Chapter 7: Electrodynamics Resistivities (ohm-meters)

7.1 Electromotive Force 7.1.1 Ohm’s Law

Pushing on the charges make a current flow. How fast the
charges move depends on the nature of the materials and
the forces.
current density J = ρ v velocity of the charge
volume charge density
J
Ohm’s law (an empirical equation): J = σ E or E = = ρJ
σ
conductivity resistivity
ρ: volume charge density or resistivity? Confusion 1: E=0 inside a conductor Î J=0 ?
2: For a perfect conductor σ=∞ Î E=0 ?
The Lorentz force drives the charges to produce current:
≈0 Question: Can we treat the connecting wires in electric
J ∝ F ⇒ J = σ (E + v × B ) circuits as equal potentials?
1 2

Example 7.1 Example 7.3

A cylindrical resistor of cross-sectional area A and length L is Prove that the electric field within the wire is uniform.
made from material with conductivity σ. If the potential is
constant over each end, and the potential difference between V=0 V=V0
the ends is V, what current flows?

Sol:
The potential V with the cylinder obeys Laplace’s equation.
On the cylinder surface J ⋅ n = 0 ∴ E ⋅ n = 0, and hence ∂V/∂n = 0
Sol: With V or its normal derivate specified on all the surfaces, the
σA
I = J ⋅ A = σ EA = V potential is uniquely determine (Prob. 3.4).
L Guess: A potential obeys Laplace’s equation and fits the
boundary conditions.
Question: Is the electric field uniform within the wire?
Vz V
To be proved in a moment, see Ex. 7.3. V ( z ) = 0 and E = −∇V = − 0 zˆ the unique solution.
3 L L 4
 Example 7.2 Ohm’s Law
Two long cylinders (radii a and b) are separated by material of L
Ex. 7.1 V= I
conductivity σ. If they are maintained at a potential different V, σA V = IR
(A more familiar
what current flows from one to the other, in a length L? ln(b / a ) version of Ohm’s law.)
Ex. 7.2 V= I
2πσ L resistance

The total current flowing from one electrode to the other is

proportional to the potential difference between them.
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω): an ohm is a volt per
I I 1
Sol: J = =σE E= rˆ ampere.
A 2πσ L s
b b I 1 I
V = ∫ E ⋅ ds = ∫ ds = ln(b / a ) For a steady current and uniform conductivity,
a 2πσ L s 2πσ L ε
a
J
ρ = ε 0∇ ⋅ E = ε 0∇ ⋅ ( ) = 0 ∇ ⋅ J = 0
2πσ L σ σ
I= V Any unbalanced charge resides on the surface.
ln(b / a) 5 6

Ohm’s Law (rule of thumb) Ohm’s Law (a naive picture)

Gauss’s law or Ampere’s law is really a true law, but Ohm’s A naive picture: Electrons are frequently collided with ions
law is an empirical equation. which slow down the acceleration.
* Finding an exception won’t win a Nobel prize.
1 2λ qE
negative resistance λ = at 2 ⇒ t = , where a =
2 a m
1 λ qE
average velocity: vave = at = ∝ E
2 2m
The velocity is proportional to the square root of the field.
Q1: Why the electric field does not accelerate the charge That is no good!
particle to a very high speed? Q1: How to explain it correctly?
Q2: Ohm’s law implies that a constant field produces a The charges in practice are already moving quite fast
constant current, which suggests a constant velocity. Isn’t because of their thermal energy.
that a contradiction of Newton’s law. 7 8
 Ohm’s Law (Drude model) The Joule Heating Law
The net drift velocity is a tiny extra bit. The time between nf λ q 2 nf λ q 2
collisions is actually much shorter than we supposed. J=( )E = σ E, where σ =
2mvthermal 2mvthermal
λ
collision frequency: t = This equation correctly predicts that conductivity is
vthermal proportional to the density of the moving charges and
1 aλ ordinarily decreases with increasing temperature.
average velocity: v ave = at =
2 2vthermal
F q
acceleration: a = = E The Joule heating law:
m m
 I : amperes
(f: free electrons per molecule)  R : ohms
2
V 
λ q nf λ q 2 P = IV = I 2 R = where 
J = n( fq ) v ave = nfq E=( )E R  V : volts
2vthermal m 2mvthermal
 P : watts
(n: molecules per unit volume)
9 10

7.1.2 Electromotive Force (emf) Electromotive Force: Production of a Current

An emf is the work per unit charge done by the source of emf
in moving the charge around a closed loop. What is the function of the acid solution in the voltaic pile?
W
E = ne
q
The subscript ”ne” emphasizes that the work is done by some
nonelectrostatic agent, such as a battery or an electrical
generator.

Pb + SO 4− → PbSO 4 + 2e −
PbO 2 + 4H + + SO 4− + 2e − → PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O

Note that for every electron that leaves the Pb plate, another
What is the difference between emf and potential difference? enters the PbO2 plate.
11 12
 Electromotive Force: Terminal Potential Difference Electromotive Force Drives the Electrons
Example: A battery is hooked
A real source of emf, such as a up to a light bulb.
battery, has internal resistance r.
The battery generates the
Vba = Vb − Va = E − Ir force which drives the
electrons move along the loop.
The change in potential is called the terminal potential
Snail’s pace: the charges in a wire move slowly
difference.
(~0.1 mm/s @φ=1mm, 1A, see Prob. 5.19(b)).
Unlike the emf, which is a fixed property of the source, the
terminal potential difference depends on the current flowing Q1: Why does the bulb response so fast when turning it on
through it. or off?
As a battery ages its internal resistance increases, and so, Q2: How do all the charges know to start moving at the
for a given output current, the terminal potential difference same instant?
falls. 13 14

Example 5.19: The Snail’s Pace Will the Charge Piling Up Somewhere?
Calculate the average electron drift velocity in a copper wire If a current is not the same all the way around, then the
1mm in diameter, carrying a current of 1 A. charge is piling up somewhere, and the electric field of this
Sol: I I accumulating charge is in such a direction as to even out the
J= = ρ vd ⇒ vd = 2 (ρ : volume charge density) flow.
πs 2
πs ρ
mobile charges charge atom mole gram
ρ= =
volume atom mole gram volume Charge piling up at the “knee” produces
−19
= (1.6 × 10 )(6 × 10 )(1 64)(9) = 1.4 × 104 C / cm3
23
a field aiming away from the kink.

I 1
vd = = =9.1× 10-3 (cm/s)
π s ρ π × 0.05 ×1.4 ×104
2 2

@ 1A, φ =1 mm ⇒ vd = 0.091 (mm/s) It self-corrects the current flow, and it does it all so quickly.
(Why? Thermal electrons)
@10A, φ =1 mm ⇒ vd = 0.91 (mm/s) Snail's pace 15 16
 Forces Involved in Driving Currents
Around a Circuit
The Electromotive Force
Two forces involved in driving currents around a circuit. The net effect of the electromotive force is determined by the
fs: ordinarily confined to one portion of the loop (a battery, say). line integral of f around the circuit:
E: the electrostatic force: smooth out the flow and communicate
=0
the influence of the source to distant parts of the circuit. E ≡ v∫ f ⋅ dl = v∫ fs ⋅ dl + v∫ E ⋅ dl = v∫ fs ⋅ dl
f = fs + E (the electromotive force, or emf)
What is the physical agency responsible for fs?
Emf is a lousy term, since it is not a force at all --- it is the
Battery Æ a chemical force integral of a force per unit charge.
Piezoelectric crystal Æ mechanical pressure Wne
Thermal couple Æ temperature gradient E=
q
Photoelectric cell Æ light
An emf is the work per unit charge done by the source of emf
in moving the charge around a closed loop.
17 18

7.1.3 Motional emf Motional emf (another example)

The most common source of the emfs: the generator When the magnetic field is constant in time, there is no
Generators exploit motional emf’s, which arise when you move induced electric field.
a wire through a magnetic field. When a mental rod moving perpendicular to
A primitive model for a generator magnetic field lines. There is a separation of
charge and an associated electrostatic
Shaded region: uniform B-field
potential difference set up.
pointing into the page. The potential difference associated with this
electrostatic field is given by Vb-Va=E0L=BLv.
R: whatever it is, we are trying
to drive current through.
E = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d A
Since there is no current flowing, the “terminal potential
E = v∫ f mag ⋅ dl = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ dl = vBh
difference” is equal to the motional emf.
19 20
 Magnetic Force Does No Work Instantaneous emf
A person exerts a force per unit charge
E =vBh = Bhv(t ) = E (t )
on the wire by pulling it. The force
counteracts the force generated by the E: carried out at one instant of time – take a “snapshot” of
magnetic force quB. the loop, if you like, and work from that.
f pull = uB
The magnetic force is responsible for establishing the emf
This force is transmitted to the charge by the structure of the and the emf seems to heat the resistor (i.e. do work), but
wire. magnetic fields never do work.
The work done per unit charge is:
h
∫ fpull ⋅ dl = (uB)( cos θ ) cos(90° − θ ) = vBh = E Who is supplying the energy that heats the resistor.

The work done per unit charge is exactly equal to the emf. The person who’s pulling on the loop!
21 22

Magnetic Force Does No Work (II) The Flux Rule

In the previous viewgraph, we find a source of emf converts There is a particular nice way of expressing the emf
some form of energy into electrostatic energy and does work generated in a moving loop Î the flux rule.
on charges. Can magnetic forces do work? No.
Let Φ ≡ ∫ B ⋅ da the flux of B through the loop

The flux of a rectangular loop Φ = Bhx

dΦ dx
The flux change rate = Bh = − Bhv
dt dt
The minus sign accounts for the fact that dx/dt is negative.
dΦ
The flux rule for the motional emf: − = Bhv = E
dt
The magnetic field acts, in a sense, as an intermediary in the dΦ
transfer of the energy from the external agent to the rod. Next step proves: E =−
dt
23 24
 The Flux Rule (Generalized) The Flux Rule (Generalized II)
The flux rule can be applied to non-rectangular loop The change in flux is
through non-uniform magnetic field. d Φ = Φ (t + dt ) − Φ (t ) = Φ ribbon = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ da

Proof: The infinitesimal element of area on the ribbon

da = vdt × dl = ( v × dl )dt
A ⋅ (B × C) = C ⋅ ( A × B)
dΦ = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ da = ∫
ribbon
B ⋅ ( v × dl )dt
= − (B × A ) ⋅ C
dΦ
= ∫ B ⋅ ( v × dl ) = − ∫ ( v × B) ⋅ dl magnetic force
dt ribbon ribbon
per unit charge
Compute the flux at time t using surface S, and the flux at
=− ∫
ribbon
[( v + u) × B] ⋅ dl = − v∫
ribbon
( W × B ) ⋅ dl
time t+dt, using the surface consisting of S plus the “ribbon” dΦ
that connects the new position of the loop to the old. = − v∫ f mag ⋅ dl = −E qed
25 dt ribbon
26

Example 7.4 Eddy Currents (I)

In a homopolar generator a conducting disk of radius R
What happens when a bar magnet approaches or moves
rotates at angular velocity ω rad/s. Its plane is perpendicular
parallel to a conducting plate? It induces eddy current.
to a uniform and constant magnetic field B. What is the emf
generated between the center and the rim?
Solution:

E = v∫ ( v × B ) ⋅ d A = ∫ vBdr
R

0
R 1
=∫ ω rBdr = ω BR 2
0 2

Hint1: How to choose a proper closed loop?

The eddy current is distributed throughout the plate.
Hint2: The total magnetic flux passing through the disk is
constant in time. Where is the induced emf coming from?
(Ref. Benson & Feyman) 27 28
 Eddy Currents (II) Example
A metal rod of length L sides at constant velocity v on
Applications of the eddy current: conducting rails that terminate in a resistor R. There is a
1. The braking system of a train. uniform and constant magnetic field perpendicular to the plane
of the rails. Find: (a) the current in the resistor; (b) the power
2. Eddy current generated in copper dissipated in the resistor; (c) the mechanical power needed to
pots can also be used for “inductive pull the rod.
cooking”. Solution: dΦ dA
(a) Vemf = =B = Blv
3. Project a metal ring. The ring gets dt dt
very hot when projected. V Blv
I = emf =
R R
( Blv) 2
(b) Pelec = I 2 R =
R
( Blv) 2
(c) Pmech = Fext ⋅ v =
29
R 30

More Examples
Homework of Chap.7 (part I)

Prob. 2, 6, 8

31 32
 7.2.3 Inductance Neumann Formula for the Mutual Inductance
Two loops of wire at rest.
Φ 2 = ∫ B1 ⋅ da= ∫ (∇ × A1 ) ⋅ da= v∫ A1 ⋅ dl 2
A steady current I1 around loop 1Î B1
Some B1 passes through loop 2 Î Φ2 µ0 I1 dl1
4π v∫ r
A1 =

µ0 I1 dl1 × rˆ µ0 I1 dl1 ⋅ dl 2
Φ 2 = ∫ B1 ⋅ da and B1 =
4π v∫ r 2
Φ2 =
4π ∫
v ∫
v r
µ dl ⋅ dl
M 21 = 0 v∫ v∫ 1 2 ⇐ Neumann formula
4π r
µ0 dl1 × rˆ
Φ2 = [
4π ∫ v∫ r2
⋅ da]I1 = M 21 I1

It involves a double line integral ---

The constant of proportionality: one integration around loop 1, the
mutual inductance of the two loops. other around loop 2.
1 2

Important Things about Mutual Inductance Example

It is not very useful for practical A circular coil with a cross-sectional area of 4 cm2 has 10
µ dl ⋅ dl
M 21 = 0
4π v∫ v∫ 1 r 2 calculation, but it reveals two
important features.
turns. It is placed at the center of a long solenoid that has 15
turns/cm and a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2, as shown
below. The axis of the coil coincides with the axis of the
1. M21 is purely geometrical quantity, having to do with the solenoid. What is their mutual inductance?
size, shape, and relative position. Solution:
Φ12 = B2 A1 = µ 0 n2 I 2 A1
2. M21=M12, so we can drop the subscripts and call them M. N1Φ12
M= = µ 0 n2 N1 A1
I2
Whatever the shapes and positions of the loops, the flux = (4π ×10 −7 )(1500)(10)(0.0004)
through 2 when we run current I around 1 is identical to the
flux through 1 when we send the same current I around 2. = 7.54 uF
Notice that although M12=M21, it would have been much
Advantage of M21=M12, see the following examples. difficult to find Φ21 because the field due to the coil is quite
3 nonuniform. 4
 Self-Inductance Example 7.11
It is convenient to express the induced emf in
Find the self-inductance of a toroidal coil with rectangular
terms of a current rather than the magnetic flux cross section (inner radius a, outer radius b, height h), which
through it.
carries a total n turns.
The magnetic flux is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it. Sol: magnetic field µ0 NI
B=
N1Φ11 = L1 I1 Inside a toroidal 2π s
where L1 is a constant of proportionality called the self-
N Φ11 b µ NI µ hNI1
inductance of coil 1. The SI unit of self-inductance is the L1 = and Φ11 = h ∫ 0 1 ds = 0 ln(b / a )
I1 a 2π s 2π
henry (H). The self-inductance of a circuit depends on its size
and its shape.
The self-induced emf in coil 1 due to changes in I1 takes the µ0 hN 2 b
form ∴ L1 = ln( )
dI 2π a
E = − L1 1
dt 5 6

Example LR Circuits
A coaxial cable consists of an inner wire of radius a that How does the current rise and fall as a function of time in a
carries a current I upward, and an outer cylindrical conductor circuit containing an inductor and a resistor in series?
of radius b that carries the same current downward. Find the Rise dI
Vemf − IR − L =0
self-inductance of a coaxial cable of length L. Ignore the dt
magnetic flux within the inner wire. dI
Let I = I 0 e −α t + β ⇒ = −α I 0 e −α t
dt
Solution:
µI µI  −α t R
B = 0 , dΦ = BdA = 0 Adx e : α=
L
2πx 2πx 
 E
b µ I µ IA b 0 : E − Rβ = 0 ⇒ β =
Φ = ∫ 0 Adx = 0 ln = LI  R
a 2πx 2π a t = 0 : I = − β = − E

µA b
0
R
L = 0 ln E R
2π a
− t
∴ I = (1 − e L )
Hint1: The direction of the magnetic field. R

Hint2: What happens when considers the inner flux? 7

The quantity τ=L/R is called the time constant. 8
 LR Circuits 7.2.4 Energy in Magnetic Field
Decay Inductance (like capacitance) is an intrinsically positive
dI quantity. Lenz’s law dictates that the emf is in such a
− IR − L =0 direction as to oppose any change in current Î back emf.
dt
dI It takes a certain amount of energy to start a current flowing
Let I = I 0 e −α t ⇒ = −α I 0 e −α t
dt in a circuit.
 −α t R What we are concerned with are the work you must do
e : α=
L against the back emf to get the current going.
 E
t = 0 : I 0 =
 R Is this a fixed amount? Is it recoverable?
E − L t E −τt
R Yes, you get it back when the current is turned off.
∴I = e = e
R R It represents energy latent in the circuit or it can be regard as
energy stored in the magnetic field.
The quantity τ=L/R is called the time constant.
9 10

Energy Stored in an Inductor The Power

The battery that establishes the current in an inductor has to The work done on a unit charge, against the back emf, in
do work against the opposing induced emf. The energy one trip around the circuit is –E.
supplied by the battery is stored in the inductor. the work done by
you against the emf
In Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain
The total work done on per unit time is
di
E = iR + L dW d (−EQ) dI
dt = = −EI = LI
di dt dt dt
iE = i 2 R + Li
dt I0 dI 1 2
The total work is W = ∫ LI = LI 0
dU L 1 0 dt 2
iE = i 2 R + , where U L = LI 2
dt 2
Depends only on the geometry of the
loop (in the form of L) and the final
power supplied power dissipated energy change rate
current I0.
by the battery in the resistor in the inductor 11 12
 Energy Density of the Magnetic Field Generalized Total Energy
We have expressed the total energy stored in the inductor in There is a nicer way to write the total magnetic energy W.
terms of the current and we know the magnetic field is
Φ = ∫ B ⋅ da = ∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ da = v∫ A ⋅ dl = LI
proportional to the current. Can we express the total S S P
magnetic energy in terms of the B-field? Yes.
S: surface bounded by P P: perimeter of the loop
Let’s consider the case of solenoid.
L = µ 0 n 2 AA 1 2 1 1 1
W= LI = ΦI = I v∫ A ⋅ dl = v∫ ( A ⋅ I )dl
2 2 2 P 2P
1 2 1 B2
UL = LI = ( µ 0 nI ) 2 AA = AA
2 2µ0 2µ0 generalize to the volume current
1 1 1
2 v∫P 2 V∫
τ
2
uB =
B W= ( A ⋅ I ) dl = ( A ⋅ J ) d , where J = ∇×B
2µ0
(The energy density of a magnetic field in free space) µ0
1 1
W = ∫ ( A ⋅ J )dτ =
2 µ0 V∫
Although this relation has been obtained from a special case, [ A ⋅ (∇ × B)]dτ
the expression is valid for any magnetic field. 2V
13 14

Generalized Total Energy II Electric and Magnetic Field Energy

Product rule 6, ∇ ⋅ ( A × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × A) − A ⋅ (∇ × B) Electric field energy energy density
1 ε ε0
A ⋅ (∇ × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × A) − ∇ ⋅ ( A × B) Welec = ∫ (V ρ )dτ = 0 ∫ E 2 dτ , uE = E2
 2 2 2
B
1 1 Magnetic field energy
2 µ0 V∫ 2 µ0 V∫
W= [ A ⋅ (∇ × B)]dτ = [B ⋅ B − ∇ ⋅ ( A × B)]dτ
1 1 1 2
1 1
divergence theorem
Wmag =
2 ∫ ( A ⋅ J )dτ =
2 µ0 ∫
B 2 dτ , uB =
2 µ0
B
= ∫
2 µ0 V
B 2 dτ −
2 µ0 v∫ (A × B) ⋅ da
S

1 Magnetic fields themselves do no work. Where does the

V → all space
2 µ0 v∫ (A × B) ⋅ da → 0
S
energy come from?
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field which can
1
W= ∫ B dτ
2 do work.
2 µ0 all space 15 16
 Example Example
The breakdown electric field strength of air is 3x106 V/m. A Use the expression for the energy density of the magnetic field
very large magnetic field strength is 20 T. compare the energy to calculate the self-inductance of a toroid with a rectangular
densities of the field. cross section.
Solution:
Solution: 1 µ 0 NI
U E = ε 0 E 2 = (0.5)(8.85 × 10-12 )(3 × 106 ) 2 B=
2 2πr
= 40 J/m 3 B2 B2 µ h( NI ) 2
dU B = dV = h(2πrdr ) = 0 dr
2 µ0 2 µ0 4πr
1 20 2
UB = B = 2
b µ 0 h( NI ) 2 µ hN 2 I 2 b 1 2
2µ0 2 × 4π ×10-7 UB = ∫ dr = 0 ln( ) = LI
a 4πr 4π a 2
= 3.2 ×10 J/m 8 3
µ0 N 2 h b
L= ln( )
2π a
Magnetic fields are an effective means of storing energy
without breakdown of the air. However, it is difficult to produce Can we use the concept of magnetic flux to derive the self-
such large fields over large regions. inductance?
17 18

Example 7.13 7.3 Maxwell’s Equations

7.3.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwell
A long coaxial cable carries current I (the current flows down 1
the surface of the inner cylinder, radius a, and back along the ∇⋅E = ρ (Gauss's law)
ε0
outer cylinder, radius b) as shown in the Figure. Find the
magnetic energy stored in a section of length l. ∇⋅B = 0 (no name) electromagnetic theory
over a century ago
∂B
Sol: ∇×E = − (Faraday's law)
µI ∂t
magnetic field B = 0 φˆ
2π s ∇ × B = µ0 J (Ampere's law)
1 2 µ0 I 2
energy density uB = B = 2 2 A fatal inconsistency in Ampere’s law
2 µ0 8π s
∇ ⋅ (∇ × B) = µ0∇ ⋅ J
µ I2 µ I2 b
magnetic energy WB = ∫ uB dτ = ∫ 02 2 l 2π sds = 0 l ln( )
V V
8π s 4π a =0 ≠0
1 µl b
self-inductance WB = LI 2 ⇒ L = 0 ln( ) Ampere’s law is incorrect for the nonsteady current.
2 2π a 19 20
 The Electric and Magnetic Fields Another Inconsistency of Ampere’s Law
Two distinct kinds of electric fields: How do we determine the enclosed current Ienc?

E (in static case): attributed to electric charges, using

Coulomb’s law. v∫ B ⋅ dl = µ I 0 enc

E (in nonsteady case): associated with changing

magnetic field, using Faraday’s law.

* The simplest surface---the wire puncture this surface

Two distinct kinds of magnetic fields: so Ienc=I Í Ampere’s law is ok.
B (in static case): attributed to electric currents, using * A bollon-shaped surface---no current passes through
Ampere’s law. this surface. so Ienc=0 Í Ampere’s law is not valid!
B (in nonsteady case): associated with changing electric
field, using? For nonsteady current, “the current enclosed by a loop”
is an ill-defined.
21 22

How Maxwell Fixed Ampere’s Law Electric Analogy of Faraday’s Law

Applying the continuity equation and Gauss’s law, Maxwell’s term cures the defect in Ampere’s law,
the offending term can be rewritten: and moreover, it has a certain aesthetic appeal.
∂ρ ∂ (ε 0∇ ⋅ E) ∂E
∇⋅J = − =− = ∇ ⋅ (−ε 0 ) Faraday’s law
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂E A changing magnetic field induces a electric field.
A new current J′ = J + ε 0 ← kills off the extra divergence
∂t
∂E
∇ ⋅ (∇ × B) = µ0 (∇ ⋅ J′) = µ0∇ ⋅ (J + ε 0 )=0
∂t A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.

When E is constant (electrostatic+magnetostatic), we

will have ∇ × B = µ0 J . Maxwell called this extra term “the displacement current”.
∂E
ε0 plays a crucial role in the EM wave propagation. ∂E a misleading name,
∂t Jd ≡ ε0
∂t nothing to do with current
23 24
 The Displacement Current 7.3.3 Maxwell’s Equations
How the displacement current resolves the paradox of the Maxwell’s equations in the traditional way.
charging capacitor. 1
∇⋅E = ρ (Gauss's law)
ε0
The electric field between ∇⋅B = 0 (no name)
the two capacitor plates is
∂B
σ 1 Q the charge on the plate ∇×E = − (Faraday's law)
E= = ∂t
ε0 ε0 A the area of the plate ∂E (Ampere's law with
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂E 1 ∂Q I ∂t Maxwell's correction)
ε0 = = =J
∂t A ∂t A F = q (E + v × B )
Lorentz force law
J=J, Jd=0 at the flat surface
J tot = J + J d
J=0, Jd=J at the balloon-shaped surface ∂ρ
Continuity equation ∇⋅J = −
∂t
25 26

Maxwell’s Equations (II) 7.3.4 Magnetic Charge

If there is a magnetic “charge” ρm and the corresponding
Another expression of the Maxwell’s equations.
current of the magnetic “current” Jm, the Maxwell’s
ρ ∂B equations read
∇⋅E = ∇×E + =0
ε0 ∂t ρe ∂B
∇⋅E = ∇×E + = −ε 0 J m A symmetric
∂E ε0 ∂t between E and B
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ × B − µ 0ε 0 = µ0 J
∂t ∂E EÆB
∇ ⋅ B = µ0 ρ m ∇ × B − µ0ε 0 = µ0 J e BÆ-µ0ε0E
The fields (E and B) on the left ∂t
and the sources (ρ and J) on the right.
Both charges would be conserved:
∂ρ ∂ρ
Maxwell’s equations tell you how sources produce ∇ ⋅ J e = − e , and ∇ ⋅ J m = − m
∂t ∂t
fields; reciprocally, the Lorentz force law tells you how
fields affect sources. Í A nonlinear feedback Q: Has any one ever found the magnetic charge?
No.
27 28
 7.3.5 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter Polarization and Bound Currents
When working with materials that are subject to electric and Bound current Jb: magnetization of the material involving
magnetic polarization, there is a more convenient way to the spin and orbital motion of electrons.
write the Maxwell’s equations.
Static case:
Polarization current Jp: the linear motion of charge when
An electric polarization produces a bound charge: ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P
the electric polarization changes.
A magnetic polarization results in a bound current: J b = ∇ × M Now ρ = ρf + ρ b = ρf − ∇ ⋅ P
Nonstatic case: ∂P
J = Jf + Jb + Jp = Jf + ∇ × M +
Any change in the electric polarization involves a flow of ∂t
bound charge. 1
Gauss’s law: ∇ ⋅ E = ( ρf − ∇ ⋅ P) ⇒ ∇ ⋅ (ε 0 E + P) = ρf
dI dσ b da⊥ ∂P ε0
Jp = = = where σ b = P ⋅ nˆ
da⊥ dt da⊥ ∂t
∂P ∂E
Ampere’s law: ∇ × B = µ0 ( J f + ∇ × M + ) + µ 0ε 0
polarization current ∂t ∂t
1 ∂
(nothing to do with the bound current). ⇒ ∇ × ( B − M ) = J f + (ε 0 E + P)
29 µ0 ∂t 30

Maxwell’s Equations in Matter 7.3.6 Boundary Conditions (I)

Differential form Integral form
In terms of free charges and currents, Maxwell’s equations

read ∂B ∇ ⋅ D = ρf
v∫ D ⋅ da = ρ 
f

∇ ⋅ D = ρf ∇ × E + =0  over any enclosed surface S .

S

∂t ∇⋅B = 0 v∫S B ⋅ da = 0 
∂D
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×H − = Jf
∂t

The constitutive relations: P = ε 0 χeE v∫ D ⋅ da = ρ

S
f

M = µ0 χ m H D1 ⋅ a − D2 ⋅ a = σ f a ⇒ D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f

So D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 (1 + χ e )E = ε E
1 v∫ B ⋅ da = 0
H= B−M ⇒ B = µ0 (1 + χ m )H = µ H wafer thin S
µ0 Gaussian pillbox B1 ⋅ a − B 2 ⋅ a = σ f a ⇒ B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
31 32
 Boundary Conditions (II) Boundary Conditions in Linear Media
Differential form Integral form
D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
∂B ∂ 
∇×E + =0 v∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∂t ∫ B ⋅ da  for any surface S B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 H1⊥ − H ⊥2 = (K f × nˆ )
∂t 
 bounded by the
P S
∂D ∂ In case of linear media, D and H can be express in terms of
∇×H −
∂t
= Jf v∫P H ⋅ dl = J f + ∂t ∫S D ⋅ da  closed loop P. E and B.
ε1 E1 − ε 2 E2 = σ f
⊥ ⊥ // //
E1 − E2 = 0
∂
v∫P E ⋅ dl = − ∂t ∫S B ⋅ da B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
1
B1⊥ −
1
B ⊥2 = K f × nˆ
∂ µ1 µ2
E1 ⋅ l − E2 ⋅ l = − ∫ B ⋅ da ⇒ E1// − E2// = 0
∂t S
∂ If there is no free charge or free current at the interface,
v∫P H ⋅ dl = J f + ∂t ∫S D ⋅ da then ε E⊥ − ε E⊥ = 0 E // − E // = 0
1 1 2 2 1 2
∂
very thin Amperian H1 ⋅ l − H 2 ⋅ l = I fenc + ∫ D ⋅ da ⇒ (H1⊥ − H ⊥2 ) ⋅ l = I fenc 1 1
loop straddling the ∂t S B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1⊥ − B ⊥2 = 0
µ1 µ2
surface I fenc = K f ⋅ (nˆ × l ) = (K f × nˆ ) ⋅ l ⇒ H1⊥ − H ⊥2 = (K f33× nˆ ) 34

Homework of Chap.7 (part II)

Prob. 31, 40, 42, 53, 57

35
 Chapter 8: Conservation Laws The Continuity Equation
8.1 Charge and Energy 8.1.1 The Continuity Equation
∂ρ (r, t )
∫V ∂t
dτ = − ∫ (∇ ⋅ J )dτ
V
(invoking the divergence theorem)
Charge the paradigm
Conservation laws Energy ∂ρ
⇒ = −∇ ⋅ J the continuity equation
in electrodynamics Momentum ∂t (in differential form)
Angular momentum
This equation is a precise mathematical statement of the
Global conservation of charge: the total charge in the universe local conservation of charge.
is constant. It can be derived from Maxwell’s equations.
=0
Local conservation of charge: If the total charge in some ∂ρ ∂ ∂E 1 1
= ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E) = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ ) = ε 0∇ ⋅ (− J + ∇ × B)
volume changes, then exactly that amount of charge must ∂t ∂t ∂t ε0 ε 0 µ0
have pass in or out through the surface. ∂ρ
= −∇ ⋅ J (a consequence of the law of electrodynamics)
∂t
dQtotal ∂Q
= 0 = enc + v∫ J ⋅ da Q1: The energy and momentum density Æ analogous to ρ.
dt ∂t S
1 Q2: The energy and momentum “current” Æ analogous to J. 2

8.1.2 Poynting’s Theorem (I) Poynting’s Theorem (II)

The work necessary to assemble a static charge distribution Starting point: How much work, dW, is done by the
ε0 electromagnetic forces acting on these charges in the
2 ∫
We = E dτ
2
(against the Coulomb repulsion of like charges)
interval dt? (using the Lorentz force law)
The work required to get current going dW = F ⋅ dl = q(E + v × B) ⋅ vdt = qE ⋅ vdt
µ0
2 ∫
Wm = B dτ (against the back emf)
2
dW
= qE ⋅ v = ∫ (E ⋅ v ) ρ dτ = ∫ (E ⋅ J )dτ
dt V V
The total energy stored in the electromagnetic fields is
1 1 2 (the work done per unit time, per unit volume
U em = We + Wm = ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + B )dτ = ∫ uem dτ i.e. the power deliver per unit volume)
2 µ0
1 1 2 Q: Can we express this quantity in terms of the fields alone?
where uem = (ε 0 E 2 + B )
2 µ0 Yes, use the Ampere-Maxwell law to eliminate J,
analogous to the proof of the continuity equation.
Q: Can we derive this equation in a more general and more
1 ∂E
persuasive way? J= ∇ × B − ε0
µ0
3 4
∂t
 Poynting’s Theorem (III) Poynting’s Theorem and Poynting Vector
∂E ∂E dW d 1 1
E⋅J = E⋅(
1
∇ × B − ε0 )=
1
E ⋅ (∇ × B) − ε 0 E ⋅ = − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ (E × B) ⋅ da
S µ
µ0 ∂t µ0 ∂t dt dt V 2 0

E ⋅ (∇ × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × E) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B) (product rule 6) (total energy stored in the field, Uem)

(Faraday’s law) (the rate at which energy is carried out of
∂B V, across its boundary surface S, by the
∇×E = − electromagnetic fields.)
∂t
∂E ∂B 1 Poynting’s theorem: “work-energy theorem” of electrodynamics.
E ⋅ J = −(ε 0 E ⋅ + µ 0 B ⋅ ) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B )
∂t ∂t µ0
Poynting vector: the energy per unit time, per unit area,
1 ∂ 1
=− (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 ) − ∇ ⋅ (E × B) transported by the fields.
2 ∂t µ0
dW d 1 1 1
= ∫ (E ⋅ J )dτ = − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ (E × B) ⋅ da S≡ (E × B ) (S: the energy flux density)
dt V dt 2 V S µ0 µ0
5 6
(invoking the divergence theorem)

Differential Form of Poynting’s Theorem Example 8.1

dW d 1 When current flows down a wire, work is
= − ∫ (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ − v∫ S ⋅ da done, which shows up as Joule heating of
dt dt V 2 S

dW d the wire. Find the energy per unit time

= ∫ umech dτ (umech: the mechanical energy density) delivered to the wire using Poynting vector?
dt dt V V
d 1 d Sol: 1 E = zˆ
∫
dt 2V
(ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 )dτ = ∫ uem dτ (uem: the energy density
dt V of the fields)
S≡
µ0
(E × B ) L
µI
B(r = a) = 0 φˆ
d d 2π a
So
dt V∫ umech dτ = − ∫ uem dτ − v∫ S ⋅ da
dt V S 1 V µI VI
So S= ( zˆ × 0 φˆ ) = − rˆ (point radially inward)
d d
(divergence theorem) µ0 L 2π a 2π aL
dt ∫V dt ∫V ∫V
u mech dτ = − u em dτ − (∇ ⋅ S )dτ
The energy per unit time passing through the surface of the
∂ wire is:
(umech + uem ) = −∇ ⋅ S (the differential form of Poynting’s theorem)
∂t dW dU em
d ∂ − v∫ S ⋅ da = S (2π aL) = VI = = 0 (static fields)
Q: What’s the difference between and ? 7 S dt dt 8
dt ∂t
 8.2 Momentum The Fields of a Moving Charge
8.2.1 Newton’s ThirdLaw in Electrodynamics
Suppose two charges, q1 and q2, proceed
in along x axis and y axis, respectively.
They can only slide on the axes with
velocities v1 and v2 as shown in the figure.
Q: Is the Newton’s third law valid?
The electric force between them satisfies the third law, but
the magnetic force does not hold (same magnitudes, but
their directions are not opposite).
In electrodynamics the third law does not hold. The proof of
The magnetic field of a moving
conservation of the momentum, however, rests on the cancellation The electric field of a
charge does not constitute a
of the internal forces, which follows from the third law. moving charge is not given
steady current. Thus it is not
by Coulomb’s law.
Q: How to rescue the momentum conservation? given by Biot-Sarvart law.
The fields themselves carry momentum. (Surprise!) 9 10

8.2.2 Maxwell’s Stress Tensor Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (II)

1 ∂E
The total electromagnetic force on the charges in volume V: f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 ( × B)
µ0 ∂t
F = ∫ ρ (E + v × B)dτ = ∫ ( ρ E + J × B)dτ = ∫ fdτ
V V V ∂ ∂E ∂B
Where f denotes the force per unit volume. (E × B ) = ×B + E×
∂t ∂t ∂t
f = ρE + J × B
∂B
Eliminate ρ and J by using Maxwell’s equations. (Faraday’s law) = −∇ × E
∂t
ρ = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)
1 ∂
1 ∂E f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 E × (∇ × E) − ε 0 (E × B)
J= ∇ × B − ε0 µ0 ∂t
µ0 ∂t
1
1 ∂E E × (∇ × E) = ∇E 2 − (E ⋅∇)E
f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + ( ∇ × B − ε 0 )×B 2
µ0 ∂t 1
(∇ × B) × B = −B × (∇ × B) = − ∇B 2 + (B ⋅∇ )B
1 ∂E 2
= ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E + (∇ × B) × B − ε 0 ( × B)
µ0 ∂t 11 12
 Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (III) Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (IV)
∂ 1 1 1 1 if i = j
f = ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E)E −
1 1 1
∇B 2 + (B ⋅∇)B − ε 0 ∇E 2 + ε 0 (E ⋅∇)E − ε 0 (E × B) Tij ≡ ε 0 ( Ei E j − δ ij E 2 ) + ( Bi B j − δ ij B 2 ) δ ij = 
2 µ0 µ0 2 ∂t 2 µ0 2 0 if i ≠ j
=0 ε0 2 1
1
= ε 0 [(∇ ⋅ E)E + (E ⋅∇)E] + [(B ⋅∇)B + (∇ ⋅ B)B] Txx = ( Ex − E y − Ez ) +
2 2
( Bx − By − Bz )
2 2 2

µ0 2 2 µ0
ε 1
1 ε ∂ Tyy = 0 ( E y2 − Ez2 − Ex2 ) + ( By2 − Bz2 − Bx2 )
− ∇B 2 − 0 ∇ E 2 − ε 0 ( E × B ) 2 2 µ0
2 µ0 2 ∂t ε0 2 1
Tzz = ( Ez − E y − Ex ) +
2 2
( Bz2 − By2 − Bx2 )
It can be simplified by introducing the Maxwell stress tensor. 2 2 µ0
1
1 1 1 Txy = Tyx = ε 0 ( Ex E y ) + ( Bx By )
Tij ≡ ε 0 ( Ei E j − δ ij E 2 ) + ( Bi B j − δ ij B 2 ) µ0 Because Tij carries two indices,
2 µ0 2 1
Tyz = Tzy = ε 0 ( E y Ez ) + ( By Bz ) it is sometimesIwritten with a
(the Kronecker delta, another example see Prob. 3.45) µ0 double arrow T .
1
Tzx = Txz = ε 0 ( Ez Ex ) + ( Bz Bx )
1 if i = j µ0
δ ij = 
0 if i ≠ j Q: How does the tensor operate?
13 See, “Vector Analysis”, Chap.8, M. E. Spiegel, McGRAW-HILL.
14

Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (V) Maxwell’s Stress Tensor (VI)

I
On can form the dot product of tensor T with a vector a: The force per unit volume:
I ∂S
(row vector) f = ∇ ⋅ T − ε 0 µ0
I ∂t
(a ⋅ T) j = ∑
i= x, y , z
aiTij
The total force on the charges in V is:
I d
(column vector)
I F = v∫ T ⋅ da − ε 0 µ0 ∫ Sdτ
(T ⋅ a)i = ∑ Tij a j S
dt V
j = x, y , z

Physically, the Maxwell stress tensor is the force per unit

The divergence of the Maxwell stress tensor is: area acting on the surface.
I 1
(∇ ⋅ T) j = ε 0 [(∇ ⋅ E) E j + (E ⋅∇) E j − ∇ j E 2 ]
2
1 1
+ [(B ⋅∇) B j + (∇ ⋅ B) B j − ∇ j B 2 ]
µ0 2
15 16
 Example 8.2 Example 8.2 (II)
A uniformly charged solid sphere of radius Cont’: rˆ = sin θ cos φ xˆ + sin θ sin φ yˆ + cos θ zˆ
R and charge Q is cut into two hemisphere. Q
Tzx = ε 0 Ez Ex = ε 0 ( ) 2 sin θ cos θ cos φ
Find the force required to prevent the 4πε 0 R 2
Q
hemisphere from separating. Tzy = ε 0 Ez E y = ε 0 ( ) 2 sin θ cos θ sin φ
4πε 0 R 2
Sol: This is an electrostatics, no magnetic field involved. ε Q
I Tzz = 0 ( Ez2 − E y2 − Ex2 ) = ε 0 ( ) 2 (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
1 Qr 4πε 0 R 2
E=
4πε 0 R 3
rˆ F = T ⋅ da
S
v∫ 2
dFz =
ε0
(
Q
) 2 sin θ cos θ dθ dφ
The boundary surface consists of two parts---bowl and disk. 2 4πε 0 R 2

The net force is obviously in the z-direction. The force on the bowl is:
I
dFz = (T ⋅ da) z = Tzx dax + Tzy da y + Tzz daz π / 2 2π
ε0 Q Q2 1
Fbowl = ∫ ∫ ) sin θ cos θ dθ dφ =
2
(
Express the electric component in Cartesian coordinate. θ =0 φ =0 2 4πε 0 R 2 4πε 0 8R 2
17 18

Example 8.2 (III) 8.2.3 Conservation of Momentum

Cont’:
Newton’s second law Î the force on an object is equal to
The force on the disk is: the rate of change of its momentum.
R 2π
ε0 Q 1 Q2 dp I d
F = mech = v∫ T ⋅ da − ε 0 µ0 ∫ Sdτ
Fdisk = ∫ ∫
r =0 φ =0
(
2 4πε 0 R 3
) 2 r 3drdφ =
4πε 0 16 R 2 dt S
dt V
where pmech is the total (mechanical) momentum of the
The net force on the northern hemisphere is: particles contained in the volume V.
 dp mech
F=
13Q 2  dt = ∫ g mech dτ (an analogous interpretation,
 not a rigorous proof)
4πε 0 16 R 2  dp
V
d
 em = ε 0 µ0 Sdτ , where p em = (ε 0 µ0S)dτ = g em dτ
 dt dt ∫
V
∫
V
∫
V

Q: Can we solve this problem using a simpler approach?

(momentum stored in the (momentum density)
Yes, we can use the potential energy to find the net force. electromagnetic fields themselves)
19 20
 Conservation of Momentum (II) Conservation of Momentum (III)
I
v∫ T ⋅ da (the momentum per unit time flowing in through the surface.
S
The roles of Poynting’s vector:
Conservation of momentum in electrodynamics: the energy per unit area, per unit time, transported by
S
Any increase in the total momentum (mechanical plus electromagnetic fields.
electromagnetic) is equal to the momentum brought in by µ0ε 0S the momentum per unit volume stored in those fields.
the fields.

∂ I
(g mech + g em ) = −∇ ⋅ (−T) (in differential form) The roles of momentum stress tensor:
∂t I
T the electromagnetic stress acting on a surface.
(momentum flux density, playing the role of J in I
continuity equation, or S in Poynting’s theorem) −T the flow of momentum transported by the fields.

21 22

Sol: The fields are

Example 8.3 (hidden momentum)
1 λ
E= sˆ
A long coaxial cable, of length l, consists of an inner 2πε 0 s 1 λI
conductor (radius a) and an outer conductor (radius b). It is S≡ (E × B ) = zˆ
µ0 I µ0 4π 2ε 0 s 2
connected to a battery at one end and a resistor at the other. B= φˆ
2π s
The inner conductor carries a uniform charge per unit lengthλ,
and a steady current to the right; the outer conductor has the The momentum in the fields is: (an astonishing result!)
opposite charge and current. What is the electromagnetic µ λI b 1 µ λ Il
momentum stored in the fields. p em = ∫ µ0ε 0Sdτ = 0 2 ∫ 2 l 2π sdszˆ = 0 ln(b / a )zˆ
4π a s 2π

In fact, if the center of mass of a localized system is at rest,

its total momentum must be zero.

There is “hidden” mechanical momentum associated with the

flow of current, and this exactly cancels the momentum in the
fields.
23 24
 8.2.4 Angular Momentum Example 8.4
The electromagnetic fields carry energy and momentum, not
merely mediators of forces between charges. Imagine a very long solenoid with radius R, n
1 turns per unit length, and current I. Coaxial
uem = (ε 0 E 2 + µ0 B 2 ) with the solenoid are two long cylinderical
2
shells of length l---one, inside the solenoid at
g em = ε 0 µ0S = ε 0 (E × B) radius a, carries a charge +Q, uniformly
distributed over the surface; the other,
How about the angular momentum ?
outside the solenoid at radius b, carries
A em = r × g em = ε 0 [r × (E × B)] (again, not a rigorous proof) charge –Q. When the current in the solenoid
is gradually reduced, the cylinders begin to
rotate, as we found in Ex. 7.8. Where does
Even perfectly static fields can harbor momentum and the angular momentum come from?
angular momentum. See the following example.
25 26

Sol: The fields are

1 Q
E= sˆ (a < s < b)
2πε 0 ls Homework of Chap.8
B = µ0 nIzˆ ( s < R)

The momentum density is: (an astonishing result!)

µ0 nIQ Prob. 1, 4, 6, 10 ,12, 15
g em = µ0ε 0S = ε 0 E × B = − φˆ (a < s < R)
2π ls
The angular momentum density is:
µ0 nIQ
A em = r × g em = ε 0 [r × (E × B)] = − zˆ (a < s < R)
2π l
The total angular momentum in the fields is:
µ0 nIQ
Lem = ∫ A em dτ = − ( R 2 − a 2 )zˆ
2 27 28
 Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Waves The Wave Equation
9.1 Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation
How to represent such a “wave” mathematically?
What is a “wave”?
Hint: The wave at different times, once at t=0, and again at
A start: A wave is disturbance of a continuous medium that some later time t --- each point on the wave form simply shifts
propagates with a fixed shape at constant velocity. to the right by an amount vt, where v is the velocity.
In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in
initial shape f ( z , 0) = g ( z )
size as it move;
If the medium is dispersive different frequencies travel at subsequent form f ( z, t ) = ?
different speeds; (capture (mathematically) the
Standing waves do not propagate;
f ( z , t ) = f ( z − vt , 0) = g ( z − vt ) essence of wave motion.)
Light wave can propagate in vacuum;…
The function f(z,t) depends on them only in the very special
combination z-vt;
When that is true, the function f(z,t) represents a wave of
fixed shape traveling in the z direction at speed v.
1 2

The Wave Equation (II) The Wave Equation of a String

f1 ( z , t ) = Ae − b ( z −vt ) From Newton’s second law we have
2

f 2 ( z , t ) = A sin[b( z − vt )] ∂2 y
Examples: F[sin(θ + ∆θ ) − sin(θ )] = (µ∆x)
f3 ( z, t ) =
A ∂t 2
b( z − vt ) 2 + 1

How about these functions? Small angle approximation:

∂y
f 4 ( z , t ) = Ae − b ( z + vt )
sinθ ≈ tanθ =
2

∂x
f 5 ( z , t ) = A sin(bz ) cos(bvt ) ∂ y
2
∂2 y
= (µ / F ) 2
A
= [sin(b( z + vt )) + sin(b( z − vt ))] a standing wave
∂x2 ∂t
2
3 4
 The Wave Equation 9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves
Derive the wave equation that a disturbance propagates wave speed
without changing it shape. (i) Terminology
f ( z , t ) = g ( z − vt ); Let u ≡ z − vt f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ]
∂f df ∂u dg ∂2 f ∂ dg 2
2 d g
= = −v ⇒ =- v ( )= v amplitude wave number phase constant
∂t du ∂t du ∂t 2 ∂t du du 2
∂f df ∂u dg ∂ 2 f ∂ dg d 2 g f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ] = A cos(kz − ωt + δ )
= = ⇒ = ( )=
∂z du ∂z du ∂z 2 ∂z du du 2 2π
k= , λ: wave length
d 2 g 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f 1 ∂2 f λ
= = ⇒ − = 0 qed v
du 2 v 2 ∂t 2 ∂z 2 ∂z 2 v 2 ∂t 2 ω = kv = 2π =2π f
λ
+ v or − v ω : angular frequency
f ( z , t ) = g ( z − vt ) + h( z + vt ) the wave equation is linear. 
5  f : frequency 6

Sinusoidal Waves Example 9.1

(ii) Complex notation The advantage of the complex notation.
Suppose we want to combine two sinusoidal waves:
Euler’s formula eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
f3 = f1 + f 2 = Re[ f1 ] + Re[ f 2 ] = Re[ f1 + f 2 ] = Re[ f3 ]
f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −ωt +δ ) ]
Simply add the corresponding complex wave functions, and
= Re[ Aiδ ei ( kz −ωt ) ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −ωt ) ] take the real part.
In particular, when they have the same frequency and wave
f ≡ Aei ( kz −ωt ) complex wave function number
A ≡ Aeiδ complex amplitude f3 = A1ei ( kz −ωt ) + A2 ei ( kz −ωt ) = A3ei ( kz −ωt )
f ( z , t ) = Re[ f ( z, t )] where A3 = A3eiδ3 = A1eiδ1 + A2 eiδ 2

The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials Try doing this without using the complex notation.
are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
7 8
 9.1.3 Boundary Conditions:
Sinusoidal Waves (III)
Reflection and Transmission
(iii) Linear combinations of sinusoidal waves f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −ωt )
Incident wave:
∞
f ( z , t ) = ∫ A(k )ei ( kz −ωt ) dk , where ω = ω (k ) Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −ωt )
−∞
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT ei ( k2 z −ωt )
A(k ) can be obtained in terms of the initial conditions ∗ All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency ω.
f ( z , 0) and f ( z , 0) from the theory of Fourier transforms.
The wave velocities are different in two v1 k2 λ1
regimes, which means the wave lengths = =
Any wave can be written as a linear combination of and wave numbers are also different. v2 k1 λ2
sinusoidal waves.
The waves in the two regions:

So from now on we shall confine our attention to sinusoidal  AI ei ( k1z −ωt ) + AR ei ( − k1z −ωt ) for z < 0
f ( z, t ) = 
waves.  AT ei ( k2 z −ωt ) for z > 0
9 10

Boundary Conditions Determine the Complex

Boundary Conditions Amplitudes
Mathematically, f(z,t) is continuous at z=0.
− + f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ) ⇒ AI + AR = AT
f (0 , t ) = f (0 , t )
df df
The derivative of f(z,t) must also be continuous at z=0. = ⇒ k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT
dz 0−
dz 0+
df df k1 − k2 v2 − v1
= Why? 
A = ( ) A = ( ) AI
dz dz   k1 + k2 v2 + v1
− + R I
0 0
AI + AR = AT
⇒ 
k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1
When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
The complex wave function obeys the same rules: Why? When v2<v1 the reflected wave is out of phase by 180°.
df df
f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ); = 11
Consider two extreme cases, open end and fixed end. 12
dz 0 − dz 0 +
 The Open End and Fixed End 9.1.4 Polarization
Superposition of the actual pulse and an imaginary pulse. Transverse waves: the displacement of the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, e.g. EM waves.
Longitudinal waves: the displacement of the wave is along
the direction of propagation, e.g. sound waves.

Transverse waves occur in two independent states of polarization:

fv ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz −ωt ) xˆ f h ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz −ωt ) yˆ
i ( kz −ωt )
General form: f ( z , t ) = Ae nˆ , where nˆ = cos θ xˆ + sin θ yˆ

13 14

9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

Right and Left Hand Circular Polarizations 9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B
In regions of space where there is no charge or current,
Maxwell’s equations read
∂B
(i) ∇ ⋅ E = 0 (iii) ∇ × E = −
∂t
∂E
(ii) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (iV) ∇ × B = µ0ε 0
∂t
∂ (∇ × B) ∂ 2E
∇ × (∇ × E) = − ⇒ ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2 E = − µ0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t
∂ (∇ × E) ∂ 2B
∇ × (∇ × B) = µ0ε 0 ⇒ ∇(∇ ⋅ B) − ∇ 2 B = − µ0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t
 2 ∂ 2E
∇ E = µ0ε 0 2
∇ ⋅ E = 0 ∂t
since  
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ 2 B = µ ε ∂ B
2

15  0 0
∂t 2 16
 The Wave Equation for E and B Hertz’s Experiment
In vacuum, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies When Maxwell’s work was published in 1867 it did not
the three-dimensional wave equation receive immediate acceptance. It is Hertz who conclusively
 2 ∂ 2E
 ∇ E = µ ε demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic wave.
0 0
∂t 2 1 ∂2 f
 ⇒ ∇ 2
f =
∇ 2 B = µ ε ∂ B
2
v 2 ∂t 2
 0 0
∂t 2
Maxwell’s equations imply that empty space supports the
propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed
1
v= = 3 ×108 m/s the speed of light
µ 0ε 0

17 18

9.2.2 Monochromatic Plane Waves The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Since different frequencies in the visible range correspond to Electromagnetic waves span an immerse range of
different colors, such waves are called monochromatic. frequencies, from very long wavelength to extremely high
This definition can be applied to the whole spectrum. A wave energy with frequency 1023 Hz. There is no theoretical limit
of single frequency is called a monochromatic wave. to the high end.

19 20
Mainly Heating Effect in Micro/mm-Wave Spectrum Windows for Research and Application Opportunities

21 22

Spectrum to Be Exploited
--- Significance of the Electron Cyclotron Maser
Monochromatic Plane Waves
Consider a monochromatic wave of frequency ω and the
one photon multiple-photon multiple photon wave is traveling in the z direction and has no x or y
per excitation, per electron, per electron, dependence, called plane waves.
Plane waves: the fields are uniform over every plane
large interaction large interaction interaction space
space space ~ wavelength perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
↓ ↓ ↓ Are these waves common? Yes, very common.
E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt )
 i ( kz −ωt )
where E0 and B 0 are the complex amplitudes.
B( z , t ) = B 0 e
THz gap

23 24
 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves Transverse Electromagnetic Waves (II)
∂E
Q: What is the relation between E and B? Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction: ∇ × B = µ0ε 0
∂t
∂Ez
∇⋅E = 0 = ( E0 ) z ikei ( kz −ωt ) = 0 ⇒ ( E0 ) z = 0 ∂ ( B0 ) z ∂ ( B0 ) y ∂ ( E0 ) x
∂z xˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ k ( B0 ) y = µ0ε 0ω ( E0 ) x
∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Bz
∇⋅B = 0 = ( B0 ) z ikei ( kz −ωt ) = 0 ⇒ ( B0 ) z = 0 ∂ ( B0 ) x ∂ ( B0 ) z ∂ ( E0 ) y
∂z yˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ k ( B0 ) x = − µ0ε 0ω ( E0 ) y
That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric ∂z ∂x ∂t
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of ∂ ( B0 ) y ∂ ( B0 ) x ∂ ( E0 ) z
zˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ 0=0
propagation. Moreover, Faraday’s law ∇ × E = − ∂B ∂x ∂y ∂t
∂t ω 1
∂ ( E0 ) z ∂ ( E0 ) y ∂ ( B0 ) x In free space, the speed of light is c= =
xˆ : − =− ⇒ k ( E0 ) y = −ω ( B0 ) x k µ 0ε 0
∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ( E0 ) x ∂ ( E0 ) z ∂ ( B0 ) y More compactly, B 0 = k (zˆ × E0 ) = 1 (zˆ × E0 ) ⇒ E ⊥ B
yˆ : − =− ⇒ k ( E0 ) x = ω ( B0 ) y ω c
∂z ∂x ∂t 1
∂ ( E0 ) y ∂ ( E0 ) x ∂ ( B0 ) z amplitude relation: B0 = E0
zˆ : − =− ⇒ 0=0 25 c 26
∂x ∂y ∂t

Example 9.2 Plane Waves Traveling in an Arbitrary Direction

Prove: If E points in the x direction, There is nothing special about the z
then B points in the y direction. direction---we can generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in
Sol: E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) xˆ an arbitrary direction.
k 1 1
B0 = (zˆ × E0 ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) (zˆ × xˆ ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) yˆ The propagation (or wave) vector, k: pointing in the
ω c c
direction of propagation.
Take the real part: Generalization of kz: using the scalar product k·r.

E( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − ωt + δ )xˆ E(r, t ) = E0 ei (k ⋅r −ωt )nˆ ← the polarization vector

1 1 1
B( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − ωt + δ )yˆ B(r, t ) = E0 ei ( k ⋅r −ωt ) (kˆ × nˆ ) = kˆ × E
c c c
Q: Why not use sin function? Q: Can you write down the real electric and magnetic fields?
27 28
 9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in
Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector
Electromagnetic Waves
The energy per unit volume stored in the electromagnetic Consider two planes, each of area A, a distance dx apart,
field is and normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
1 1 2 total energy in the volume between the planes is dU=uAdx.
u = (ε 0 E 2 + B )
2 µ0 The rate at which this energy through a unit area normal to
1
Monochromatic plane wave: B 2 = 2 E 2 = µ0ε 0 E 2 the direction of propagation is
c
1 dU 1 dx
1
u = (ε 0 E 2 +
1 1
B 2 ) = (ε 0 E 2 + ε 0 E 2 ) = ε 0 E 2 S= = uA = uc
2 µ0 2 A dt A dt
EB
Their contributions are equal. S = uc =
µ0
u = ε 0 E = ε 0 E0 cos (kz − ωt + δ )
2 2 2
E×B
S= (the vector form)
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. µ0
1 1 1
Q: How about the momentum? See next slide. g= 2
S = 2 ε 0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz − ωt + δ )zˆ = uzˆ
29 c c c 30

Average Effect Example

In the case of light, the period is so brief, that any A radio station transmits a 10-kW signal at a frequency of 100
macroscopy measurement will encompass many cycles. MHz. For simplicity, assume that it radiates as a point source.
At a distance of 1 km from the antenna, find: (a) the amplitude
All we want is the average value. of the electric and magnetic field strengths, and (b) the energy
1 incident normally on a square plate of side 10 cm in 5 min.
u = ε 0 E0 2
2 Solution:
1
S = uc = cε 0 E02 zˆ Average power E02
2 (a ) S av = =
1 1 4π r 2 2 µ0 c
g = 2 S = ε 0 E02 zˆ 10000
c 2c ⇒ × 2 × 4π × 10−7 × 3 × 108 = E02
4π 10002
The average power per unit area transported by an  E0 = 0.775 V/m
electromagnetic wave is called the intensity:  −9
 B0 = 2.58 × 10 T
1 (b) ∆U = S av A∆t = 2.4 × 10−3 J
I≡ S = cε 0 E02
2 31 32
 Momentum and Radiation Pressure Momentum and Radiation Pressure (II)
An electromagnetic wave transports linear momentum. The radiation pressure at normal incident is
The linear momentum carried by an electromagnetic wave is F S
= =u
related the energy it transport according to A c
U
p= Examples: (a) the tail of comet, (b) A “solar sail”
c
If surface is perfectly reflecting, the momentum change of
the wave is double, consequently, the momentum imparted
to the surface is also doubled.
The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface
may be related to the Poynting vector
F ∆p ∆U SA S
= = = = =u
A A∆t Ac∆t Ac c
33 34

Homework of Chap.9 (I) 9.3 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media
In regions where there is no free charge and free current,
Maxwell’s equations become
∂B
Prob. 2, 6, 8, 10, 12 ∇⋅D = 0 ∇×E = −
∂t
∂D
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×H =
∂t
1
If the medium is linear, D = ε E and H = B
µ

If the medium is linear and ∂B

∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E = −
homogeneous (ε and µ do not vary ∂t
from point to point), ∂E
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × B = µε 36
35
∂t
 The Index of Refraction Energy Density, Poynting Vector, and Intensity in
Linear Media
Electromagnetic waves propagate through a linear
All of our previous results carry over, with the simple
homogeneous medium at a speed
1 c transcription 1
 2 ∂ 2E v= = 1 1 g = uzˆ
u = (ε E 2 + B 2 )
∇ E = µε 2 1 ∂2 f µε n ε0 → ε 2 µ v
∂t
 ⇒ ∇ f = 2 2
2
µε µ0 → µ
∇ 2 B = µε ∂ B
2
v ∂t n≡ E×B 1
µ 0ε 0 S= I ≡ S = vε E02
 ∂t 2 c→v µ 2
The index of refraction of the material Q: What happens when a wave passes from one
ε
For most material, µ is very close to µ0, so n ≅ = εr transparent medium into another? Boundary conditions.
ε0
Since εr is almost always greater than 1, light travels D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
more slowly through matter. B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 H1// − H 2// = (K f × nˆ )
Q: What happens when εr is less than 1 or negative?
Very interesting. 37 38

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal

Incidence The Boundary Conditions
A plane wave of frequency ω, traveling in the z direction and Normal incident: no components perpendicular to the surface.
polarized in the x direction, approaches the interface from the
left. E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 1
Incident wave: ( E0 I − E0 R ) = E
µ1v1 µ2 v2 0T
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) xˆ µ1v1
⇒ ( E0 I − E0 R ) = β E0T , where β =
1 µ2 v2
B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) yˆ
v1 In terms of the incident amplitude:

Reflected wave: Transmitted wave: 1− β v2 − v1

i ( k2 z −ωt ) E0 R = ( ) E0 I E0 R = ( ) E0 I
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt )
xˆ ET ( z , t ) = E0T e xˆ 1+ β v1 + v2
if µ µ0 ⇒
1 2 2v2
1
B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1z −ωt ) yˆ BT ( z , t ) = E0T ei ( k2 z −ωt ) yˆ E0T = ( ) E0 I E0T =( ) E0 I
v1 v2
39
1+ β v1 + v2 40
 Determine the Complex Amplitudes of a String Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
The reflected wave is in phase if v2 >v1
Incident wave: f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −ωt )
and is out of phase if v2 <v1
Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −ωt ) v2 − v1 n −n
i ( k2 z −ωt ) E0 R = ( ) E0 I = ( 1 2 ) E0 I
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT e v1 + v2 n1 + n2
df df 2v2 2n1
Boundary f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ) = E0T =( ) E0 I = ( ) E0 I
conditions: dz dz v1 + v2 n1 + n2
0− 0+ 1
The intensity (average power per unit area) is: I ≡ S = vε E02
 k −k v −v 2
 AR = ( 1 2 ) AI = ( 2 1 ) AI
AI + AR = AT   k1 + k2 v2 + v1 IR n −n
⇒  Reflection coefficient R ≡ = ( 1 2 )2
k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2 II n1 + n2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI εv
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1 I
Transmission coefficient T ≡ T = 2 2 (
2n1 2
) =
4n1n2
When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle. I I ε1v1 n1 + n2 (n1 + n2 ) 2
41 42
When v2<v1, the reflected wave is out of phase by 180°.

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique

Incidence Boundary Conditions
Suppose that a monochromatic plane wave of frequency ω, All three waves have the same frequency ω.
traveling in the kI direction
v2 n
ω = k I v1 = k R v1 = kT v2 or k I = k R = kT = 1 kT
Incident wave: v1 n2
E I (r, t ) = E0 I ei (k I ⋅r −ωt ) Using the boundary conditions
1
B I (r, t ) = (kˆ I × E I ) ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = 0 E1// − E2// = 0
v1
1 1
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1// − B 2// = 0
µ1 µ2
Reflected wave: Transmitted wave:
E R (r, t ) = E0 R ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) ET (r, t ) = E0T ei (kT ⋅r −ωt ) A generic structure for the four boundary conditions.
1 1
B R (r, t ) = (kˆ R × E R ) BT (r, t ) = (kˆ T × ET ) ( )ei ( k I ⋅r −ωt ) + ( )ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) = ( )ei (kT ⋅r −ωt )
v1 v2
43 44
 Laws of Reflection and Refraction Boundary Conditions (ii)
θ I , θ R , and θT are angles ( )ei (k I ⋅r −ωt ) + ( )ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) = ( )ei (kT ⋅r −ωt )
k I ⋅ r = k R ⋅ r = k T ⋅ r at z=0
of incidence, reflection, We have taken care of the exponential factors—they cancel.
k I sin θ I = k R sin θ R = kT sin θT The boundary conditions become:
and refraction, respectively.
(i) ε1 (E0 I + E0 R ) z = ε 2 ( E0T ) z Normal D
The law of reflection: θI = θR (ii) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) z = (B 0T ) z Normal B
(iii) (E0 I + E0 R ) x , y = ( E0T ) x , y Tangential E
sin θT k I v1 n1 1 1
The law of refraction: = = = (iv) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) x , y = ( B 0T ) x , y Tangential H
(Snell’s law) sin θ I kT v2 n2 µ1 µ2

1
Common properties of waves: These equations are where B 0 (r, t ) = (kˆ × E0 )
obtained from their generic form. v
45 46

Parallel to the Plane of Incidence Parallel to the Plane of Incidence (ii)

Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is parallel to the cos θT
plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted (iii) ( E0 I + E0 R ) = α ( E0T ) α≡
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes. cos θ I
µv
(iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = β ( E0T ) β ≡ 1 1
µ2v2
α −β 2
⇒ E0 R = ( ) E0 I E0T = ( ) E Fresnel’s equations
α +β α + β 0I

How about the first boundary condition?

Normal D (i) ε1 (− E0 I sin θ I + E0 R sin θ R ) = ε 2 (− E0T sin θT )
Does this condition contribute anything new?
Tangential E (iii) ( E0 I cos θ I + E0 R cos θ R ) = ( E0T cos θT )
Normal B (ii) 0=0 ε 2 sin θT ε 2 sin θT µ1v1
(i) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = (E ) = ?
1 1 ε1 sin θ I 0T ε1 sin θ I µ2v2
Tangential H (iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = (E )
µ1v1 µ2 v2 0T 47 48
 Brewster’s Angle Brewster’s Angle (II)
 α −β If µ1 ≅ µ2 , β ≅ n2 / n1 and sin 2 θ B ≅ β 2 /(1 + β 2 )
 E0 R = ( α + β ) E0 I cos θT µv
 ⇒ tan θ B ≅ 2
n
 where α ≡ and β ≡ 1 1
E = ( 2 )E cos θ I µ2 v2 n1
 0T
α +β 0I

When α =β, there is no reflected wave. E0 R = 0

cos θT µ1v1
= when θ I = θ B (called Brewster's angle)
cos θ I µ2 v2
v sin θT cos θT µ1 sin θ B
From Snell's law 2 = ⇒ =
v1 sin θ B cos θ B µ2 sin θT
µ12 sin 2 θ B v2 2 2 1− β 2
=β 2
and sin 2
θ = ( ) sin θ ⇒ sin 2
θ =
µ22 sin 2 θT T
v1
B B
(n1 / n2 ) 2 −49β 2 50

Transmission and Reflection Perpendicular to the Plane of Incidence

1
I I ≡ S ⋅ zˆ = v1ε1 E02I cos θ I I α −β 2 Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is perpendicular
2 R≡ R =( ) to the plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
1 α −β 2 II α +β
I R = v1ε1 E02R cos θ R = ( ) I waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.
2 α +β I I
T ≡ T = αβ (
2 2
)
1 2 2 II α +β
IT = v2ε 2 E02T cos θT = αβ ( ) I
2 α +β I

51 See Problem 9.16 52

 9.4 Absorption and Dispersion
Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (II)
9.4.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors
∂ρ f
When wave propagates through vacuum or insulating The continuity equation for free charge: = −∇ ⋅ J f
conductivity ∂t
materials such as glass or teflon, assuming no free charge
and no free current is reasonable. J f =σE ∂ρ f ρf σ
= −σ (∇ ⋅ E) = −σ = − ρf
ρ f = ε∇ ⋅ E ∂t ε ε
But in conductive media such as metal or plasma, the free
charge and free current are generally not zero. −
t

The free current is proportional to the electric field: Ohm’s law For a homogeneous linear medium: ρ f (t ) = e τ ρ f (0)
ε
J f =σE where τ =
σ
Classification of conductors:
Maxwell’s equation for linear media assume the form
superconductor σ = ∞, τ = 0 What’s the difference?
ρf ∂B
∇⋅E = ∇×E + =0 perfect conductor σ = ∞, τ = 0 See Prob. 7.42
ε ∂t
∂E
good conductor τ << ω τ ≈ 10−19 s for copper
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ × B − µε = µσ E poor conductor τ >> ω τ c ∼ 10−14 s collision time
∂t 53 54

Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (III) Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (IV)

Omitting Transient Effect Complex Wave Number
Omit the transient behavior. These equations still admit plane-wave solutions,
Assume no charges accumulation: ρ f = 0 ∂ 2E ∂E
∂B ∇ 2 E = µε + µσ E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt )
∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E + =0 ∂t 2 ∂t
∂t 
∂ 2B ∂B B( z , t ) = B 0 e
i ( kz −ωt )
∂E ∇ 2 B = µε 2 + µσ
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × B = µε + µσ E ∂t ∂t
∂t
∂B ∂ (∇ × B) Note this time the " wave number" k is complex:
∇ × (∇ × E + ) = ∇ × (∇ × E) +
∂t ∂t k 2 = µεω 2 + i µσω
 εµ  σ 2 
∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2 E = −∇ 2 E k ≡ ω  1 + ( ) + 1
=0  2  εω 
∂ (∇ × B) ∂ 2E
= µε 2 + µσ
∂E k = k + iκ , where 
∂t ∂t ∂t  εµ  σ 2 
κ ≡ ω  1 + ( ) − 1
∂ 2E ∂E ∂ 2B ∂B  2  εω 
∇ 2 E = µε + µσ , ∇ 2
B = µε + µσ (likewise) 55 56
∂t 2
∂t ∂t 2
∂t
 The Real Parts of The Fields 9.4.2 Reflection at a Conducting Surface
k ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
E( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt )  → B( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt )
Faraday's law
ω 1 1
iφ B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1// − B 2// = K f × nˆ
k = k + iκ = Ke µ1 µ2
σ 2 Where σf is the free surface charge, Kf is the free surface
K ≡ k 2 + κ 2 = ω εµ 1 + ( ) and φ ≡ tan −1 (κ / k ) current, and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface,
εω
pointing from medium (2) into medium (1).
k iδ B Keiφ
B( z , t ) = E ⇒ B0 e = E0 eiδ E
ω ω Normal
incident
B0 K σ
δ B − δ E = φ and = = εµ 1 + ( ) 2
E0 ω εω (1) nonconducting (2) conductor
−κ z linear medium
E( z , t ) = E0 e cos(kz − ωt + δ E )xˆ
K
B( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z cos(kz − ωt + δ E + φ )yˆ
ω 57 58

Reflection at a Conducting Surface (II) Reflection at a Conducting Surface (III)

Incident wave: Tangential components of the fields at z=0:
i ( k1 z −ωt ) 1
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I e xˆ , B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) yˆ E1// − E2// = 0
v1 E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 1 1 k
Reflected wave: B1// − B 2// = K f × nˆ ( E0 I − E0 R ) − 2 E0T = K f
1 µ1 µ2 µ1v1 µ2ω
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt ) xˆ , B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt ) yˆ
v1
with K f = 0, why? K f ∝ E // = 0 1− β
Transmitted wave: E0 R = ( ) E0 I
k2 E0 I + E0 R = E0T 1+ β
E( z , t ) = E0T e −κ z ei ( k2 z −ωt ) xˆ , B( z , t ) = E0T e −κ z ei ( k2 z −ωt ) yˆ
ω µ1v1 E0T = (
2
( E0 I − E0 R ) = β E0T , where β ≡ k ) E0 I
µ2ω 2 1+ β
Normal components of the fields
For a perfect conductor (σ=∞), k2=∞ Î E0 R = − E0 I and E0T = 0
ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = σ f
⇒ σ f = 0 (E = 0) ⊥

B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
1,2
59 That’s why excellent conductors make good mirrors. 60
 9.4.3 The Frequency Dependence of Permittivity The Group Velocity and Phase Velocity
When the speed of a wave depends on its frequency, the When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
supporting medium is called dispersive. superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.
Asin((k0 + ∆k ) z − (ω0 + ∆ω)t ) + Asin((k0 − ∆k ) z − (ω0 − ∆ω)t )
= Asin((k0 z − ω0t ) + (∆kz − ∆ωt )) + Asin((k0 z − ω0t ) − (∆kz − ∆ωt ))
= 2 A cos[(∆kz − ∆ωt )]sin[(k0 z − ω0t )]

ω0
Phase velocity vp =
k0
∆ω dω
Group velocity vg = =
∆k dk
61 62

Simplified Model for the Frequency Dependence of

Interference in Time: Beats
Permittivity in Nonconductors
When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in The electrons in a nonconductor are
amplitude. bound to specific molecules.
y = y1 + y2 = Asin(2πf1t ) + Asin(2πf 2t )
f1 − f 2 f +f
= 2 A cos[2π ( )t ]sin[2π ( 1 2 )t ] The simplified binding force: Fbinding = − kspring x = − mω02 x
2 2
Beat frequency (|f1-f2|): frequency of the amplitude Is this model oversimplified to you?
envelope dx
The damping force on the electron: Fdamping = − mγ
dt
The driving force on the electron: Fdriving = qE = qE0 cos(ωt )

d 2x
Newton's law: m = Ftot = Fbinding + Fdamping + Fdriving
63 dt 2 64
 Permittivity in Nonconductors Permittivity in Nonconductors (II)
The equation of motion N molecules per unit volume; each molecule contains fj
electrons with frequency ωj and damping γj.
d 2x dx The polarization P is given by the real part of:
m 2 + mγ + mω02 x = qE0 cos(ωt )
dt dt
Nq 2  fj 
 d 2x dx  P=  ∑ 2  E = ε 0 χeE
Re m 2 + mγ + mω02 x = qE0 e − iωt  m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
 dt dt 
Nq 2  fj 
Let the system oscillates at the driving frequency ω χe =  ∑ 2  ← the complex susceptibility
ε 0 m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
q/m
x = x0 e − iωt , where x0 = 2 E
ω0 − ω 2 − iγω 0 the complex permittivity ε =ε 0 (1 + χ e )
The dipole moment is the real part of p = qx(t ) the complex dielectric constant
Nq 2  fj 
p=
q2 1
E0 e − iωt ε r =(1 + χ e ) = 1 +  ∑ 2 
m ω0 − ω − iγω
2 2 ε 0 m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
65 66

Waves in a Dispersive medium Anomalous Dispersion

The wave equation for a given frequency reads The index of refraction:
∂ 2E Nq 2  fj  Nq 2  f j (ω 2j − ω 2 ) 
 ∑ 2
ck
∇ E = µε 2 ε =ε 0 (1 + χ e ) = ε 0 +  n= ≅ 1+ ∑
2

∂t m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω  ω 2mε 0  j (ω 2j − ω 2 ) 2 + γ 2j ω 2 
k ≡ εµ0 ω = k + iκ E( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt ) Nq 2ω 2  f j γ 2j 
α = 2κ ≅  ∑ 2 2 2 
mε 0 c  j (ω j − ω ) + γ j ω 
2 2

I ≡ S = I 0 e −2κ z , α ≡ 2κ (absorption coefficient)

In the immediate neighborhood of a resonance, the index of
For gases, the second term of ε is small refraction drops sharply. Í called anomalous dispersion.
ω ω 1 ω Nq 2  fj 
k≡ εr ≅ (1 + ε r ) = 1 +  ∑ 2 
c c 2 c  2mε 0  j ω j − ω − iγ jω  
2 Faster Than Light (FTL):
Can we find cases where the waves propagate at a speed
The binomial expansion faster than light? Superluminal effect.
67 68
 9.5 Guided Waves
General Properties of Wave Guides
9.4.1 Wave Guides
In the interior of the wave guide, the waves satisfy Maxwell’s
Can the electromagnetic waves propagate in a hollow metal
equations: ∂B
pipe? Yes, wave guide. ∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E + = 0 Why ρ = 0 and J = 0?
∂t f f
Waveguides generally made of good 1 ∂E 1
conductor, so that E=0 and B=0 inside ∇⋅B = 0 ∇×B = 2 where v =
v ∂t εµ
the material.
We obtain
The boundary conditions at the inner wall
are: E // = 0 and B ⊥ = 0 …

The generic form of the monochromatic waves:

E( x, y, z , t ) = E0 ( x, y )ei ( kz −ωt ) = ( Ex xˆ + E y yˆ + Ez zˆ )ei ( kz −ωt )
 i ( kz −ωt )
 B( x, y, z , t ) = B 0 ( x, y )e = ( Bx xˆ + By yˆ + Bz zˆ )ei ( kz −ωt )
The confined waves are not (in general) transverse. 69 70

TE, TM, and TEM Waves No TEM Waves in a Hollow Wave Guide
Determining the longitudinal components Ez and Bz, we could Proof:
quickly calculate all the others.
∂Ex ∂E y
If Ez=0, Gauss’s law says + =0
∂x ∂y ∂ 2 Ex ∂ E y
2

⇒ + =0
∂E y ∂Ex ∂x 2 ∂y 2
If Bz=0, Faraday’s law says − =0
∂x ∂y

The boundary condition on E requires that the surface be an

equal-potential.
Laplace’s equation admits no local maxima or minima.
We obtain Î the potential is constant throughout. Ez=0 — no wave at all.
 ∂2 ∂2 ω 2 
 2 + + 2 − k 2  Ez = 0 If Ez = 0 ⇒ TE (transverse electric) waves;
 ∂x ∂y
2
v  A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave.
If Bz = 0 ⇒ TM (transverse magnetic) waves;
∂ 2
∂ 2
ω2 2 Can a metal wire support the TEM wave? Yes.
 2 + 2 + 2 − k  Bz = 0 If Ez = 0 and Bz = 0 ⇒ TEM waves.
 ∂x ∂y
71 72
v 
 A Diagram of the Optical Setup 9.5.2 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide
Ez = 0, and Bz ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) ← separation of variables

1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y ω 2
+ + ( 2 − k2) = 0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 v

1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
= − k 2
and = − k y2
X ∂x Y ∂y
2 x 2

ω2
with = k 2 + k x2 + k y2
v2

X ( x) = A sin k x x + B cos k x x
Y ( y ) = C sin k y y + D cos k y y
K. Wang and D. M. Mittleman, “Metal wires for terahertz wave
guiding”, Nature, vol.432, No. 18, p.376, 2004. 73 74

TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (II) TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (III)
∂Bz Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(mπ x / a ) cos(nπ y / b)
Ex ∝ ∝ C cos k y y − D sin k y y
∂y In vacuum, ε = ε 0 and µ = µ0 , v = c. the cutoff frequency
Ex (@ y = 0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0
1
nπ k= ω 2 − ωmn2
, where ωmn
2
= c 2π 2 [(m / a ) 2 + (n / b) 2 ]
Ex (@ y = b) = 0 ⇒ sin k y b = 0, k y = (n = 0,1, 2,...) c
b If ω < ωmn , the wave number is imaginary.
∂B
E y ∝ z ∝ A cos k x x − B sin k x x
∂x The lowest cutoff frequency of TE10 mode is: ω10 = cπ / a
E y (@ x = 0) = 0 ⇒ A = 0
mπ The wave velocities are:
E y (@ x = a) = 0 ⇒ sin k x a = 0, k x = (m = 0,1, 2,...)
a ω c
vp = = > c phase velocity
Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(mπ x / a) cos(nπ y / b) ← the TE mn mode k 1 − ωmn
2
ω2
dω
vg = = c 1 − ωmn
2
ω 2 < c group velocity
k = (ω / v) − π [(m / a ) + (n / b) ]
2 2 2 2
dk
75 76
 Why the Phase Velocity Greater Than
The Field Profiles: Examples
The Speed of Light
ω c
vp = = > c phase velocity
k 1 − ωmn
2
ω2
dω
vg = = c 1 − ωmn
2
ω 2 < c group velocity
dk
v p vg = c 2

77 78

9.5.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line The Coaxial Transmission Line (II)
The problem is reduced to two dimensions.
A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave,
but a coaxial transmission line can.
Electrostatic: the infinite line charge;
Magnetostatic: an infinite straight current.
A A
E0 ( s, φ ) = sˆ, B 0 ( s, φ ) = φˆ
s cs

Taking the real part:

A cos(kz − ωt )
E( s , φ , z , t ) = sˆ
s
A cos(kz − ωt )
B( s, φ , z , t ) = φˆ
cs
∇ ⋅ E = 0 and ∇ × E = 0  E = −∇φE electrostatic
⇒
∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∇ × B = 0  B = −∇φB magnetostatic 79 80
Homework of Chap.9 (II)

Prob. 16, 18, 19, 29, 30, 35, 38

81
 Chapter 10: Potentials and Fields
10.1 The Potential Formulation
Scalar and Vector Potentials
10.1.1 Scalar and Vector Potentials
In the electrodynamics,
In the electrostatics and magnetostatics, 1 ∂B
(i) ∇ ⋅ E = ρ (iii) ∇ × E = −
1 ε0 ∂t
(i) ∇ ⋅ E = ρ (iii) ∇ × E = 0
ε0 ∂E
(ii) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (iV) ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0ε 0
(ii) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (iV) ∇ × B = µ0 J ∂t
How do we express the fields in terms of scalar and vector
the electric field and magnetic field can be expressed using potentials?
potential: 1
E = −∇V −∇ 2V = ρ B remains divergence, so we can still write, B = ∇× A
ε0
Putting this into Faraday’s law (iii) yields,
B = ∇× A ∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 J
∂ ∂A ∂A
∇ × E = − (∇ × A) = ∇ × (− ) ⇒ ∇ × (E + )=0
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ 2 A = µ0 J ⇒ − ∇ 2 A = µ0 J ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂A
If ∇ ⋅ A = 0. E+ = −∇V
∂t
1 2

Scalar and Vector Potentials Example 10.1

B = ∇× A ∂A Find the charge and current distributions that would give rise
E = −∇V −
∂t to the potentials.
µ k
∂  40c (ct − | x |) zˆ for |x|<ct
2
1 1
(i) ∇ ⋅ E = ρ −∇ 2V − (∇ ⋅ A) = ρ V = 0, A = 
ε0 ∂t ε0  0 for |x|>ct
∂E ∂V ∂2A Where k is a constant, and c is the speed of light.
(iV) ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0ε 0 ∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 J − µ0ε 0∇( ) − µ0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂
Solution: ρ = −ε 0 (∇ ⋅ A)
∂t
We can further yields. 1  ∂2A  1
J = −  ∇ 2 A − µ 0ε 0 2  + ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A )
∂ 1 µ0  ∂t  µ0
∇ 2V + (∇ ⋅ A) = − ρ
∂t ε0 ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az
 2 ∂ A ∂V  ∇⋅A = x + + =0

2
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∇ A − µ0ε 0 2  − ∇  ∇ ⋅ A + µ0ε 0  = − µ0 J
 ∂t   ∂t  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 µk ρ =0
∇ 2 A = ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) Az zˆ = 0 zˆ
These two equations contain all the information in Maxwell’s ∂x ∂y ∂z 4c J=0
equations. ∂ A
2
µk µk
3
− µ0ε 0 2 = − µ0ε 0 0 c 2 zˆ = 0 zˆ 4
∂t 4c 4c
 Example 10.1 (ii) 10.1.2 Gauge Transformations
Since the volume charge density and current density are We have succeeded in reducing six components (E and B)
both zero, where are the electric and magnetic fields from? down to four (V and A). However, V and A are not uniquely
ρ = 0 and J = 0 determined.
We are free to impose extra conditions on V and A, as long
They might originate from surface charge or surface current. as nothing happens to E and B.
∂ µk
E=− (∇ ⋅ A) = − 0 (ct − | x |)zˆ Suppose we have two sets of potential (V, A) and (V’, A’),
∂t 2
µ0 k ∂ µk which correspond to the same electric and magnetic fields.
B = ∇× A = − (ct − | x |) 2 yˆ = ± 0 (ct − | x |)yˆ
4c ∂x 2c A′ = A + α and V ′ = V + β
B = ∇ × A = ∇ × A′ ⇒ ∇ × α = 0 ⇒ α = ∇λ
∂A′ ∂A  ∂α 
E = −∇V ′ − = −∇V − −  ∇β + 
∂t ∂t  ∂t  ∂λ
K = nˆ × (H + − H − ) ⇒ (β + ) = k (t )
There is a surface current K in the yz plane. ∂λ ∂t
1 µ0 k ⇒ ∇( β + ) = 0
How do we know? = nˆ × ctyˆ =5ktzˆ ∂t 6
µ0 c

Gauge Transformations 10.1.3 Coulomb Gauge and Lorentz Gauge

There are many famous gauges in the literature. We will
α = ∇λ = ∇λ ′  A ′ = A + ∇λ
 show the two most popular ones.
∂λ ∂λ ′ ⇒ ∂λ
β = − + k (t ) = − ∂
 V ′ = V − ∂t
1
∂t ∂t ∇ 2V + (∇ ⋅ A) = − ρ
∂t ε0
 2 ∂ A
2
 ∂V 
Conclusion: For any scalar function λ, we can with impunity  ∇ A − µ0ε 0 2  − ∇  ∇ ⋅ A + µ0ε 0  = − µ0 J
add ∇λ to A, provided we simultaneously subtract ∂λ/∂t to V.  ∂t   ∂t 
The Coulomb Gauge: ∇ ⋅ A = 0
Such changes in V and A do not affect E and B, and are
1
called gauge transformation. ∇ 2V = − ρ (Poisson's equation)
ε0
We have the freedom to choose V and A provided E and B 1 ρ (r′, t )
do not affect --- gauge freedom.
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ (setting V =0 at infinity)

V instantaneously reflects all changes in ρ. Really?

∂A
7
E = −∇V − unlike electrostatic case. 8
∂t
 The Coulomb Gauge The Lorentz Gauge
Advantage: the scalar potential is particularly simple to ∂ 1
∇ 2V + (∇ ⋅ A) = − ρ
calculate; 1 ∂t ε0
∇ 2V = − ρ (Poisson's equation)  2 ∂ A ∂V 

2
ε0
 ∇ A − µ0ε 0 2  − ∇  ∇ ⋅ A + µ0ε 0  = − µ0 J
1 ρ (r′, t )  ∂t   ∂t 
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ (setting V =0 at infinity)
∂V
The Lorentz Gauge: ∇ ⋅ A + µ0ε 0 =0
∂t
∂ 2V 1
Disadvantage: the vector potential is very difficult to ∇ 2V − µ0ε 0 2 = − ρ
calculate. ∂t ε0
∂2A ∂V ∂ A
2
∇ 2 A = − µ0 J + ( µ0ε 0 2 + ∇( µ0ε 0 )) ∇ 2 A − µ0ε 0 2 = − µ0 J
∂t ∂t ∂t

∂2 ,2 V = −
1
ρ
∇ 2 − µ0ε 0 ≡,2
The coulomb gauge is suitable for the static case. ∂t 2 ε0
9 ,2 : the d'Alembertian ,2 A = − µ0 J 10

The Lorentz Gauge 10.2 Continuous Distributions

Advantage: It treat V and A on an equal footing and is
10.2.1 Retarded Potentials
particularly nice in the context of special relativity. It can be ∂ 2V 1
regarded as four-dimensional versions of Poisson’s equation. ∇ 2V − µ0ε 0 =− ρ 1
∂t 2
ε0 static case ∇ 2V = − ρ
ε0
V and A satisfy the inhomogeneous wave equations, with a ∂ A
2
∇ 2 A − µ0ε 0 2 = − µ0 J ∇ 2 A = − µ0 J
“source” term on the right. ∂t
1
,2 V = − ρ
ε0 Four copies of Poisson's equation
,2 A = − µ0 J 1 ρ (r′)
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′

Disadvantage: … µ J (r′)
A(r ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′
4π r
We will use the Lorentz gauge exclusively.
11 12
 Retarded Potentials
Retarded Potentials
Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition
In the nonstatic case, it is not the status of the source right Show that the retarded scalar potentials satisfy the Lorentz
now that matters, but rather its condition at some earlier time gauge condition.
tr when the “message” left. 1 ρ (r′, tr ) ∂ 2V 1
V (r, t ) = ∫ τ ′ ∇ − µ ε =− ρ
2
r d V
tr ≡ t − (called the retarded time) 4πε 0 r
0 0
∂t 2
ε0
c
Sol: 1  ρ (r′, tr )  1 r (∇ρ ) − ρ (∇r )
∫ ∇  ∫
Retarded potentials: ∇V =  dτ ′ = dτ ′
1 ρ (r′, tr ) 4πε 0 r  4πε 0 r2
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ Argument: The light we see now
left each star at the retarded time  f  g ∇f − f ∇ g
µ J (r′, tr ) corresponding to that start’s Using quotient rule: ∇   =
A(r, t ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′ distance from the earth. g g2
4π r
∂ρ −1
∇ρ = ∇ρ (r′, tr ) = ∇tr = ρ ∇r ∇r = rˆ
This heuristic argument sounds reasonable, but is it ∂tr c
correct? Yes, we will prove it soon. −1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ
13
∇V = ∫ [
4πε 0 cr r 2
+ ]dτ ′
14

Retarded Potentials Retarded Potentials

Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition (ii) Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition (iii)
−1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ −1 ρ ρ (r, t )
∇ ⋅∇V = ∇ 2V =
4πε 0 ∫ ∇ ⋅[ +
cr r 2
]dτ ′ ∇ 2V = ∫
1 1
[− 2 ρ + 4πρδ 3 (r )]dτ ′ = 2 ∫ dτ ′ −
4πε 0 c c 4πε 0 ε0
ρ rˆ ρ rˆ
1 rˆ rˆ
∇ ⋅[ +] = ∇ ⋅ ( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ 2 )
2 ρ 1 ∂2 ρ ∂2 ρ ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
cr r c
1 rˆ
r
rˆ
r
rˆ rˆ ∫ 4πε 0 dτ ′ = ∫ 4πε 0 ∂tr2 dτ ′ =
∂tr2 ∫ 4πε 0
dτ ′ =
∂tr2
= 2
∂t
= [ ⋅∇ρ + ρ∇ ⋅ ] + [ 2 ⋅∇ρ + ρ∇ ⋅ 2 ]
c r r r r
∂ρ −1 ρ − ρ 1 ∂ 2V ρ (r, t )
∇ρ = ∇ρ (r′, tr ) = ∇tr = ρ ∇r = − rˆ and ∇ρ = rˆ ∇ 2V = −
∂tr c c c c 2 ∂t 2 ε0
rˆ 1 rˆ ∂ 2V 1 1 ∂V2
ρ (r, t )
∇ ⋅ = 2 and ∇ ⋅ 2 = 4πδ 3 (r ) ∇ 2V − µ0ε 0 2 = − ρ ∇ 2V − 2 2 = −
r r r ∂t ε0 c ∂t ε0
ρ rˆ ρ rˆ 1 ρ ρ 1 ρ
∇ ⋅[ + 2 ] = [− + 2 ] + [− 2 + 4πρδ 3 (r )]
cr r c cr r r c
1
= − 2 ρ + 4πρδ (r )
3 15 16
c
 Retarded Potentials Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge
The Principle of Causality
Condition
Show that the retarded vector potentials satisfy the Lorentz This proof applies equally well to the advanced potentials.
gauge condition. Advanced potentials:
µ0 J (r′, tr ) ∂2A ρ (r′, ta ) ∂ 2V 1
∇ 2V − µ0ε 0 =− ρ
4π ∫ r
A(r, t ) = dτ ′ ∇ 2
A − µ ε = − µ0 J 1
0 0
∂t 2 V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ ∂t 2
ε0
µ J (r′, ta ) ∂ A
2

Sol: A(r, t ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′ ∇ 2 A − µ0ε 0 2 = − µ0 J

4π r ∂t
 J (r′, tr )  r (∇ ⋅ J ) − J ⋅ (∇r ) r- r′
∇ ⋅ = tr ≡ t − r- r′
 r  r2 c ta ≡ t +
c
 A  g (∇ ⋅ A) − A ⋅ (∇g )
Using quotient rule: ∇ ⋅   = The advanced potentials violate the most sacred tenet in
g g2 all physics: the principle of causality.
See Prob. 10.8… No direct physical significance.
17 18

Example 10.2 µ0 I 0 ( ct ) − s
2 2
1
0 for t ≤ 0 A ( s, t ) = ( zˆ ) ∫ dz
An infinite straight wire carries the current I (t ) =  4π − ( ct ) − s
2 2
s2 + z2
I0 for t > 0 How?
µI − s2
2
( ct )
Find the resulting electric and magnetic fields. = ( 0 0 zˆ ) ln( s 2 + z 2 + z )
2π 0

Sol: The wire is electrically neutral, so the retarded scalar µI ct + (ct ) − s 2

2

potential is zero. = ( 0 0 zˆ ) ln( )

2π s
µ0 J (r′, tr ) µ0 ∞ I (tr )
4π ∫ r 4π ∫−∞ r
A(r, t ) = A( s, t ) = dτ ′ = zˆ dz
∂A µ0 I 0 c
For t<s/c, the “news” has not yet reached P, and the E=− =− zˆ
potential is zero. ∂t 2π (ct ) 2 − s 2
For t>s/c, only the segment z ≤ (ct ) 2 − s 2 contributes. ∂Az µI ct
B = ∇× A = − φˆ = 0 0 φˆ
∂s 2π s (ct ) 2 − s 2

19 20
 Retarded Fields? 10.2.2 Jefimenko’s Equations
Can we express the electric field and magnetic field using the Retarded potentials:
concept of the retarded potentials? No. 1 ρ (r′, tr ) µ J (r′, tr )
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ and A(r, t ) = 0
4π ∫ r
dτ ′
Retarded potentials: Retarded fields: (wrong)
1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ
1 ρ (r′, tr ) 1
∫
ρ (r′, tr )
rˆdτ ′
−∇V = ∫ [ cr + r ]dτ ′
V (r, t ) = ∫ dτ ′ E(r, t ) ≠ 4πε 0 2

4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r2 ∂A
E = −∇V −
µ J (r′, tr ) 1 J (r′, tr ) × rˆ ∂t ∂A ∂ µ0 J (r′, tr ) ∂t µ J
A(r, t ) = 0 ∫
4π r
dτ ′ B(r, t ) ≠
4πε 0 ∫ r2
dτ ′ −
∂t
=− (
∂tr 4π ∫ r
dτ ′) r = − 0
∂t 4π ∫ r dτ ′
1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ µ0 J
How to correct this problem? E= ∫[
4πε 0 cr r 2
+ ]dτ ′ −
4π ∫ r
dτ ′

Jefimenko’s equations. 1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ J
4πε 0 ∫ r 2 cr c 2 r
= [ + − ]dτ ′

21 The time-dependent generalization of Coulomb’s law. 22

Jefimenko’s Equations (ii)

10.3 Point Charges
10.3.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potentials
Retarded potentials:
1 ρ (r′, tr ) µ J (r′, tr ) What are the retarded potentials of a moving point charge q?
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ and A(r, t ) = 0
4π ∫ r
dτ ′
Consider a point charge q that is moving on a specified
µ0 J (r′, tr ) µ 1 1 trajectory
W(t ) ≡ position of q at time t.
B = ∇× A =
4π ∫ ∇×
r
dτ ′ = 0 ∫ [ ∇ × J − J × ∇ ]dτ ′
4π r r
rˆ r- w (tr )
1 1
∇ × J = J × rˆ and ∇( ) = − 2 The retarded time is: tr ≡ t −
c r r c
W(tr ) the retarded position of the charge.
µ0 J 1  The time-dependent generalization
B= ∫
4π r
[ 2 + J ] × rˆdτ ′
cr of the Biot-Savart law. The separation vector r is the vector from the retarded
position to the field point r

These two equations are of limited utility, but they provide r = r − W(tr )
a satisfying sense of closure to the theory.
23 24
 Communication Total Charge
Is it possible that more than one point on the trajectory are 1 ρ (r′, tr ) 1 1
“in communication” with r at any particular time t? V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r − w(t ) dτ ′ = 4πε
r 0 r − w (tr ) ∫
ρ (r′, tr )dτ ′
No, one and only one will contribute. ≠q

Suppose there are two such points, with retarded time t1 and The retardation obliges us to evaluate ρ at different times for
t2: different parts of the configuration.
r1 = c(t − t1 ) and r2 = c(t − t2 ) r1 − r2 = c(t1 − t2 )

This means the average velocity of the particle in the The source in motion lead to a distorted picture of the total
direction of r would have to be c. Í violate special relativity. charge.
q No matter how small the
Only one retarded point contributes to the potentials at any
∫ ρ (r′, t )dτ ′ = 1 − rˆ ⋅ v / c
r
charge is.
given moment.
To be proved.
25 26

Total Charge: a Geometrical Effect Total Charge: a Geometrical Effect (ii)

A train coming towards you looks a little longer than it really In general, if the train’s velocity makes an angle θ with your
is, because the light you receive from the caboose left earlier line of sight, the extra distance light from the caboose must
than the light you receive simultaneously from the engine. cover is L′ cos θ .

L′ cos θ L′ − L L
L ′ L′ − L L = ⇒ L′ =
= ⇒ L′ = c v 1 − v cos θ / c
c v 1− v / c
This effect does not distort the dimensions perpendicular to
L
L′ = Approaching train appears longer. the motion.
1− v / c
The apparent volume τ’ of the train is τ
L τ′ =
L′ = A train going away from you looks shorter. related to the actual volume τ by . 1 − rˆ ⋅ v / c
1+ v / c 27 28
 Lienard-Wiechert Potentials Example 10.3
It follows that Find the potentials of a point charge moving with constant
velocity. Assume the particle passes through the origin at time
1 ρ (r′, tr ) 1 q
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′ =
4πε 0 (r − r ⋅ v / c)
, t =0.
Sol: The trajectory is: W(t ) = vt

µ0 ρ (r′, tr )v(tr ) µ v(tr ) First compute the retarded time: r − W(tr ) = r − vtr = c(t − tr )
A(r, t ) =
4π ∫ r 4π r ∫
dτ ′ = 0 ρ (r′, tr )dτ ′
r 2 − 2r ⋅ vtr + v 2tr2 = c 2 (t 2 − 2ttr + tr2 )
µ qv v
= 0 = 2 V (r, t ) (c 2 − v 2 )tr2 + 2(r ⋅ v − c 2t )tr + (c 2t 2 − r 2 ) = 0
4π (r − r ⋅ v / c) c

(c 2t − r ⋅ v) ± (r ⋅ v − c 2t ) 2 − (c 2 − v 2 )(c 2t 2 − r 2 ) Which sign

where ρ (r′, tr ) = qδ (r′ − r, tr ) tr = is correct?
(c 2 − v 2 )

The famous Lienard-Wiechert potentials for a moving point Consider v =0 tr = t ± t 2 − (t 2 − r 2 / c 2 ) = t ± r / c

charge. 29 We want the negative sign 30

Cont’: (c 2t − r ⋅ v) − (r ⋅ v − c 2t ) 2 − (c 2 − v 2 )(c 2t 2 − r 2 )
tr = 10.3.2 The Fields of a Moving Point Charge
(c 2 − v 2 )
r − vtr
Using the Lienard-Wiechert potentials we can calculate the
r = c(t − tr ), and rˆ = fields of a moving point charge.
c(t − tr )
 v r − vtr  v ⋅ r v2 1 q v
r − r ⋅ v / c = c(t − tr ) 1- ⋅ = − − − tr V (r, t ) = and A(r, t ) = 2 V (r, t )
 c (t t ) 4πε 0 (r − r ⋅ v / c)
 c c(t − tr ) 
r
c c c
1
= (c 2t − r ⋅ v) − (c 2 − v 2 )tr  ∂A
Find: E = −∇V − and B = ∇ × A
c ∂t
1
= (r ⋅ v − c 2t ) 2 − (c 2 − v 2 )(c 2t 2 − r 2 )  (t )
The separation vector: r = r − r′ = r − W(tr ) and v = W
c r

1 qc The retarded time tr: r − W(tr ) = c(t − tr )

V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 (r ⋅ v − c 2t ) 2 − (c 2 − v 2 )(c 2t 2 − r 2 )
µ0 qcv tr is a function of r and t.
A(r, t ) =
4π (r ⋅ v − c 2t ) 2 − (c 2 − v 2 )(c 2t 2 − r 2 ) 31 32
 ∂ ∂ ∂
#2 ( v ⋅∇)r = ( v ⋅∇)r − ( v ⋅∇) W(tr ) = −(vx + vy + vz ) W(tr )
Gradient of the Scalar Potential ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 −qc dW ∂tr dW ∂tr dW ∂tr
∇V = ∇ (r − r ⋅ v / c ) = v − (v x + vy + vz )
4πε 0 (r − r ⋅ v / c) 2 dtr ∂x dtr ∂y dtr ∂z
= v(1 − ( v ⋅∇tr ))
∇r = ∇c(t − tr ) = −c∇tr  ∂vz ∂v y ∂v ∂v ∂v y ∂vx 
#3 r × (∇ × v ) = r × ( − )xˆ + ( x − z )yˆ + ( − )zˆ 
 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y 
∇(r ⋅ v) = rN
⋅∇v + N
v ⋅∇r + r × (∇ × v) + v × (∇ × r )  ∂v ∂v y ∂v ∂v ∂v y ∂vx 
 
#1 #2
#3 #4 = r × ( z − )xˆ + ( x − z )yˆ + ( − )zˆ 
 ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y 
∂ ∂ ∂
#1 (r ⋅∇) v = (rx + ry + rz ) v = r × ( −a × ∇tr )
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂ ( z − Wz ) ∂ ( y − Wy ) ∂ ( x − Wx ) 
dv ∂tr dv ∂tr dv ∂tr #4 v × (∇ × r ) = v × ( − )xˆ + ( 
= (rx + ry + rz ) ∂y ∂z ∂z
dtr ∂x dtr ∂y dtr ∂z  
 ∂ ( z − Wz ) ∂ ( y − Wy ) ∂ ( x − Wx ) 
= a(r ⋅∇tr )
− ∂x
)yˆ + (
∂x
−
∂y
)zˆ 
 
acceleration 33
= v × ( − v × ∇t r ) 34

∇(r ⋅ v) = rN
⋅∇v + N
v ⋅∇r + r × (∇ × v) + v × (∇ × r )
  ∇V =
1 qc
(rc − r ⋅ v) v − (c 2 − v 2 + r ⋅ a)r 
4πε 0 (rc − r ⋅ v)3 
#1 #2
#3 #4

= a(r ⋅∇tr ) + v(1 − ( v ⋅∇tr )) − r × ( a × ∇tr ) + v × ( v × ∇tr )

= v + (r ⋅ a − v 2 )∇tr Similar calculations
r 1 1 1 (rc − r ⋅ v)(− v + ra / c) 
∇tr = −∇ = − ∇r = − (∇r ⋅ r )1/ 2 = − ∇ (r ⋅ r ) ∂A 1 qc
c c c 2c(r ⋅ r )1/ 2 =  r 2 2 
1 ∂t 4πε 0 (rc − r ⋅ v)3  + (c − v + r ⋅ a) v 
= − [r × (∇ × r ) + (r ⋅∇)r ]  c 
2c(r ⋅ r )1/ 2
 r × (∇ × r ) = ∂A q r
where  E = −∇V − = (c 2 − v 2 )u + r × (u × a) 
(r ⋅∇)r = (r ⋅∇)(r − W(tr )) = r − v(r ⋅∇tr ) ∂t 4πε 0 (r ⋅ u)3 
1
∇tr = − [r × ( v × ∇tr ) + r − v(r ⋅∇tr )] where u ≡ crˆ − v
2c(r ⋅ r )1/ 2
1 −r
=− 2 [ r − (r ⋅ v)∇tr )] ⇒ ∇tr =
2cr cr − r ⋅ v
35 36
 Curl of the Vector Potential Generalized Coulomb Field
1 1
∇× A = 2
∇ × (Vv) = 2 (V (∇ × v) − v × ∇V )
c c  
=−
1 q r
r × (c 2 − v 2 ) v + (r ⋅ a) v − (r ⋅ u)a   
q r  
c 4πε 0 (r ⋅ u) 3
E= ( c 2
− v 2
)u + r × (u × a )
4πε 0 (r ⋅ u)3    
1 q r 1  velocity field acceleration field 
= r × (c 2 − v 2 )u + r × (u × a)  = rˆ × E  radiation field 
c 4πε 0 (r ⋅ u) 3
c

where r × v = −r × u.
v = 0 and a = 0
q r q 1
The magnetic field of a point charge is always E= (c3 )rˆ = rˆ
1
B = rˆ × E 4πε 0 (cr ) 3
4πε 0 r 2
perpendicular to the electric field, and to the
c
vector from the retarded point.

37 38

Example 10.4 Fields of a Moving Point Charge

Calculate the electric and magnetic fields of a point charge
moving with constant velocity.
Solution: q 1- v 2 / c 2 ˆ
R
E= ,
q r 4πε 0 (1 − v sin θ / c ) R 2
2 2 2 3/ 2
E= (c 2 − v 2 )u, since a = 0.
4πε 0 (r ⋅ u) 3
where R ≡ r − vt
u = crˆ − v
⇒ ru = cr − rv = c(r − vtr ) − c(t − tr ) v = c(r − vt );
⇒ r ⋅ u = cr − r ⋅ v = Rc 1 − v 2 sin 2 θ / c 2 (Prob. 10.14)
where θ is the angle between R and v. 1 1
B = (rˆ × E) = 2 ( v × E)
c c
q 1- v 2 / c 2 Rˆ
E= , where R ≡ r − vt
4πε 0 (1 − v 2 sin 2 θ / c 2 )3/ 2 R 2 39 40
Homework of Chap.10

Prob. 4, 9, 12, 13, 23, 24

41
 Chapter 11: Radiation 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
11.1 Dipole Radiation 11.1.1 What is Radiation?
Consider two point charges of +q and –q
A charge at rest does not generate electromagnetic wave; nor
separating by a distance d(t). Assume d(t)
does a steady current. It takes accelerating charges, and/or
can be expressed in sinusoidal form.
changing currents.
The purpose of this chapter is to show you how such
configurations produce electromagnetic wave. The result is an oscillating electric dipole:
P(t ) = qd (t )zˆ = qd cos(ωt )zˆ = P0 cos(ωt )zˆ , where P0 ≡ qd .
How charges radiate? Consider Jefimenko’s equations.
1 ρ rˆ ρ rˆ J
E=
4πε 0 ∫[ r 2
+
cr
−
c 2r
]dτ ′ The retarded potential is:
1 ρ (r′, tr )
µ0 J 1
V (r, t ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r
dτ ′

4π ∫ r 2 cr
B= [ + J ] × rˆdτ ′
1  q0 cos[ω (t − r+ / c)] q0 cos[ω (t − r− / c)] 
ρ and J are responsible for electromagnetic radiation =  − 
4πε 0  r+ r− 
(i.e. EM field at large distance). 1 2

Electric Dipole Radiation: Approximations The Retarded Scalar Potential

r ωd r ωd
Approximation #1: Make this physical dipole into a perfect cos[ω (t − r± / c)] ≅ cos[ω (t − )]cos( cos θ ) ∓ sin[ω (t − )]sin( cos θ )
dipole. d << r c 2c c 2c
=1 ωd
cosθ
2c
Estimate the spearation distances by the law of cosines. r r ωd
d = cos[ω (t − )] ∓ sin[ω (t − )] cos θ
r± = r 2 ∓ rd cos θ + (d 2) 2 ≅ r (1 ∓ cos θ ) c c 2c
2r
1 1 d The retarded scalar potential is:
≅ (1 ± cos θ )
r± r 2r  r r ωd 1 d 
r ωd   cos[ω (t − )] − sin[ω (t − )] cos θ  (1 + cos θ ) 
cos[ω (t − r± / c)] ≅ cos[ω (t − ) ± cos θ ] 1  c c 2c r 2r 
c 2c V (r, t ) =  
4πε 0   r r ω d  1 d
r ωd r ωd − cos[ω (t − )] + sin[ω (t − )] cos θ  (1 − cos θ ) 
= cos[ω (t − )]cos( cos θ ) ∓ sin[ω (t − )]sin( cos θ )   c c 2c r 2r 
c 2c c 2c
p cos θ  ω r 1 r 
Approximation #2: The wavelength is much longer than the ≅ 0  − sin[ω (t − ) + cos[ω (t − )]
4πε 0 r  c c r c 
dipole size. c λ
d << = 3 4
ω 2π
 The Retarded Scalar Potential The Retarded Vector Potential
c
Approximation #3: at the radiation zone. << r The retarded vector potential is
ω determined by the current density.
The retarded scalar potential is: dq
I (t ) = zˆ = −q0ω sin ωtzˆ
p0 cos θ  ω r  dt
V (r, t ) ≅
4πε 0 r  − c sin[ω (t − c )  µ J (r′, tr ) µ d / 2 −qω sin[ω (t − r / c)]zˆ
A(r, t ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′ = 0 ∫ dz
4π r 4π − d / 2 r
µ pω r @ d << λ << r
≅ − 0 0 sin[ω (t − )]zˆ
Three approximations 4π r c

c λ c Retarded potentials:
d << r d << (= ) << r p ω  cos θ r  ∂A
ω 2π ω V (r, t ) = − 0  sin[ω (t − )  E = −∇V −
4πε 0 c  r c  ∂t
µ pω r B = ∇× A
⇒ d << λ << r A(r, t ) = − 0 0 sin[ω (t − )]zˆ
5
4π r c 6

The Electromagnetic Fields and Poynting Vector 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation

∂A µ p ω 2 sin θ r Suppose we have a loop of radius b,

E = −∇V − =− 0 0 ( ) cos[ω (t − )]θˆ around which we drive an alternating
∂t 4πε 0 c r c
current.
µ p ω sin θ
2
r
B = ∇× A = − 0 0 ( ) cos[ω (t − )]φˆ I (t ) = I 0 cos ωt
4π c r c
2 This is a model for an oscillating
1 µ  p ω 2 sin θ r 
S= (E × B ) = 0  0 ( ) cos[ω (t − )] rˆ magnetic dipole,
µ0 c  4π r c 
m(t ) = π b 2 I (t )zˆ = m0 cos ωtzˆ
The total power radiated is
µ p 2ω 4 sin θ 2 2 The loop is uncharged, so the retarded scalar potential is
< P >= ∫ S ⋅ da = 0 0 2 ∫ ( ) r sin θ dθ dφ zero. V=0
32π c r
µ p 2ω 4 The retarded vector potential
= 0 0 µ J (r′, tr ) µ I cos[ω (t − r / c)]
12π c A(r, t ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′ = 0 ∫ 0 dl′
7 4π r 4π r 8
 Retarded Vector Potential Retarded Vector Potential
with Three Approximations with Three Approximations
µ0 J (r′, tr ) µ I cos[ω (t − r / c)] r ωb
cos[ω (t − r / c)] = cos[ω (t − ) + sin θ cos φ ′]
A(r, t ) =
4π ∫ r
dτ ′ = 0 ∫ 0
4π r
dl′ c c
r ωb
= cos[ω (t − )]cos[ sin θ cos φ ′]
Approximation #1: Make this physical dipole into a perfect c c
dipole. b << r r ωb
− sin[ω (t − )]sin[ sin θ cos φ ′]
c c
Estimate the spearation distances by the law of cosines.
r = r 2 + b 2 − 2rb cosψ , Approximation #2: The size of the dipole is small compared to
the wavelength radiated.
where ψ is the angle between the vectors r and b: c λ
b << (= )
rb cosψ = r ⋅ b = rb sin θ cos φ ′ ω 2π
b
r = r + b − 2rb sin θ cos φ ′ ≅ r (1 − sin θ cos φ ′)
2 2
r  ωb  r
r cos[ω (t − r / c)] ≅ cos[ω (t − )] −  sin θ cos φ ′  sin[ω (t − )]
1 1 b c  c  c
≅ (1 + sin θ cos φ ′)
r r r 9 10

The Retarded Vector Potential The Retarded Vector Potential

 r 
cos[ω (t − )]  The vector potential of an oscillating perfect magnetic dipole
µ 0 I 0 b 2π  c  is: µ m sin θ  1 ω r 
A(r, t ) =
4π r ∫ +b sin θ cos φ ′  cos φ ′dφ ′ A(r, t ) = 0 0
4π
r
 cos[ω (t − )] − sin[ω (t − )] φˆ
 1 r 
0
r ω r r c c c 
 cos[ω (t − )] − sin[ω (t − )]   c
 r c c c  Approximation #3: at the radiation zone. << r
ω
The second-order term is dropped.
µ0 m0ω sin θ r
A(r, t ) = − sin[ω (t − )]φˆ
2π 4π c r c
The first term integrates to zero: ∫ 0
cos φ ′dφ ′ = 0
2π ∂A µ0 m0ω 2 sin θ r
E=− =− cos[ω (t − )]φˆ
∫
The second term involves the cos φ ′dφ ′ = π
2
integral of cosine squared. 0 ∂t 4π c r c
µ m ω sin θ
2
r
B = ∇× A = − 0 0 2 cos[ω (t − )]θˆ
4π c r c
Putting this in, and noting that A points in the φ−direction.
11 12
The Electromagnetic Fields and Poynting Vector
Homework of Chap.11
∂A µ m ω 2 sin θ r
E=− =− 0 0 cos[ω (t − )]φˆ
∂t 4π c r c
µ m ω sin θ
2
r
B = ∇× A = − 0 0 2 cos[ω (t − )]θˆ
4π c r c Prob. 1, 2, 5, 6
2
1 µ0  m0ω sin θ
2
r 
S= (E × B ) =  ( ) cos[ω (t − )] rˆ
µ0 c  4π c r c 

µ0 m02ω 4
The total power radiated is: < P >= ∫ S ⋅ da =
12π c3

Pmagnetic m02
= 1 (Electric dipole radiation dominates)
Pelectric p02 c 2
13 14
 Chapter 12 Electrodynamics and Relativity Ether
12.1 The Special Theory of Relativity Properties of the ether: Since the light speed c is enormous,
the ether had to be extremely rigid. So it did not impede the
Ether: Since mechanical waves require a medium to motion of light. For a substance so crucial to electro-
propagate, it was generally accepted that light also require a magnetism , it was embarrassingly elusive. Despite the
medium. This medium, called the ether, was assumed to peculiar property just mentioned, no one could detect its
pervade all mater and space in the universe. ghostly presence.

“Absolute” frame: The Maxwell’s equation was inferred Efforts to detect the ether: Michelson inspired by the
that the speed of light should equal c only with respect to Maxwell took the problem of detecting the ether as a
ether. This meant that the ether was a “preferred” or challenge. He developed his interferometer and used it to try
“absolute” reference frame. to detect the earth’s motion relative to the ether. The result
were not conclusive.
∂2E 1 ∂2E
− =0
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2
1 2

The Michelson-Morley Experiment The Michelson-Morley Experiment (II)

Michelson and Morley wanted to detect the speed of the Parallel:
earth relative to the ether. If the earth were moving relative to
L0 L0 (2 L0 / c)
the ether, there should be an “ether wind” blowing at the
T1 = + =
same speed relative to the earth but in the opposite direction. (c − v) (c + v) (1 − v 2 / c 2 )
Michelson-Morley interferometer: Use light speed Perpendicular:
variation to verify the existence of ether.
2 L0 (2 L0 / c)
T2 = =
(c 2 − v 2 )1/ 2 (1 − v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2

L0 v 2
∆T = T1 − T2 ≅ ( 2 )
c c
3 4
 The Michelson-Morley Experiment (III) The Two Postulates
The two postulates in the theory of special relativity are:
Using v=30 km/s, the expected shift was about 0.4 fringe. 1. The principle of relativity: All physical laws have the
Even though they were able to detect shifts smaller than same form in all inertia frames.
1/20 of a fringe, they found nothing.
2. The universal speed of light: The speed of light in free
space is the same in all inertial frames. It does not depend
Possibilities:
on the motion of the source or the observer.
z The ether was dragged with the Earth.
z No ether. Both postulates are restricted to inertial frames. This is why
the theory is special.
z Constant light speed.
•The principle of relativity extends the concept of covariance
from mechanics to all physical laws.
•The constancy of the speed of light is difficult to accept at first.
All the experimental consequences have confirmed its
5 correctness. 6

Some Preliminaries Some Preliminaries (II)

Event: Event is something that occurs at a single point in A reference frame is assumed
space at a single instant in time. to consist of many observers
Observer: An observer is ether a person, or an automatic uniformly spread through the
device, with a clock and a meter stick. Each observers can space. Each observer has a
record events only in the immediate vicinity. meter stick and a clock to make
measurements only in the
Reference frame: A reference frame is a whole set of immediate vicinity.
observers uniformly distributed in space. The frame in which
an object is at rest is called its rest frame.
To synchronize four equally spaced clocks, a signal is sent
Synchronization of clocks: It is extremely important to out by clock A to trigger the other clocks---each of which has
define precisely what is meant by the time in a given been set ahead by the amount of time it takes to travels from
reference frame. This requires a careful procedure for the A to the given clock.
synchronization of clocks.

7 8
 Relativity of Simultaneity Relativity of Simultaneity
How can we determine whether two events at different (another example)
locations are simultaneous?
Two events at different locations are simultaneous if an Two events that are simultaneous in one inertial
observer midway between them receives the flashes at the system are not, in general, simultaneous in another.
same instant.
Relativity of Simultaneity: Spatially separated events that
are simultaneous in one frame are not simultaneous in
another, moving relative to the first.

9 10

Geometry of Relativity: Time Dilation Time Dilation (II)

How does the relative motion of two frames affects the Now let us find the time interval recorded in the frame S, in
measured time interval between two events? which the clock has velocity v. The time interval ∆t in frame
S measured by two observers A and B at different positions.

∆t 2 ∆t
(c ⋅ ) = L20 + (v ⋅ ) 2
2L0 2 2
τ=
c 2L 1
T = ∆t = 0 ⋅ ( )
c 1− v / c
2 2

1
A proper time, τ, is the time interval between two events as
T = γ T0 where γ =
measured in the rest frame of a clock. In this frame both
1 − v2 / c2
events occur at the same position. (Note: properÆown), Note that we have used c as the speed of light in both
11 frames---in accord with the second postulate. 12
 Time Dilation (III) Time Dilation (IV)
Since γ>1, the time interval T measured in frame S (by two
Another example: clocks) is greater than the proper time, T0, registed by the
clock in its rest frame S’. The effect is called time dilation.
h
τ= (proper time) Two spatially separated clocks, A and B, record a greater
c time interval between two events than the proper time
recorded by a single clock that moves from A to B and is
h 2 + (v∆t ) 2 1 h present at both events.
∆t = ⇒ ∆t =
c 1− v / c c
2 2

1
∆t = γτ , where γ = 1
1 − v2 / c2 γ=
1− v2 / c2
Moving clocks run slow.
13 14

Example of Time Dilation Geometry of Relativity: Length Contraction

Experimental evidence (muon decay): Consider a rod AB at rest in frame S, as shown below. The
The reality of time dilation was verified in an experiment distance between its ends is its proper length L0:
performed in 1941. The proper length, L0, of an object is the space interval
Rest frame at ground: An elementary particle, the muon (µ), between its ends measured in the rest frame of the object.
decays into other particle. The particle decay rate is
N = N 0 e − t /τ
where τ = 2.2 µs is called the mean lifetime.
Moving frame at the upper atmosphere: Another source of
generating muon is bombarded with cosmic ray protons. The
muon generated with this method has the speed of v=0.995c.
The mean lifetime is 10 times longer than their cousins that
decay at rest in the laboratory.
15 16
 Length Contraction (II) Length Contraction (III)
Another example:
An observer O’ in Frame S’, which moves at velocity v
relative to frame S, can measure the rod’s length. By
recording the interval b times at which O’ passes A and B.
The measurements in the two frames are

Frame S : L0 = ∆x = v∆t  1 L0 =
cτ
 ⇒ L = L0
(L0 : proper length)
2
Frame S ′ : L = ∆x′ = v∆t ′ γ L + v∆t1 L − v ∆t 2
∆t1 = , ∆t2 =
c c
L L L 1
∆t1 = , ∆t2 = ⇒ ∆t = ∆t1 + ∆t2 = 2
c−v c+v c 1 − v2 / c2
c 1 c 1 1
L= ∆t = γτ = L0
2γ 2
2γ 2
γ

17
Moving objects are shortened. 18

Effects of Length Contraction (I) Length Contraction Effects (II)

distortion rest frame

v = 0 .0 c v = 0. 5 c

muon frame

v = 0.95 c v = 0.99 c

19 20
 The Twin Paradox The Barn and Ladder Paradox
Nothing in the theory of relativity catches the imagination
more than the so-called twin paradox.
Twin A stays on earth while twin B travels at high speed to a
nearby start. When B returns, they both find that A has aged
more than B.
The paradox arises because of the apparent symmetry of before farmer’s view
the situation: In B’s frame, it is A that leaves and returns, so
one should also find that B has aged more than A.
Who’s right?
A > B
? What’s going on?
B > A ladder’s view

21 22

The Lorentz Transformation The Addition of Velocity

The laws of electromagnetism are not covariant with respect
to the Galiliean transformation. However with Lorentz
dx = γ (dx′ + vt ′) = γdt ′(u ′x + v)
transformation they are covariant. The space and time are vdx′ u′ v
related shown as follows: dt = γ (dt ′ + 2 ) = γdt ′(1 + x2 )
c c
Rest frame
x′ = γ ( x − vt ) Taking the ratio of these equations we find
u ′x + v
vx
t ′ = γ (t − 2 ) ux =
c 1 + u ′x v c 2
Moving frame
x = γ ( x′ + vt ′) A extreme case
c+v
vx′ when u ′x = c, we have u x = =c
t = γ (t ′ + 2 ) 1 + cv c 2
c 23 24
 Covariant Vector, Contravariant Vector,
The Structure of Spacetime: (i) Four-vectors
and Invariant Quantity
v aµ = ( a0 a3 )
x 0 ≡ ct , x1 = x, x 2 = y, x3 = z , and β = the covariant vector (row): aµ
a1 a2
c
(
≡ − a0 a1 a 2 a3 )
x 0 = γ ( x 0 − β x1 ), 
 a  0

x 1 = γ ( x1 − β x 2 )   1
 the Lorentz transformations the contravariant vector (column): a µ aµ =  2 
a
x 2 = x2  a 
  3 
x =x
3 3
a 
 x0   γ −γβ 0 0   x0  invariant quantity under Lorentz transformation
 1   
 x  =  −γβ γ the Einstein
0 0   x1  3
 b0 
x µ = ∑ Λ vµ x v summation convention
 1
 x2   0 0 1 0   x2 
aµ b µ = a µ bµ
( )
3
3 b 
v =0
 3     aµ b µ = ∑ aµ b µ = − a 0 a1 a 2
0 1   x3 
a
x   0 0 v =0
 b2 
 3 
b 
the Lorentz transformation matrix 25 = −a 0b0 + a1b1 + a 2b 2 + a 3b3 = − a 0b 0 + a 1b 1 + a 2b 2 + a 3b 3 26

The Invariant Interval Space-Time Diagrams (Minkowski Diagrams)

( ) (
Two event A and B occurs at x A0 , x1A , x A2 , x 3A and xB0 , x1B , xB2 , xB3 )
lightlike (I = 0, c 2t 2 = d 2 )
the displacement 4-vector: ∆x µ ≡ x Aµ − xBµ

the interval between two events: I ≡ ∆xµ ∆x µ = −c 2t 2 + d 2

timelike I < 0 (c 2 t 2 > d 2 )

spacelike I > 0 (c 2t 2 < d 2 )
lightlike I = 0 (c 2t 2 = d 2 )
timelike (I < 0, c 2t 2 > d 2 )

27 spacelike (I > 0, c 2t 2 < d 2 ) ? Occurs at the same time. 28

 12.2 Relativistic Mechanics Proper Velocity 4-Vector (4-velocity)
12.2.1 Proper Time and Proper Velocity Proper time τ is invariant, whereas “ordinary” time t depends
How to define the velocity? on the particular reference frame.

Imagine you are on a flight to Moon, and the pilot announces Proper velocity has an enormous advantage over ordinary
that the plane’s velocity relative to ground is 4/5c. velocity: it transforms simply.
dl dx µ The numerator, dx µ , is a displacement 4-vector;
u= the ordinary velocity µ
η ≡
dt dτ The denominator, dτ , is invariant.
However, your watch runs slow due to time dilation. You η 0 = γ (η 0 − βη 1 ), 
might be more interested in the distance covered per unit 
η 1 = γ (η 1 − βη 2 )  µ µ v
proper time.  More generally, η = Λ v η
dl 1 η =η
2 2

η= = u the proper velocity η =η
3 3 
dτ 1 − u 2 / c2 dct dt c
η0 = =c =
Which definition is more preferable/useful? 29 dτ dτ 1 − u 2 / c2 30

Mass-Energy Equivalence 12.2.2 Relativistic Energy and Momentum

Mass-energy equivalence: Since no internal process How to define the momentum?
can even move the center of mass of a system, we can
derive mass-energy equivalence. In classical mechanics Momentum is mass times velocity, but
immediately a question arise: Should we use ordinary
velocity or proper velocity? There is no priori reason to favor
E EL one over the other.
= mv, ∆x = v∆t = p ≡ mη =
mu
the relativistic momentum
c Mc 2 1 − u 2 / c2
− M∆x + mL = 0
= mrelu mrel : the relativistic mass
dt mc E
p 0 = mη 0 = mc = =
E = mc 2
dτ 1− u / c
2 2 c
2
mc
where E ≡ relativistic energy
31
1 − u 2 / c2 32
 Kinetic Energy Conservation and Invariant
Conserved quantity: same value before and after some
How to define the kinetic energy? process.
The relativistic kinetic energy is the total energy minus the Invariant quantity: same value in all inertia frame.
rest energy:
Mass is invariant, but not conserved.
mc 2 Charge is both conserved and invariant.
Ekin = E − Eres = − mc 2
1− u / c
2 2 Energy is conserved, but not invariant.
1u 2
3 u4 Momentum is conserved, but not invariant.
= mc 2 (1 + + + ... − 1)
2 c2 8 c4
Velocity is neither conserved nor invariant.
1 3 mu 4
= mu 2 + + ...
µ
2 8 c2 Invariant: p pµ = −( p ) + ( p ⋅ p ) = − m c
0 2 2 2

K=
1 E2
mu 2 the classical defination of the kinetic energy ⇒ 2 − p 2 = m2c 2
2 c
33 34

12.2.3 Relativistic Kinematics Massless Particle: Photon

Explore some applications of the conservation law to particle In classical mechanics there is no such thing as a massless
decays and collisions. particle.

Example 12.7 Two lumps of clay, each In special relativity, p and E are still proportional to m. If u=c,
of (rest) mass m, collide head-on at 3/5c. then the zero numerator is balanced by a zero in the
They stick together. Question: what is denominator, leaving p and E indeterminate (zero over zero).
the mass (M) of the composite lump?  mu 0
 p = =
 1 − u 2 / c2 0
When u = c and m = 0, ⇒ 
E = mc 2 0
Example 12.8 A pion at rest decays into =
a muon and a neutrino. Find the energy  1− u / c
2 2 0
of the outgoing muon, in terms of the A massless particle could carry energy and momentum,
two masses, mπ and mµ (assume mµ=0) provided it always travels at the speed of light.

Does it make any sense? 35 E = pc = hv photon 36

 The Compton Effect (Example 12.9) The Compton Effect (ii)
The derivation of Compotn’s scattering: Classically an For known X ray frequency and final particle momentums
electromagnetic wave carries moment given by p=E/c. We can further solve these two equations.
Conservation of linear momentum: ( pλ − pλ ′ cos θ ) 2 + ( pλ ′ sin θ ) 2 = p 2
 px : pλ = pλ ′ cos θ + p cos φ ( pλ − pλ ′ ) 2 + 2( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = p 2

 p y : 0 = pλ ′ sin θ − p sin φ p=
hf h
=
c λ Further solving these two equations, we obtain
( pλ − pλ ′ cos θ ) 2 + ( pλ ′ sin θ ) 2 = p 2 (1)
( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = pλ pλ ′ (1 − cos θ )
Conservation of energy:
1 1 1
− = (1 − cos θ )
hf = hf ′ + K ; K = (γ − 1)m0 c 2 pλ ′ pλ m0 c
(cpλ − cpλ ′ ) = K ⇒ ∆λ =
h
(1 − cos θ )
 2 m0 c
 K + 2 Km0 c = c p
2 2 2
h
= 0.00243 nm is called the Compton wavelength.
( pλ − pλ ′ ) 2 + 2( pλ − pλ ′ )m0 c = p 2 (2) m0 c
37 38

12.2.4 Relativistic Dynamics Work-Energy Theorem

Newton’s laws
The work-energy theorem (“the net work done on a particle
Newton’s first law is built into the principle of relativity. equals the increase in its kinetic energy”) holds relativistically.
dp mu
F= , where p = = mrelu
Newton’s second law retains its validity in relativistic dt 1 − u 2 / c2
mechanics, provided we use the relativistic momentum. dp dp dl d mu
dp mu W ≡ ∫ F ⋅ dl = ∫ ⋅ dl = ∫ ⋅ dt = ∫ ( ) ⋅ udt
F= where p = = mrelu dt dt dt dx 1 − u 2 / c 2
dt 1 − u 2 / c2
d  mu  1  dmu 1 −udu 
  ⋅u =  1 − u 2 / c2 − mu ⋅u
Newton’s third law does not, in general, extend to the dt  1 − u 2 / c 2  1− u / c 
2 2
dt 2
1 − u 2 / c 2 c dt 
relativistic domain due to the relativity of simultaneously. 1  u2 du u 2 du  1  du 
= 3 
(1 − 2 )mu + 2 mu  = 3 
mu 
 dt 
(1 − u 2 / c 2 ) 2 
c dt c dt 
Only in the case of contact interactions, where the two forces (1 − u 2 / c 2 ) 2
are applied at the same physical point, can the third law be d  mc 2  dE dE
retained. =  = ⇒ W =∫ dt = Efinal − Einitial
39 dt  1 − u / c  dt
2 2 dt 40
 The Ordinary Force and The Minkowski Force Example 12.12: Hidden momentum
The ordinary force: F is the derivative of momentum with As a model for a magnetic dipole m, consider a rectangular
respect to ordinary time, transformation is ugly (both the loop of wire carrying a steady current. Picture the current as a
numerator and denominator must be transformed). stream of noninteracting positive charges that move freely
dp y dp y dp y dt Fy within the wire. When a uniform electric field E is applied, the
Fy = = = =
dt γ (dt − c dx) γ (1 − c u x ) γ (1 − βc u x )
β β
charges accelerate in the left segment and deccelerate in the
dp dpz dpz dt Fz right one. Find the total momentum of all charges in the loop.
Fz = z = = =
dt γ (dt − c dx) γ (1 − c u x ) γ (1 − βc u x )
β β
Solution:
dpx dp 0 dpx β dE
−β − The current is the same in all four
dp γ (dpx − β dp ) dt
0
dt = dt c dt
Fx = x = = segments I=λu.
dt γ (dt − βc dx) (1 − βc u x ) (1 − βc u x )
eN + eN Il
I= u+ = − u− so N ± u± =
The Minkowski force: K is the derivative of momentum with l l e
respect to proper time. Relativistic momentum is
dp dt dp F dp µ p = γ + mN + u+ − γ − mN −u− = (γ + − γ − )m
Il
≠0
K≡ = = , Kµ ≡
dτ dτ dt 1 − u 2 / c2 dτ 41 e 42

Hidden momentum (relativistic effect) 12.3 Relativistic Electrodynamics

The gain in energy (γmc2) is equal to the work done by the 12.3.2 How the Fields Transform
electric force E. We have learned that one observer’s electric field is
IlEw another’s magnetic field.
(γ + − γ − )mc 2 = eEw ⇒ p = 2
c What are the general transformation rules for electromagnetic
Ilw is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop
fields?
as vectors m points into the page,
and p is to the right, so Let’s start with “Charge invariant”.
1
p = 2 (m × E) Consider the simplest possible electric field.
c
A magnetic dipole in an electric field carries linear
momentum, even though it is not moving. σ0
E0 = yˆ σ
E= yˆ
This so-called hidden momentum is strictly relativistic, ε0 ε0
and purely mechanical.
A more realistic model for a current-carrying wire can be found in the supplement. 43 44
See V. Hnizdo, Am. J. Phys. 65, 92 (1997).
 The Transformation of The Electric Field Example 12.13: The E-field of a moving point chagre.
Are we sure that the field is still perpendicular A point charge q is at rest at the origin in system S0. Question:
to the plates? What is the electric field of this same charge in system S,
What if the field of a moving plane tilted, say, which moves to the right at speed v0 relative to S0?
in the direction of motion? It doesn’t. Solution:

The total charge on each plate is invariant.

Q = σ 0l0 w0 = σ lw where l = 1 − v02 / c 2 l0 and w = w0
1 perpendicular
σ= σ 0 = γ 0σ 0 ⇒ E⊥ = γ 0 E0⊥ components
1 − v0 / c
2 2

Q = σ 0l0 w0 = σ lw,
where l = l0 and w = w0
parallel
σ = σ 0 ⇒ E // = E0// components Very efficient as compared with Chap.10 Eq. 10.68.
45 46

The Transformation of The Magnetic Field The Transformation of The Magnetic Field
K ± = ∓σ v0 xˆ γ vv 1
To derive the general rule we must = γ (1 + 20 ) and c 2 = ⇒ E y = γ ( E y − vBz )
start out in a system with both electric γ0 c ε 0 µ0
v
and magnetic fields. ⇒ Bz = γ ( Bz − Ey )
σ c2
Ey = and Bz = − µ0σ v0
ε0
In a third system, S, traveling to the v is the velocity ⇒ Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy )
of S relative to S0 Ex = Ex
right with speed v relative to S, the field v
⇒ By = γ ( By + Ez )
would be σ c2
Ey = and Bz = − µ0σ v
ε0
v + v0 1
v= , γ = , σ = γσ 0
1 + vv0 / c 2 1 − v 2 / c2 Bx = Bx
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy )

γσ 0 γ σ 1 Bx = Bx By = γ ( By +
v
Bz = γ ( Bz −
v
Ey = = ( ) , where γ = c2
Ez )
c2
Ey )
ε0 γ 0 ε0 1 − v2 / c2 47 48
 Two Special Cases 12.3.3 The Field Tensor
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy ) E and B certainly do not transform like the spatial parts of the
v v two 4-vectors (4-velocity and 4-momentum).
Bx = Bx By = γ ( By + Ez ) Bz = γ ( Bz − Ey )
c2 c2 What sort of an object is this, which has six components and
1. If B=0 in S, then transforms according previous results?
v v
B=γ( 2
Ez )yˆ − γ ( 2 Ez )zˆ Answer: Antisymmetric, second-rank tensor.
c c
1 t 00 t 01 t 02 t 03 
= − 2 ( v × E) where v = vxˆ t µ v = t vµ
(symmetric tensor,
c  10  10 distinct components)
t t13 
11 12
t t
t µv =  20 21 
t t t 22 t 23  (antisymmetric tensor,
2. If E=0 in S, then t µv = −t vµ
t 30 t 31
t 32
t 33  6 distinct components)
E = −γ v( Bz yˆ − By zˆ ) = −v( Bz yˆ − By zˆ )  0 t 01 t 02 t 03 
= v×B  01 
where v = vxˆ  −t 0 t12 t13 
t µv =  02 
49
−t −t12 0 t 23 
50
 −t 03 −t13 −t 23 0 

The Tensor Transformation The Field Tensor and The Dual Tensor
 γ −γβ 0 0 Ex Ey E
−γβ F 01 ≡ , F 02 ≡ , F 03 ≡ z , F 12 ≡ Bz , F 31 ≡ By , F 23 ≡ Bx .
a v = Λ λv a λ 4-vector transformation  γ 0 0  c c c
Λ= 
t µ v = Λ λµ Λσv t λσ tensor transformation  0 E / c E / c Ez / c 
 0 0 1 0
− E / c
x y

 0 0 0 1   x 0 Bz − By 
F µv =  the field tensor
Work out the following transformation: − E y / c − Bz 0 Bx 
 − Ez / c By − Bx 0 
t 01 = t 01 t 02 = γ (t 02 − β t12 ) t 03 = γ (t 03 + β t 31 )
t 23 = t 23 t 31 = γ (t 31 + β t 03 ) t 12 = γ (t12 − β t 02 )
There was a different way of imbedding E and B in an
By direct comparison, we can construct the field tensor F µv antisymmetric tensor.
 0 Bx By Bz 
Ex = Ex E y = γ ( E y − vBz ) Ez = γ ( Ez + vBy ) −B − Ez / c E y / c 
 x 0
G µv =  the dual tensor
Bx = Bx By = γ ( By +
v
Ez ) Bz = γ ( Bz −
v
Ey )  − By Ez / c 0 − Ex / c 
c2 c2  − Bz − E y / c Ex / c 0 
51 52
 12.3.4 Electrodynamics in Tensor Notation Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Notation (i)
Reformulate the laws of electrodynamics (Maxwell’s Maxwell’s equations can be written in the following forms.
equations and the Lorentz force law) in relativistic notation.
∂F µv Gauss’s law
= µ0 J u
How the sources of the fields, ρ and J, transform? ∂x v Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction
Q Q
ρ= and J = ρ u, where ρ0 = (the proper charge density) ∂F µ v ∂F 00 ∂F 01 ∂F 02 ∂F 03
V V0 µ =0 = + 1 + 2 + 3 = µ0 J 0
V ∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
ρ = ρ0 0 = γρ0 , where V = 1 − u 2 / c 2 V0 (length contraction) 1 ∂Ex ∂E y ∂Ez ρ
V ( + + ) = µ0 c ρ ⇒ ∇⋅E =
J = ρ u = γρ0u = ρ0 (γ u) = ρ0 η, where η = γ u (proper velocity) c ∂x ∂y ∂z ε0
∂F 1v ∂F 10 ∂F 11 ∂F 12 ∂F 13
The current density 4-vector: J µ = (c ρ , J x , J y , J z ) µ =1 = + 1 + 2 + 3 = µ0 J 1
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
Conservation of charge: 1 ∂Ex ∂Bz ∂B 1 ∂E
− 2 + − = µ0 J x → ( − 2 + ∇ × B) x = µ0 ( J ) x
y

∂J x ∂J y ∂J z 3
∂J i c ∂t ∂y ∂z c ∂t
∇⋅J = + + =∑ i
∂ρ ∂x ∂y ∂z i =0 ∂x ∂J µ
∇⋅J = − =0 1 ∂E ∂E
∂t ∂ρ ∂ (c ρ ) ∂J 0 + µ = 2 and 3 (− + ∇ × B) y , z = µ0 J y , z ⇒ ∇ × B − µ 0ε 0 = µ0 J
∂x µ c 2 ∂t ∂t
− =− =− 0 53 54
∂t ∂ (ct ) ∂x

Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Notation (ii) The Minkouski Force and Relativistic Potentials
Maxwell’s equations can be written in the following forms. The Minkowski force on a charge q is given by
∂G µv Faraday’s law K=
1
q[E + (u × B)] =
1
F
=0
∂x v Gauss’s law for magnetic field 1 − u 2 / c2 1 − u 2 / c2
∂G 0 v ∂G 00 ∂G 01 ∂G 02 ∂G 03 The electric and magnetic fields can be expressed in terms of
µ =0 = + 1 + + =0
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x3 a scalar potential and a vector potential.
∂B ∂By ∂Bz ∂A
( x+ + )=0 ⇒ ∇⋅B = 0 E = −∇V − B = ∇× A
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂G1v ∂G10 ∂G11 ∂G12 ∂G13 Aµ = (V c , Ax , Ay , Az ) 4-vector potential
µ =1 = + 1 + 2 + 3 =0
∂x v ∂x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
1 ∂Bx 1 ∂Ez 1 ∂E y ∂B ∂Av ∂Aµ
− − + =0 → ( + ∇ × E) x = 0 F µv = − the definition of the field tensor
c ∂t c ∂y c ∂z ∂t ∂xµ ∂xv
∂B ∂B ∂Aµ
+ µ = 2 and 3 ( + ∇ × E) y , z = 0 ⇒ ∇×E + =0 =0 the Lorentz gauge
∂t ∂t ∂x µ
55 56
 39.3 Covariance
Homework of Chap.12 Covariance: The laws of mechanics are covariance---they
retain their form---with respective to Galiliean transformation.
Newton’s second low, F=ma, in one frame has the same form,
F’=ma’, in another. However, the Maxwell’s equations does
not satisfy this requirement when applying the Galiliean
Prob. 3, 4, 6, 25, 30, 33, 38, 46
transformation.
x′ = x − vt; t ′ = t
Three Problems:
1. The force between the charge depends on the frame of
reference employed.
2. Maxwell’s equations are valid in only one special frame
with the Galiliean transformation.
3. The applied electromagnetism law will change with
57 reference frame. 58

The Relativistic Doppler Effect The Relativistic Doppler Effect (II)

In the classical Doppler effect for sound waves, the In order to obtain the Doppler effect, we have to calculate
observed frequency depends differently on the velocities of the time interval measured in two frames. Note that the time
the source and the observer. The underlying reason is that dilation is assumed in the following calculation.
for sound there is a medium (the air) that serves as an
“absolute” reference frame. d v
(a) Source at rest, observer moves (b) Source moves, observer at rest = γ (1 + )T0
T = ∆t +
(velocity modulation) (wavelength modulation)
c c
v′ v ± vo v v c+v
f′= = fo f′= = fo T= T0
λo v λ ′ v ± vs c−v
Longitudinal Transverse
In contrast, for light there is no absolute frame: The
relativistic Doppler effect for light depends only on the c−v 1
f = fo f = fo
relative velocity between the source and the observer. c+v γ
59 60