electric
and magnetic fields. You will be working on these explorations: Electric Fields, Gauss's
Law, Electric Potential, and Magnetic Fields.

The animated Active Figures in the exploration are copyright of Brooks/Cole, Thomson
Learning.

Electric Fields

Coulomb's Law
1. Direction of electric force
a. What can you say about the directions of the electric forces on the charges
of the same sign?

b. What can you say about the directions of the electric forces on the charges
of opposite signs?

2. Magnitude of electric force

a. Is the magnitude of electric force on each of the two charged particles the
same?

b. The animation shows two point charged particles of equal magnitude of

charge. If the particles carry different charges, will the magnitude of electric
force on one particle be different from the magnitude on the other particle?
Briefly explain why.

25
 c. Bring one of the two charged particles closer to the other.
i. What happens to the strength of electric force on each charge?

ii. Are the magnitudes of electric forces on the both particles the same
or different?

iii. Do the forces obey Newton's 3rd law?

3. Name the charged particles. Based on the values displayed in the animation,
a. What is the name of the positive charged particle (an alpha particle, a
neutron, a proton, an electron ...)?

b. What is the name of the negative charged particle?

The Electric Field

1. The top-right figure indicates the strength and direction of electric field created by a
positive point charge at point P. The bottom-right figure indicates the electric field
created by a negative point charge.

a. What can you say about the directions of electric field created by positive
and negative point charges?

a. Drag the point P (in the either figure) to a location closer to the point charge
q, what happens to the strength of the electric field at the new location?

b. Write an equation describing how the strength of electric field created by a

point charge q changes with the distance r from the point charge.

26
 2. The top-left figure indicates the electric force acting on a positive charge q0 when it
is placed at the location of point P. Using the displayed values of the electric force
and electric field in the top-left and top-right figures, calculate the value of charge
carried by the positive charge q0.

Electric Field Lines

1. Using the active figure, set the charge of the particles according to the table below
and fill up the information in the table:
The charge of the particles Draw the pattern of the What can you say about
electric field the direction of the field
lines?

(a) Left particle : + 2 C

Right particle : - 2 C

(b) Left particle : + 1 C

Right particle : - 2 C

(c) Left particle : + 1 C

Right particle : + 1 C

(d) Left particle : - 2 C

Right particle : - 2 C

27
 2. Both figures below show the electric field lines around a pair of point charges.

A A
q1 q2

B
B

a. Determine the sign (positive, negative, or neutral) of the point charges q1 and
q2.

a. Is |q1| > |q2|, |q2| < |q1|, or |q1| = |q2|? Briefly explain why.

b. In the figures, draw the electric field vectors at points A and B (if the electric
field at the location is not zero).

Motion of Charged Particles in an Electric Field

1. Does the motion of the charged particle obey 2nd Newton’s Law?

2. State the relationship between the electric field and the acceleration.

3. Does the sign of the charged particle effect the direction of acceleration? Briefly
explain.

4. If the charge of the particle is to be set zero, how does the path look like? Explain.

28
 5. If the field strength is to be set at 400 N/C, with a particle charge of 2.0e C and a
horizontal velocity of 2 000 000 m/s:

a. Which plate will it strike?

a. What is the required horizontal velocity so that it will land at the furthest end
of the plate?

b. How long is the time taken for it to strike onto the plate?

Gauss's Law

Electric Flux
1. Click on the segments labeled 1, 2, and 3 and determine whether the electric flux
through an area is positive, zero, or negative.

a. Segment 1: The electric flux through the area is (positive, zero or negative)

a. Segment 2: The electric flux through the area is (positive, zero or negative)

b. Segment 3: The electric flux through the area is (positive, zero or negative)

2. If the closed surface does not carry any charge, determine the total electric flux
through the entire surface of the surface. Briefly explain.

29
A Sphere Inside a Spherical Shell
1. Set the parameters of the inner solid sphere and outer conducting shell according to
the following and complete the table.
Inner solid Charge Charge Graph of E against r (Plot the graph here)
sphere on the on the
inner outer
solid conducting
sphere shell
 Insulator +2 Q 0
 E
Conductor

r
a b c
Determine the equation of E in terms of Q and r at
the given positions:
(a) between a and b (when b>r>a)

(2𝑄)
𝐸=𝑘 (Example)
𝑟2

(b) between b and c (when c>r>b)

(c) greater than c (when r>c)

 Insulator +3 Q −1 Q
 E
Conductor

r
a b c

30
 Determine the equation of E in terms of Q and r at
the given positions:
(a) between a and b (when b>r>a)

(b) between b and c (when c>r>b)

(c) greater than c (when r>c)

 Insulator −3 Q 0
 E
Conductor

r
a b c

Determine the equation of E in terms of Q and r at

the given positions:
(a) between a and b (when b>r>a)

(b) between b and c (when c>r>b)

(c) greater than c (when r>c)

31
 Electric Potential

Electric Potential and Gravitational Potential

1. The left figure shows a uniform electric field and the right shows a uniform
gravitational field. Both are directed downward. If a particle is placed in the field, a
conservative force (electric force in electric field; gravitational force in gravitational
field) is acting on it. If the particle moves in the direction of conservative force, its
potential energy decreases. Set the Electric Field to 10 V/m and the Charge on Object
to +2 µC. Then, click the Release button.

a. What is the direction of electric force acting on the positive charged object?

b. As the object moves from point A to point B, what is the change in its electric
potential energy U?

c. State an equation to determine the value of potential difference V between

point A and point B.

d. Using the values in the animation, determine the distance d in both electric
field and gravitational field. Use g = 9.8 m/s2.

For electric field system:

Change in electric potential energy, U = J

Change in electric potential, V = V

Electric field, E = V/m

Charge, q = C

Show how to get distance, d:

32
 For gravitational field system

Change in gravitational potential energy, U = J

Mass, m = kg

Show how to get distance, d:

Electric Potential and Potential Energy

1. Move the negative (blue) charge q1 in the upper left square closer to the positive
point charge q2. How does the separation between the charges affect the value of
potential energy U? State an equation that describes the potential energy U of two
charges.

2. Move the point P in the upper right square further away from the positive point
charge q2. Does the potential V increase or decrease as the point P is further away
from the positive point charge?

3. Based on the values in the animation, determine the value of charge q2.

33
 Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Fields
If the magnetic field lines are not shown in the active figure, click the Show field lines
button.
1. Place the compass near (but not touching) the south pole and then the north pole of
the bar magnet. Is the magnetic field entering or leaving the south pole or north pole?

2. Place the compass in the middle of the bar magnet and use the knowledge you
learned in magnetic fields to answer the following questions.

a. Is the magnetic field in the middle of a bar magnet zero?

b. Do magnetic field lines always form closed loops?

3. Place the compass at any location with the compass needle just touching a field line.
What can say about the direction of magnetic field at that location of field line?

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

1. What motion does a charged particle exhibit when it moves perpendicularly to a
uniform magnetic field?

2. In the animation, click the reset button and change the charge of the particle to
negative. Observe the change of the direction of motion.

a. What physical quantity does the red arrow represent?

b. What physical quantity does the blue arrow represent?

34
 c. State the equation to determine the magnetic force acting on a charged
particle moving in a region of magnetic field and hence the direction of
motion?

3. In the animation, click the reset button and increase the speed of the particle.

a. What happens to the rotation radius?

b. What happens to the period of revolution? State an equation that explains

your answer.

The Velocity Selector

1. In the animation, set the magnetic field magnitude to zero and the electric field to
+800 N/C. Click the launch button. Why does the charged particle moving towards
the upper plate?

2. Take note of the values of the horizontal velocity and the electric field. You need to
use an appropriate equation to determine the correct value of the magnetic field in
order to have the particle moved horizontally without any deflection. Set the value
of the magnetic field and click the launch button.

e. Record the directions and magnitudes of magnetic field and electric field,
and the value of horizontal velocity.

Direction of magnetic field (into the page / out of page) =

Magnitude of magnetic field = T

Direction of electric field (downward / upward) =

35
 Magnitude of electric field = N/C

Horizontal velocity = m/s

f. State the equation in determining the correct value of the magnetic field.

The Mass Spectrometer

In the active figure, you need not to set the magnetic field (1) magnitude and electric field
magnitude in the velocity selector. The active figure will automatically set the correct values
when you click the launch button.
1. Click the new button and then the launch button. If the charged particle does not
strike the detector array (gray plates), click the rest button, change the value of
magnetic field (2) magnitude, and then click the launch button.

a. Draw the trajectory of the charged particle in the region of magnetic field
(2). In your answer, indicate whether the charged particle is positive or
negative and the magnetic field (2) is directed into or out of page.

The charged particle is

_____________.

The magnetic field (2) is directed

__________________.
b. Record the mass and charge of the particle. Using the speed of the particle,
the magnetic field (2) magnitude, the diameter of ion path, and an appropriate
equation, determine the ratio mass-to-charge ratio.

Mass, m = mp

Charge, q = e

Speed of the particle, v =

Magnetic field magnitude, B =

Radius of ion path, r =

36
2. If the charged particle is negative and the magnetic field (2) is directed out of page,
draw the trajectory of the charged particle in the region of magnetic field (2).

37
 List of formulas for PHYF121

q1 q2 q   b   
F k Ek F  qE V  a E  ds V  E  d
r2 r2

V V V
V  Ed Ex   Ey   Ez  
x y z

Parallel: Ceq  C1  C2  C3  .... V  V1  V2  V3  .... Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  ...

1 1 1 1
Series:     .... V  V1  V2  V3  ... Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  ....
Ceq C1 C2 C3

R
V
R
l
  o T R  Ro T P  V I  I 2 R 
V 2
I A R

1 1 1 1
Parallel:     ... V  V1  V2  V3  ... I  I1  I 2  I 3  ...
Req R1 R2 R3

Series: Req  R1  R2  R3  ... V  V1  V2  V3  ... I  I1  I 2  I 3  ...

  RC  t 
q  C 1  e   i
 e t  t
 Iin   I out V  0 q  Qo e
  R

Qo  t     E qBr 2 m q2 B2 R2
i e FB  qv  B v v T K max 
RC B m qB 2m

B  o nI   N ddtB L
N B
L
o N 2 A
 L  L dt
di
i
 (1  e t  )
i l R

i  I oet  
L
f 
1
  2 f I rms 
I max
Vrms 
Vmax
VR  I max R
R T 2 2

Vmax 1
VL  I max X L VC  I max X C Z X L  L XC 
I max C

Z  R 2  X L  X C 2
c
o 
1 n n1 sin1  n2 sin2
LC v

38
 Experiment 7: LR Circuit (Activity P51)

Purpose:
To study the behavior of an inductor as a time-dependent voltage is applied.

Equipment:
ScienceWorkshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
DataStudio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) – Inductor Coil, Iron Core, 10  Resistor
Patch Cords
Multimeter
LCR meter

Theory:
When a DC voltage is applied to an inductor and a resistor in series a steady current will be
established:
V
Imax  o
R
where Vo is the applied voltage and R is the total resistance in the circuit. But it takes time
to establish this steady-state current because the inductor creates a back-emf in response to
the rise in current. The current will rise exponentially:



I  I max1 e
 
 R t



t



  I max1  e
L

   

where L is the inductance and the quantity L/R =  is the inductive time constant. The
inductive time constant is a measure of how long it takes the current to be established. One
inductive time constant is the time it takes for the current to rise to 63% of its maximum
value (or fall to 37% of its maximum). The time for the current to rise or fall to half its
maximum is related to the inductive time constant by

t 1  (ln2)
2

t1 / 2

ln 2
Since the voltage across a resistor is given by VR = IR, the voltage across the resistor is
established exponentially:

39
  t 

VR  Vo 1 e  

 
 dI 
Since the voltage across an inductor is given by VL  L  , the voltage across the
 dt 
inductor starts at its maximum and then decreases exponentially:

VL  Voe
 
 t

After a time t >> , a steady-state current Imax is established and the voltage across the
resistor is equal to the applied voltage, Vo. The voltage across the inductor is zero. If, after
the maximum current is established, the voltage source is turned off, the current will then
decrease exponentially to zero while the voltage across the resistor does the same and the
inductor again produces a back emf which decreases exponentially to zero. In summary:

DC Voltage applied: DC Voltage turned off:

  
 t 
I  I max1  e  
I  I maxe  
t

 
  
 t   
 t
VR  Vo 1  e   VR  Voe
 

VL  Voe 
 
 t 
VL  Vemf 1  e
  
 t

 

At any time, Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule applies: The algebraic sum of all the voltages around
the series circuit is zero. In other words, the voltage across the resistor plus the voltage
across the inductor will add up to the source voltage.

Procedure:
Use the ‘Output’ feature of the ScienceWorkshop interface (Figure 1) to provide voltage for
a circuit consisting of an inductor and a resistor. (The interface produces a low frequency
square wave that imitates a DC voltage being turned on and then turned off.) Use Voltage
Sensors to measure the voltages across the inductor and resistor.

Figure 1

Use DataStudio to record and display the voltages across the inductor and resistor as the
current is established exponentially in the circuit. Use the graph display of the voltages to
investigate the behavior of the inductor-resistor circuit.

40
Part I: Computer Setup
1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn
on the computer.
2. Connect one Voltage Sensor to Analog Channel A. This sensor will be “Voltage Sensor
A”. Connect the second Voltage Sensor to Analog Channel B. This sensor will be
“Voltage Sensor B”.
3. Connect banana plug patch cords into the ‘OUTPUT’ ports on the interface.
4. Open the document titled by following the procedure mentioned below:
 On the desktop, double-click the DataStudio icon.
 Double-click Open Activity.
 Select DataStudio folder.
 Double-click Library.
 Double-click Physics
 Select P51 LR Circuit.DS
5. The DataStudio document opens with a Signal Generator window, and a Graph display
of voltage versus time for the ‘Output’, the resistor, and the inductor. The document also
has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the Workbook.
6. If the Signal Generator doesn’t pop up, you can get it by following the procedure below:
 Click the ‘Setup’ button on top of the DataStudio window.
 Click the ‘Sensor’ button. The list of Sensors will pop up.
 Double-click the ‘Signal Output’ at the end of the Sensor lists.
 The Signal Generator will come out
7. The Signal Generator is set to output a ‘positive-only’ square wave at 3.00 volts and
50.00 Hz. The Signal Generator is set to ‘Auto’ so it will start and stop automatically
when you start and stop measuring data.
8. Set the sample rate to 10,000 Hz.
9. Data recording is set to automatically stop at 0.12 seconds.

Part II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

You do not need to calibrate a sensor because, in this activity, the interface is the sensor.
1. Put the iron core into the inductor coil on the RLC Network.
2. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2 using the output from the Signal Interface as the
voltage source.

PART III: Data Recording

1. Use a multimeter to measure the resistance of the inductor coil on the RLC Network.
Record the coil resistance in Table 1.
2. Use a multimeter to measure the resistance of the 10-ohm resistor. Record the measured
resistor value in Table 1.
3. Use LCR meter to measure the inductance of the inductor coil with the iron core inside.)
Result: Inductance, L = ________.

Analyzing the Data:

1. The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current. The voltage is also
proportional to the current (that is, V = IR). Therefore, the behavior of the current is
studied indirectly by studying the behavior of the voltage across the resistor (measured
on Channel B).

41
2. Use the built-in analysis tools in the Graph display to determine the experimental time
constant.
 In DataStudio, use the ‘Zoom Select’
 Select from the bottom of the exponential curve of the voltage across the resistor
(Channel B) to its maximum. See Figure 3.
 Click the ‘Fit’ button, and select ‘Inverse Exponent Fit’. The results of the curve
fitting are then showed on the graph.
 Click the ‘Curve Fit’ button to know the fitting equation and its parameters.
 1/C in the fitting equation is the experimental time constant. Record this in Table 1.

Figure 3

3. Calculate the inductive time constant based on the total resistance in the circuit and the
value for the inductance L of the inductor coil with the iron core:
Inductive time constant,   L .
R
NOTE: If you have a meter that measures inductance, use your measured value for the
inductance of the coil plus core.
4. Record the calculated value for the inductive time constant in Table 1.

Data:
Table 1
Item Value
Inductor resistance, RL
Resistor resistance, RR
Total resistance, R = RL + RR
Experimental time constant, 

Theoretical time constant,  

L
R
Percentage error

42
Questions:
1. What is the relationship between the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across
the resistor in an inductor-resistor circuit?
2. What is the relationship between the current through the inductor and the behavior of an
inductor in a DC circuit?
3. How does the inductive time constant found in this experiment compare to the
theoretical value given by  = L/R? (Remember that R is the total resistance of the circuit
and therefore must include the resistance of the coil as well as the resistance of the
resistor.)
4. Does Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule hold at all times? Use the graphs to check it for at least
three different times: Does the sum of the voltages across the resistor and the inductor
equal the source voltage at any given time?

Signal Interface
A B C Output

Model CI-6512
KIT 8.2mH R L C Circuit
Maximum Working
Voltage: 10V

100 150

33 Bulb

100
10 7.5V
0.22A 330

Figure 2

43
 Experiment 8: LRC Circuit (Activity P52)

Purpose:
To study the electromagnetic resonance in an inductor-resistor-capacitor circuit.

Equipment:
ScienceWorkshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
DataStudio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) – Inductor Coil, Iron Core, 10  Resistor, 100F Capacitor
Patch Cords
Graph paper (optional)
LCR meter (optional)

Theory:
When a vibrating mechanical system is set in motion, it vibrates at its natural frequency.
However, a mechanical system can be forced to vibrate at a different frequency. The
amplitude of vibration, and hence the energy transferred to the system, depends on the
difference between the natural frequency and the frequency of forced vibration. The
amplitude becomes very large when the difference between the natural and forced frequency
becomes very small. This is known as resonance, relatively little energy is required to get a
large amplitude. One example of resonance is when a singer’s amplified voice is used to
shatter a glass.

Electrical resonance is analogous to mechanical resonance. The energy transferred to a

system is a maximum at resonance.

The amplitude of the AC current (Io) in a series LRC circuit is dependent on the amplitude
of the applied voltage (Vo) and the impedance (Z).
Vo
Io 
Z
Since the impedance depends on frequency, the current varies with frequency:
Z  X L  X C 2  R2

where XL = inductive reactance = L, XC = capacitive reactance = 1/ C, R = resistance, and

 = angular frequency = 2f (f = linear frequency). The current will be maximum when the
circuit is driven at its resonant frequency:
1
res 
LC

44
One can show that, at resonance, XL = XC and thus the impedance (Z) is reduced to R. At
resonance, the impedance is the lowest value possible and the current will be the largest
value possible.

Procedure:
Use the ‘Output’ feature of the ScienceWorkshop interface (Figure 1) to produce an
alternating current through the LRC circuit. Use the Voltage Sensor to measure the voltage
drop (potential difference) across the resistor in the circuit.

Figure 1

The amplitude of the current depends on the impedance in the circuit, which varies with
frequency. Calculate the theoretical resonant frequency for your circuit. Use the DataStudio
program to control the frequency. If the current is a maximum at the resonant frequency and
is less than maximum for greater or lesser frequencies, the current should peak at the
resonant frequency. Determine the amplitude of the current through the resistor and then
plot current versus frequency. The current can be determined from the ratio of the resistor
voltage to the resistance. Compare the theoretical resonant frequency to your measured
resonant frequency.

Also, investigate the phase relationship between the applied voltage and the resistor voltage
as you vary the frequency.

Use DataStudio to record and display both the applied voltage and the resistor voltage.

Part I: Computer Setup

1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn
on the computer.
2. Connect the Voltage Sensor to Analog Channel B.
3. Connect banana plug patch cords into the ‘OUTPUT’ ports on the interface.
4. Open the document titled by following the procedure mentioned below:
 On the desktop, double-click the DataStudio icon.
 Double-click Open Activity.
 Select DataStudio folder.
 Double-click Library.
 Double-click Physics
 Select P52 LRC Circuit.DS
5. The DataStudio document has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the
Workbook. The document also has a Scope display of ‘Output Voltage’ and Voltage,
Ch B’.
6. To open the Signal Generator display, follow the procedure below:
 Click the ‘Setup’ button on top of the DataStudio window.

45
  The list of Sensors will pop up.
 Double-click the ‘Signal Output’ at the end of the Sensor lists.
 The Signal Generator will come out
7. The Signal Generator is set to output a sine wave at 3.00 volts with the initial frequency
at 10 Hz. The Signal Generator is set to ‘Auto’ so it will start and stop automatically
when you start and stop measuring data.

Part II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

You do not need to calibrate a sensor because, in this activity, the interface is the sensor.
1. Put the iron core into the inductor coil.
2. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2 using the output from the Signal Interface as the
voltage source.
V
3. Channel B is related to the current through the resistor by I  R .
R

Part III: Data Recording

1. Check the Signal Generator window. Set the waveform to “sine”. Set the output voltage
to 3 volts. Set the output frequency to 10 Hz.
2. Start measuring data (Click ‘Start’ in DataStudio.)
 The Scope display shows the ‘Output’ voltage, V, from the interface, and the
voltage, VR, across the resistor (Channel B). Refer Figure 3.

Figure 3

3. In the Scope display, determine the voltage, VR, across the resistor (i.e., voltage from
Channel B).
 Hint: In DataStudio, click the ‘Smart Tool’ button in the Scope display toolbar.
Move the cursor/cross-hair to a peak of the signal that shows the voltage across the
resistor, VR (Channel B). Refer Figure 4.

46
 Figure 4

4. Record the voltage, VR , in Table 1 next to 10 Hz.

5. Adjust the function generator to 20 Hz. Repeat the process to find the new value of
voltage and record it in Table 1 next to 20 Hz.
6. Increase the frequency in 10 Hz increments until 150 Hz. Repeat the process of using
the Smart Tool to find each new value for the resistor voltage, VR. Record each voltage
value in Table 1.

NOTE: Adjust the Sweep Speed in the Scope display using the Sweep Speed button as
needed.

7. Look at Table 1 and estimate the approximate resonant frequency (where voltage across
the resistor reaches a maximum).
8. Adjust the function generator to the value of your estimate of the resonant frequency.
Make fine adjustments to the frequency until the trace of voltage from Channel B is in
phase with the trace of output voltage (from Channel A in the Scope display).

Hint: Switch the Scope display to X-Y mode to check whether the trace of voltage from
Channel B (resistor voltage) is in phase with the trace of voltage from Channel A (the
function generator). See the descriptions below.

9. Record the new resonant frequency in Table 1.

10. Stop measuring data.

Frequency Adjustment in XY Mode: DataStudio

1. Click Stop.
2. In the display, temporarily remove ‘Voltage ChB’. (Hint: Click ‘Voltage ChB’ to select
the input and then click the ‘Remove’ button ( ) in the Scope toolbar.)
3. Click and drag ‘Voltage ChB(v)’ from the Summary list to the bottom edge of the Scope
display. Drop ‘Voltage ChB (v)’ onto the Sweep Speed control panel.

47
  Note: The Sweep Speed control panel will be surrounded by a dashed rectangle when
the new input (‘Voltage ChB(v)’) is on top of the control panel. See Figure 5.

Figure 5

4. Click ‘Start’ to begin monitoring the data again.

5. Adjust the function generator frequency until the Scope display shows a diagonal line.
An oval trace means the signals are out-of-phase.

If you have a meter that can measure inductance, resistance, and capacitance. Use it
to measure the inductance of the coil with the core inside, the resistance of the 10-
ohm resistor, and the capacitance of the 100-microfarad capacitor. Record your
values in Table 2.

Analyzing the Data:

1. Calculate the current through the resistor for each increment of frequency and record the
values in Table 1.
2. Graph the current versus the linear frequency on graph paper. (NOTE: The function
generator frequency is the linear frequency, v.)
3. Using the resonant frequency found from the Scope display, calculate the resonant
angular frequency and record the value in Table 3:

res  2vres

4. Calculate the theoretical resonant angular frequency using the values of the inductance
and capacitance:
1
res 
LC

48
Data:

Table 1
Freq (Hz) VR Current Freq (Hz) VR Current
(VR / R) (VR / R)
10 90
20 100
30 110
40 120
50 130
60 140
70 150
80

Table 2
Item Measured Value
Inductance
Resistance
Capacitance

Table 3
Resonant frequency (linear)
Resonant angular frequency
Theoretical resonant angular frequency

Questions:
1. The purpose of this activity is to study resonance in an inductor-resistor-capacitor circuit
(LRC circuit) by examining the current through the circuit as a function of the frequency
of the applied voltage. What will happen to the amplitude of the current in the LRC
circuit when the frequency of the applied voltage is at or near the resonant frequency of
the circuit?
2. How does your measured value for resonant angular frequency compare to the
theoretical value for resonant angular frequency? Remember,

Percentageerror  theoretical  measured  100%

theoretical

49
3. Is the plot of current versus frequency symmetrical about the resonant frequency?
Explain.
4. At resonance, the reactances of the inductor and the capacitor cancel each other so that
the impedance (Z) is equal to just the resistance (R). Calculate the resistance of the circuit
by using the amplitude of the current at resonance in the equation R = V/I (where V is
the amplitude of the applied voltage). Is this resistance equal to 10 ohms? Why not?

Signal Interface
A B C Output

Model CI-6512
KIT 8.2mH R L C Circuit
Maximum Working
Voltage: 10V

100 150

33 Bulb

100
10 7.5V
0.22A 330

Figure 2

50
 Experiment 9: Induction – Magnet through a Coil

Purpose:
To measure the Electromotive Force (EMF) induced in a coil by a magnet dropping
through the center of a coil.

Equipment:
ScienceWorkshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
DataStudio Program (installed)
Patch Cords
Solenoids (1600 turns and 3200 turns)
Bar magnet

What Do You Think?

When electricity is passed through a conducting wire, a magnetic field can be detected near
the wire. Micheal Faraday was one of the first scientists to reverse the process. The essence
of his work is decribed in the following statement:

You can send electricity through a conducting wire to make a magnetic field. Is the
reverse possible? Can you use a magnet and a conducting wire to make electricity?

Background:
When a magnet is passed through a coil, there is a changing magnetic flux through the coil,
which induces an Electromotive Force (EMF) in the coil. According to Faraday’s Law of
Induction:
  N t
where  is the induced EMF, N is the number of turns of wire in

the coil, and is the rate of change of the flux through the coil.
t

In this activity, a plot of the EMF versus time is made and the area
under the curve is found by integration. This area represents the
flux since:
t  N

Procedure:
Use the Voltage Sensor to measure the voltage (EMF) induced in a coil as a bar magnet
moves through the coil. Use DataStudio to record, display, and analyze the data.

51
Part I: Computer Setup
1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn
on the computer.
2. Connect a Voltage Sensor to Analog Channel A on the interface.
3. Open the DataStudio document P30 Induction by following the steps below:
 On the desktop, double click the DataStudio icon.
 Click Open Activity.
 Locate the document in the folder \DataStudio\Library\Physics
 Double-click the document named P30 Induction.
4. The document opens with a Graph display of Voltage vs. Time and a Meter display of
Voltage. It has also a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the Workbook.
5. If the Voltage Sensor is not graphically connected the virtual ScienceWorkshop
interface in the Experiment Setup window, execute the following steps:
 Click the Setup button on top of the DataStudio window to display the Experiment
Setup window.
 Click the Sensor button in the Experiment Setup window. A list of sensors will
pop up.
 Drag and drop the Voltage Sensor onto Channel A of the ScienceWorkshop
interface in the Experiment Setup window.
6. Double-click the Voltage Sensor in the Experiment Setup window to open the Sensor
Properties box.
7. Set the sample rate to 500 Hz.
8. Click the Options button on the toolbar of the Experiment Setup window to open the
Sampling Options box. Make the following settings and then click OK:
 In the Manual Sampling tab, untick all check boxes.
 In the Delayed Start tab, select the None option.
 In the Automatic Stop tab, select the None option.

Part II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

You do not need to calibrate the Voltage Sensor.

1. Connect the ends of the Voltage Sensor leads to a 1600-turn coil.

2. Place a pad on the table and erect a hollow, cylindrical pipe (with a height of about
15 cm) in an upright position on the pad.

52
 3. Place and hold the coil on the cylinder. The cylinder should now support the coil, so
that a magnet dropped through the coil can fall freely.
• The bar magnet will be dropped through the coil. Make sure that the magnet does not strike
the floor, or it may break.

Part III: Data Recording

1. Hold the magnet so that the South end is facing downwards and is about 2 cm above
the coil.
• Note: If you are using the PASCO Model EM-8620 Alnico Bar Magnet the North end is
indicated by the narrow groove near one end. For the first run, hold the magnet with groove
end ‘up’.
2. To start recording data, click the Start button on the main toolbar and let the magnet
drop through the coil.
3. Click the Stop button on the main toolbar right after the magnet falls through the
coil.
4. Repeat Steps 1 – 3 with the North end of the magnet facing downwards.
5. Replace the 1600-turn coil with a 3200-turn coil and repeat Steps 1 – 3.

Analyzing the Data:

1. Set up your Graph to show the area under the curve of voltage versus time.
Hint:

 Click the Scale to Fit button ( ) and use the ‘Zoom Select’ button ( )
to select the portion of graph that you want to find the area.

 Click the Statistics menu button ( ) and select ‘Area’.

2. In the Graph display, select a rectangle around the first peak of the voltage plot.
The value for ‘Area’ appears in the legend in the Graph.

53
 3. Record the value of Integration for the first peak.
Integration (first peak) = __________ V*sec
4. Repeat the process to find the area under the second peak. Record the value.
Integration (second peak) = __________ V*sec
5. Record your results in Table 1.

Table 1
Integration (1st peak) Integration (2nd peak) %
(V*sec) (V*sec) Difference
1600-turm coil. South
pole facing downwards
1600-turm coil. North
pole facing downwards
3200-turm coil. South
pole facing downwards
3200-turm coil. North
pole facing downwards

Note: Integration (V*sec) is equivalent to finding the total flux through the coil. In finding
the percentage difference between the integrations for the first peak and the second peak,
use their absolute values.

Questions:
1. Is the incoming flux equal to the outgoing flux?

2. Why is the outgoing peak higher than the incoming peak?

3. Why are the peaks opposite in direction?

54
 Experiment 10: Geometric Optics: Reflection and Refraction

Purpose:
To investigate the law of reflection and the law of refraction, and to observe total internal
reflection and color dispersion.

Equipment:
PASCO Introductory Optics System

Theory:
When array of light reflects from a surface, the angle of reflection, 1’, is equal to the angle
of incidence, 1, or

Incident ray Reflected ray

1’ = 1 (1)
1 1 ’

When a ray of light crosses the interface between two transparent media, the ray will be
bent, or refracted, in such a way that the relationship between the angle of refraction, 2, and
angle of incidence, 1, is given by Snell’s law:

Incident
ray 1
n2 sin 2 = n1 sin 1 (2) n1
n2

2 Refracted
ray

where n, the index of refraction, is the ration of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in the transparent medium, on n =c/v. If the ray is coming from the side of the interface
where the denser medium is (greater value of n), then when 2 is 90, we have sin 2 = 1 in
equation (2), and so

sin 1 = n2 / n1 (3)

If 1 is made larger the that critical angle, then equation (2) is no longer valid, since sin 2
can not be greater than 1. Then there will be no refracted ray, and all of the light will be
reflected from the interface back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.

55
Besides depending on the particular transparent medium, the index of refraction also
depends on the wavelength, or color, of the light. This leads to another phenomenon called
dispersion, which breaks up a ray of light containing several colors. The red component of
the ray will be bent less than the blue components.

Procedure:
Part I: Reflection
1. Set up the optical bench with the light source on one end. (The knob on top of the light
source can be used to move the light bulb sideways. There is a noticeable click when the
bulb is centered.) Make sure the bulb is centered.
2. Put the ray table and its base about 25 cm away from the light source. (The grid side of
the ray table should be up. The ray table should tilt towards the light source.)
3. Put one of the components holders between the light source and ray table, very close to
the ray table.
4. Attach the slit plate to the holder and also attach the slit mask in such a way that only a
single ray falls on the ray table.
5. Adjust the ray table, slit plate, and mask in such a way that the ray passes through the
exact center of the ray table.
6. Rotate so that the ray passes through the two 0 marks on the perimeter of the table.
7. Place the tree-sided mirror on the ray table so that the straight side is lined up with the
90 line and is centered on the table.
8. Rotate the table so that the incident ray makes a 10 angle with the 0 line. (Since the 0
line is perpendicular to the surface of the mirror, it is the line from which the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection are measured.)
9. Observe and record the angle of reflection
10. Repeat the observation at 10-degree increments up to 80.

Part II: Refraction

1. Replace the mirror with cylindrical lens, with the straight side along 90 line, centered
on the table, and facing the slit.
2. With the angle of incidence set to 0, observe and record the angle of refraction.
3. Repeat the observation for increments of 10 degrees of the angle of incidence. (Try to
get as close as you can to 90.) The ray enters the lens at the straight surface ad exits at
the semicircular surface.
4. Look at where the ray enters and exits, and determine where the refraction takes place.
5. At 20, 50, and 80 degrees, clip the ray table component holder, with the viewing screen
attached, to the edge of the ray table in such a way that the refracted ray falls on the
viewing screen.
6. Examine the refracted ray for any evidence of color dispersion.

Part III: Total internal reflection and Dispersion

1. Rotate the ray table so that the curved side faces the slit.
2. Check to make sure that the lens is still centered on the ray table.
3. Start with a 10 angle of incidence (on the inside surface of the straight side). Is there a
reflected ray? Use the viewing screen to detect faint rays.
4. Record the angle of refraction and the angle of reflection, if there is a reflected ray. Note
any dispersion you observe, and at which angle you can first notice it. Does it increase
with increasing angle?

56
5. At the largest angle for which you can see all components of the refracted ray, record
the angle of incidence, and the angles of refraction for the red and the blue components
of the refracted ray.
6. As you increase the angle of incidence, observe what happens to the reflected ray. What
happens as the refracted ray approaches 90? What happens if you increase the angle of
incidence past the point where the angle of refraction is 90?

Data:
Table 1: Reflection
Angle of incidence, Angle of reflection,
1 () 1’ ()
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Table 2: Refraction
Angle of incidence, Angle of refraction,
1 () 2()
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

57
Table 3: Total Internal Reflection and Dispersion
Angle of incidence, Angle of refraction, Angle of reflection,
1 () 2 () 1’ ()
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
42.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Analysis and Discussion:

1. Do the data of part I to verify the law of reflection as stated in equation (1)?
2. Using the data of part II, plot a graph of sin 1 versus sin 2. From the graph, obtain the
index of refraction of the acrylic material of which the lens is made. Is Snell’s law
verified? What criterion do you use to determine this?
3. From the data of part III, calculate the index of refraction for red light and for blue light.
How do these two values compare with the value you obtained from the data in part II?
Does the critical angle you observed experimentally agree with the theoretical value?
Given nair = 1.00

Note:
Typical value of the index of refraction of acrylic material is 1.4917.

58