ABM 124-PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

Second Semester 2021-2022

Module 2

MAJOR PEST; PLANT PATHOLOGY

I. INTRODUCTION

Diseases have a detrimental effect on plants and animals and impact on market access
and agricultural production. Diseases include micro-organisms, disease agents (bacteria, fungi
and viruses), infectious agents, parasites and genetic disorders. As agriculture struggles to
support the rapidly growing global population, plant disease reduces the production and
quality of food, fiber and biofuel crops. A serious famine occurred for example in Ireland
during the 1840’s due to the outbreak of Late blight of potatoes caused by the fungi
Phytophthora infestans. More than 1,000,000 germans died of famine and disease due to a
potatoe crop failure caused by Late blight and insects at the end of World War 1.
Losses may be catastrophic or chronic, but on average account for 42% of the
production of the six most important food crops. Losses due to postharvest disease can be
disastrous, especially when farms are a long way from markets and infrastructure and supply
chain practices are poor. Many postharvest pathogens also produce toxins that create serious
health problems for consumers.
Even the non-parasitic agents contribute losses in agricultural production and initiate
the development of pathogenic organisms on crops. Diseases caused by non- parasitic/ abiotic
(nonliving) agents are not transmitted from one plant to another. Thus, they are not infectious,
and also called non-infectious diseases or simply, disorders. Plants grow best within certain
ranges of the various abiotic factors that make up their environment. Such factors include
temperature, soil moisture, soil nutrients, light, air and soil pollutants, air humidity, soil
structure, and pH. But, become a limiting factor on the crop development as the ranges
exceeded or become deficient on crop requirements.
Farmers spend billions of dollars are on disease management, often without adequate
technical support, resulting in poor disease control, pollution and harmful results. In addition,
plant disease can devastate natural ecosystems, compounding environmental problems caused
by habitat loss and poor land management.

II. LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1. define plant pathology
2. identify and describe non-parasitic and parasitic pathogen
3. distinguish pathogen organisms according to their characteristic and appearance
4. describe the symptoms and signs caused by parasitic agents

III.LEARNING CONTENT

PLANT PATHOLOGY – is the science which deals with the nature, causes and control of
plant diseases.
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a. As a science it looks into the following

1. The characteristic of plant diseases

2. Their causes
3. Plant pathogen interactions
4. Factors affecting disease development in individual plants and in populations
5. Various means of controlling diseases.

b. As an art Plant Pathology deals with the application of the knowledge gained from
studying the science which includes the following

1. Diagnosis or recognizing particular diseases by their symptoms and signs

2. Disease assessment and forecasting
3. Recommendation of appropriate control measures
4. Field application of suitable control measures

The raise d’ etre and ultimate objective of plant pathology is to prevent or minimize plant
disease not only to increase food production but also to maintain the quality of the harvested
commodities and it reaches the consumer.

c. The Economic Importance of Plant Diseases

1. Plant diseases caused famine and malnutrition in many parts of the World
especially in the underdeveloped parts of Africa, Latin America and Asia where
plant disease control are inadequate.
2. Plant disease affects the destiny of mankind ex. Potato leaf blight in IRELAND in
1845 caused more than to 2 million IRISH people to migrate to the US.
3. Plant disease causes enormous economic losses
Example:
Rice tungro Virus in 1971 affected 70,000 ha and loss of 1.22M cavans of rice.
Cadang-cadang of coconut in 1958 caused over $82 M lost since it was first
observe in 1918.
4. Type of losses brought about by Plant Diseases
a. Reduction in yields
b. Deterioration during storage, marketing or transport
c. Reduction in quality
d. Losses from produce contaminated with toxins that causes various disorder and
death of animals including man,
Example: aflatoxin – Aspergillus flavus
Ochratoxin - Aspergillus ochraceous (liver cancer)
e. Losses due to predisposition of the host to attack by other pathogen
f. Losses from increased cost of production and handling

CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES

A. Concepts of Plant Diseases
1. Whetsel (1929)
Considered Disease as a “physiological malfunctioning caused by inanimate agent,
its preferred to call malfunctioning by inanimate or non-living agents as
physiogenic disease.
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2. Stakman and Harrar (1957)

Considered disease as “any deviation from normal growth or sources of plants that
sufficiently pronounced and permanent to produce visible symptoms or to impair
quality o economic value.
3. Horsfall and Dimond (1959)
Considered disease as a “malfunctioning process caused by continues irritation.
4. Merril
Considered disease as a “dynamic interaction between an organism and its
environment which results in abnormal physiological or neurological change in
the organism.”
5. Agrios (1978)
Considered disease as “any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or a
environmental factor which interfere with manufacture, translocation, or
utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected
plant changes in appearance and or yield less than a normal healthy plant of the
same variety.”
6. National Academy of Science (Washington D.C), NAS (1968)
“Disease is a harmful alternation of the normal physiological and biochemical
development of a plant.

There are 2 salient points in most of the definition of disease:

1. The presence of physiological disorders that are generally detrimental.
2. Morphological abnormalities result from physiological malfunctioning

B. Definition and Terminology in Plant Pathology

1. Pathogen – any agent that caused a disease. However, it is used to refer to a living
organism such as fungi, bacteria and causes a disease.
2. Parasite – an organism which depends fully or partly on another living organism
for its food.
Most parasite are pathogens but not all pathogens are parasite ex. **** molds.
3. Obligate parasite – an organism that is restricted to subsist on living organism and
attacks only living tissues
Example: Puccinia arachidis (Peanut rust)
Peronosclerospora philippinensis (downy mildew of corn)
4. Facultative parasite – an organism which has the faculty or ability to be a parasite
although ordinarily a saprophyte
Example: Bacillus subtilis (soft rot of vegetables)
5. Saprophyte – an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter.
6. Facultative saprophyte – has the ability to become a saprophyte but is ordinary a
parasite.
Example: Pysonacearum
7. Host – in a Plant Pathology refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite. A
food relationship between the host and parasite is implied.
8. Suscept – is the plant that is susceptible to a specific disease
9. Pathogenicity – is the capability of a pathogen to cause a disease where as
pathogenesis refers to the disease development.
10. Virulence – refers to the degree of pathogenicity of a given pathogen.
11. Aggressiveness – measures the rate at which virulence is expressed by a given
isolate

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NAME:__________________________ COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:___________________

ACTIVITY # 2

Submission Policy:

1. Answers can be written or encoded

2. Your file must be sent in picture and rename your picture with this format:
LAST NAME, FIRST NAME-ACT #
(Example: DELA CRUZ, JUAN-ACT#3)
3. Send your output at Google Classroom-(Activity Collector)
4. Send your output not later than this week.
5. This activity will serve as your attendance and laboratory.

A. Knowledge application (20pts)

Mr. Antonio has 2.5 has of cabbage planted in his farm, during the vegetative stage the
plants showed potential high yield but when rainy seasons come. The plants where infested by
clubroot disease, and the estimated area infested with disease was 1.5 ha. In this situation, you
can help Mr. Antonio to decide by answering the following.

1. Diagnosis or recognizing particular diseases by their symptoms and signs.

___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ (5pts).
2. Disease assessment and forecasting.
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ (5pts).
3. Recommendation of appropriate control measures
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ (5pts).
4. Field application of suitable control measures
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ (5pts).

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PLANT DISEASE DIAGNOSIS

 Symptoms
 Signs
A. Symptoms of Plant Diseases
-refer to the expressions by the suscept or host of a pathologic condition by which a
particular plant disease may be distinguished from other disease.

Primary vs. Secondary Symptoms

 Primary symptoms- refer to the immediate and direct results of the causal agent’s on
invaded tissues (swollen “clubs” in clubroot of cabbage and “galls” formed by feeding of the
root knot nematode).
 Secondary symptoms- refer to the effect on distant and uninvaded plant parts.

Localized vs. Systemic Symptoms

 Localized symptoms are distinct and very limited structural changes usually in the
form of lesions such as canker, leaf spot and gall.
 Systemic symptoms are more generalized pathological conditions such as mottling,
mosaic and wilting.

Histological or Morphological Symptoms

 Histological symptoms are internal; seen only upon dissection of diseased plant
portion and examination under the microscope.
 Morphological symptoms are malformations and other changes visible to the naked
eye.

B. Signs of Plant Diseases

-structures of the pathogen found associated with the infected plant part.
-most of these signs are best seen and distinguished under a microscope.

 Signs of;
 Fungal diseases: mycelia, spores, fruiting bodies.
 Bacterial diseases: bacterial cells, bacterial ooze
 Nematode diseases: eggs, juveniles, adult nematodes.
 Virus diseases: virus particles, inclusion bodies.
 Viroid diseases: RNS fragments.

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CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

A. Non-Parasitic Agents of Plant Pathology

1. Excessively Low Temperature
a. Freezing injury – occurs at temperature below 0oC. Commented [MR1]: Freezing injury symptoms include
tissue browning, blackening, wilting or curling of leaves
and stems.

b. Chilling injury – occurs at low temperatures that are slightly above freezing Commented [MR2]: The tissue becomes weakened
point. leading to cellular dysfunctions. Symptoms include surface
lesions/pitting, internal discoloration, water soaking of the
tissue, failure to ripen normally and increased susceptibility
to decay organisms

2. Too High Temperatures

a. Sunscald – appears on leaves or fruits that undergo prolonged exposure to
high temperatures

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b. Heat Necrosis of Potato – Commented [MR3]: Heat necrosis is most common

during hot and dry seasons and with potatoes planted
in light soils.

3. Lack of Oxygen Commented [MR4]: What causes lack of oxygen-high

a. Blackheart disease of Potato temperature=low oxygen but high carbon dioxide
concentrate
Commented [MR5]: Black heart is caused by a lack
of oxygen or an excess of CO2 in the surrounding air
which creates an asphyxiating environment.

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4. Too Little Light Commented [MR6]: Lights is important for crop

a. Etiolation – yellowing caused by inadequate light. photosynthesis-synthesize food

5. Adverse Meteorological Condition Commented [MR7]: Weather condition

a. Strong Winds – torn leaves

Commented [MR8]: Air pollutants have a

b. Heavy rains – water soaked negative impact on plant growth, primarily through
c. Lightning injury – burning/stunting interfering with resource accumulation. ince leaves are
in close contact with the atmosphere, many air
6. Air pollutant (any factor mediated by the atmosphere that causes an unwanted pollutants, such as O3 and NOx, affect the metabolic
effect; gases and particulate). The more common air pollutants are: function of the leaves and interfere with net carbon
a. Ethylene fixation by the plant canopy.
b. Nitrogen oxides (NO2) Commented [MR9]: During symbiotic N fixation, Mo
c. Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN5) acts as a cofactor for nitrogenase enzymes to catalyze
the redox reaction to convert elemental N into
d. Ozone ammonium (NH4+) ions
e. Particulate (usok, dust and ashes) Commented [MR10]: Over application or pwede ding
f. Other air pollutants (Chlorine, sulfur dioxide, fluorides, hydrogen chloride, yung planting site ay abundant siya ng nutrient na
etc.) nagcacause ng toxicity
7. Mineral Deficiencies Commented [MR11R10]: 1.Mineral
a. Macro elements (N,P,K,Ca,S,Mg) fertilizers (phosphorus and potash) are mined from the
b. Micro elements (Fe,Mn,Cu,Mo,Cl,B,Zn) environment and crushed or chemically treated before
being applied.
8. Excess Nutrient Elements 2.Organic fertilizers (manure and compost) are made
a. High calcium from animal feces, and plant or animal decomposed
b. Too much nitrogen matter.
3.Industrial fertilizers (ammonium phosphate, urea,
c. Excess copper ammonium nitrate) are produced industrially by
d. Sodium toxicity humans through chemical reactions.
4.
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9. Unfavorable soil pH Commented [MR12]: Ideal for plants is -5.5-7pH

 Clubroot of crucifers caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae (alkaline place) Commented [MR13]: low levels of hydrogen
is severe at pH 6-7 and controlled at pH 7.8. ions result in a high pH (basic substances)
 Scab of potato caused by Streptomyces scabies is severe at pH 5.2 to (acidic
place) 8.0 but controllable at pH 5.2. Commented [MR14]: whereas High concentrations
10. Improper use of Pesticides of hydrogen ions yield a low pH (acidic substances),
2,4-D,(2,4 dichlorophernpxy-accid) control broad leaved weeds but a\causes
epinasty and malformation of leaves in tomato and grapes.
11. Improper agricultural practices (excessive fertilizer application, too deep
cultivation, too much watering)
12. Excess of soil moisture Commented [MR15]: too much water, matubig,
13. Natural occurring toxic chemicals ilocano baresbes
 Ex. Juglone from blackwalnut Commented [MR16]: Plants sensitive to juglone may
 Amygdalin from peach roots be stunted, have yellow or brown, twisted leaves,
exhibit wilting of some or all plant parts, and die over
 Hydrogen sulfide from flooded soils time. Often, the vascular (i.e., water-conducting) tissue
of affected plants will be discolored
B. PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES
1. VIROIDS – are tiny entities composed of stabe and free ribonucleic acid (RNA) that
can infect plant cells. They are naked or lacking protein coat of the viruses. They are
much smaller than the viruses. The size of the genome is 108 dalton with 250-
300nucleotides (too small to code for a protein coat)
Viroids are transmitted by mechanical means; insects (chewing) and vegetable planting
materials
Example of viroid diseases:
a. Cadang –cadang of coconut
b. Citrus exocortis
c. Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle
d. Potato spindle tuber
e. Chrysanthemum stunt disease
Cadang cadang of coconut (CCCVd)

Symptoms: (a) reduced frond production,

(b) reduced production of inflorescence (c)
Sign: Microscopic view of CCVd
leaf spot, (d) nuts become rounded and
have equatorial scarifications.
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Potato spindle tuber (PSTV)

Sign: Microscopic view of PSTV on

Symptoms: Stunting, chlorosis, purpling
tuber tissue

2. VIRUSES – are ultramicroscopic, obligately parasitic entities made up of nucleic

acid (RNA or DNA) and protein coat. Double or single stranded. Most plat viruses is
made of RNA. A few plant viruses contain DNA such as Cauliflower mosaic virus,
Dahlia mosaic virus, Potato leaf roll virus, and Bean golden yellow virus.

Protein Coat
 Provide a protective sheath for the nucleic acid
 Facilitate movement of virus from cell to cell
 For transmission of viruses
 Determines the kinds of symptoms it causes
The following are common viral symptoms:
 Mosaic
 Ring Spot
 Excessive branching-witches’ broom
 Vein clearing
 Color breaking
 Stunting
 Chlorosis
 Leaf curling

Satellite virus – is one that has to be associated with an autonomous virus before it can
cause infection or be replicated in the host plant.
Propagative virus – plant viruses that multiply in their insect vectors

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Rice tungro (Rice tungro bacilliform virus)

Sign: Microscopic view of RTB virus;

Symptoms: Yellowing of leaves
Vector: Green leafhopper.

Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV)

Sign: Microscopic view of CaMV

Symptom: Curling of leaves, stunted
Vector: mealy cabbage aphid.

3. BACTERIA

-Bacteria are typically unicellular microorganism that reproduce asexually by

binary fission. A bacterium lacks a well-defined nucleus and a nuclear membrane.

-Bacteria may be spherical

(cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli) or
spiral-shaped (spirilla). They
may occur as single cells, in
couples, in chains
(streptococcus) or in cluster
(staphylococcus).

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GENERAL OF PLANT PATHOGENIC BATERIA

A. Pseudomonas
B. Xanthomonas
C. Erwinia
D. Agrobacterium
E. Corynebacterium
F. Streptomyces
G. Glostridia

Symptoms and Diseases Caused of Bacteria

a. Leaf spot
b. Soft rot
c. Blight
d. Canker
e. Wilting
f. Other symptoms
Scab and chlorosis

Bacterial wilt in tomato (Ralstonia solanacearum)

Sign: Microscopic structure of

Symptoms: Wilting Ralstonia solanacearum on the
tomato stem

Bacterial stalk rot of corn (Erwinia chrysanthemi )

Sign: Microscopic structure of

Symptoms: Stalk rot Erwinia chrysanthemi on the corn
stalk

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4. Nematodes - are thread like unsegmented worms which are thread like usually
elongated and cylindrical in shape. The nematodes may be sapropagous, predaceous or
plant parasitic depending on their sources of food.

 -Sapropagous nematodes- feed on the

dead or decaying organic matter,
 -the predaceous ones feed on other
nematodes and on other minute
animals,
 -and the plant parasites feed on all
forms of plant life including seed
plants, algae, fungi and bacteria.

Groups of Plant Parasitic Nematodes

 According to feeding position
 Ectoparasites
 Semiendoparasites
 Endoparasites
 According to movement while feeding
 Migratory
 Sedentary

Examples:
Root knot- Meloidogyne sp.
Red ring disease of coconut- Radinaphelenchus cocophilus

Tomato Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.)

Sign: Microscopic view of

Symptoms: Wilting, root knot
Meloidogyne sp. on the roots tomato

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Red ring disease of coconut- (Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus)

Sign: Microscopic structure of red

ring nematode (Rhadinaphelenchus
Symptoms: Red circular band inside the
cocophilus)
stem (internal), yellow wilting (external)
Vector: Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus
palmarum) on the coconut crown.

4. MYCOPLASMA – are non-motile, non-spore forming, pleomorphic microorganism

that lack cell walls and are bounded by a triple – layered membrane. They are very
small, often visible only with an electron microscope.

Genera of Mycoplasma
1.Mycoplasma – need sterol for growth
2.Acheloplasma – do not require sterol for growth
3.Spiroplasma – helical and have been cultured in artificial media

Transmission of Mycoplasma is by:

1. Leafhoppers
2. Planthoppers
3. Treehoppers
4. Aphids
5. Mites
6. Psyllids

Symptoms and diseases caused by Mycoplasma

a. Asteryellows – a general chlorosis and stunning of the plant,
malformations of organs and poor yields.
b.Lethal yellowing of coconut trees – causes premature fruit
drop, yellowing of leaves starting the older to the younger
leaves and finally blighting within 3 to 6 months after
appearance of symptoms.
c. Citrus stabborn disease – (Spiroplasma citri) causes upright
bunchy growth of twigs and branches with shortened
internodes and numerous shoots. Fruits and leaves are small
and deformed. Diseased fruits have bitter taste and
disagreeable flavor and smell.
d.Corn stunt Spiroplasma – exhibit yellowing of leaves which
later turn to red or purple, stunting and excessive formation
of sucker shoots.

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5. RICKETTSIAS – (Obligately parasitic oraganisms)

The rickettsias are small, gram negative microorganisms with a wavy cell wall.
Multiply by binary fission. Some arespherical, others are rod – shaped and others
are polymorphic. The rickettsias are generally transmitted by insects.

Ex. Phony disease of peach

Pierce’s disease of grapes

Papaya Bunchy Top Disease (PBT)

Sign: Microscopic view of rickettsias-

related bacteria on papaya’s plant
Symptoms: Chlorosis and stunting on
tissues
leaves
Vector: (Empoasca stevensi and
Empoaca papayae

Pierce’s Disease of Grapes (Xyella fastidiosa)

Sign: Microscopic view of bacterium

Xyella fastidiosa on grapes plant tissue.
Symptoms: Leaf scorch Vector: Sharpshooter leafhoppers on
grapes branch or stem (a sap-feeding
insect)

6. PROTOZOA – usually motile eukaryotic unicellular protest

Ex. Phytomonas leptovasorum – phloem necrosis of coffee in Surinam

Hartort disease of coconut – Flagellate protozoa
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Heart Rot of Coconut (Flagellate protozoan)

Sign: Microscopic view of Flegellate

Symptoms: Shoot rot, frond rot protozoan on the shoot tissue of
coconut

Phloem necrosis of coffee (Phytomonas leptovasorum)

Sign: Microscopic view of

Symptoms: bright yellowing of leaves
Phytomonas leptovasorum on the
amidst normal green foliage
phloem of coffee

7. FUNGI
The fungi are non-chlorophyll bearing microorganisms with branched
filamentous vegetative structures called mycelium. Fungi possess true nuclei and
cell walls. Some fungi are not filiamentous such as the thallus of Synchytrium spp.
and Sacchromycess spp. which are unicellular. Plasmodia of Plasmodiophora
brassicae are naked masses of protoplasm without cell walls.
The mycelium may be septated (have cross walls) or coencocytic
(continous).
THE FOUR PHYLA WITH PLANT PATHOGENS
 Chytridiomycota
 Zygomycota
 Ascomycota
 Basidiomycota
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Potatoe late blight (Phytophthora infestans)

Sign: Microscopic view of Phytophtora

Symptoms: Late blight
infestans on the potatoe leaves

Powdery mildew on cucurbits (Pseudoperonospora cubensis)

Symptoms: Pale green to yellow spots

Sign: Appearance of powdery mildew
from on upper surface of leaves

IV. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1. Read Module No. 2 and after which, answer the guide questions. Write your
answers in an A4 coupon bond (handwritten) and submit via the Assignment section of the
Google Classroom.

Activity 2: Answer Online Quiz 1 in the Google Forms following the link to be posted in the
Google Classroom and FB group

V. FLEXIBLE TEACHING LEARNING MODALITY (FTLM) ADAPTED

The content for this topic will be delivered using this module, FB group, Google
classroom and Google forms. You are required to answer the online quiz in the Google
Forms.

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VI. ASSESSMENT TASK

This module has one assessment:

 Answer the Learning Task (10 points)

 Formative Assessment (Online Quiz No. 1)

REFERENCES
1. Khalid, S.M.N. 2020. FAO Subregional Office for the Pacific Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Natios. Crop protection manual. Appia
2. CLSU. 2019. Central Luzon State University, Agriculture Licensure Examination
Review Manual, Crop protection. Science of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
3. FAO. 2017. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Integrated pest
management of major pests and diseases in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus.
Budapest.
4. Buladaco et al,. 2014. Green Empire, Licensure Examination in Agriculture Reviewer,
(Lecture Manual and Review Questions), Crop Protection
5. CLSU. 2011. Central Luzon State University, Agriculture Licensure Examination
Review Manual, Crop protection. Science of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
6. Alton N. Sparks, Jr..2011. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Tactics, University of
Georgia, Bugwood.org - Articles Updated: March 30, 2011
7. University od Nebraska-Lincoln-Faculty Publication: Department of Entomology

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NAME:__________________________ COURSE/YEAR/SECTION:___________________

ACTIVITY # 3

Submission Policy:

1. Answers can be written or encoded

2. Your file must be sent in picture and rename your picture with this format:
LAST NAME, FIRST NAME-ACT #
(Example: DELA CRUZ, JUAN-ACT#3)
3. Send your output at Google Classroom-(Activity Collector)
4. Send your output not later than this week.
5. This activity will serve as your attendance and participation.

Direction: Identify the following whether it is a sign or symptoms of plant disease.

1. Mold
2. Mildew
3. Mottling
4. Ooze
5. Wilting
6. Dwarfing
7. Presence of juvenile nematodes
8. Mycelia
9. Spores
10. Fruiting bodies

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