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Deep foundation
A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers
building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than
a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of
depths. A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a
deep foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the
building site.
4:25
There are many reasons that a geotechnical engineer would
recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, such Drilling of deep piles of diameter
as for a skyscraper. Some of the common reasons are very large 150 cm in bridge 423 near Nes
Ziona, Israel
design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints
like property lines. There are different terms used to describe
different types of deep foundations including the pile (which is
analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a column),
drilled shafts, and caissons. Piles are generally driven into the
ground in situ; other deep foundations are typically put in place
using excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may
vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep
foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced
concrete or prestressed concrete.

Driven foundations
Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile
driver. Driven piles are constructed of wood, reinforced
concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from the trunks of
tall trees. Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and
A deep foundation installation for a
round cross-sections (like Franki piles). They are reinforced bridge in Napa, California, United
with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are either pipe States.
piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile). Historically,
wood piles used splices to join multiple segments end-to-end
when the driven depth required was too long for a single pile;
today, splicing is common with steel piles, though concrete
piles can be spliced with mechanical and other means. Driving
piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous because the
soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding
soil, causing greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus
increasing their load-bearing capacity. Driven piles are also
considered to be "tested" for weight-bearing ability because of
Pile driving operations in the Port of
their method of installation; thus the motto of the Pile Driving Tampa, Florida.
Contractors' Association is "A Driven Pile...Is a Tested Pile!".[1]

Pile foundation systems

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Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles

connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the
heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads that are
greater than one pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are
typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation
elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the
grade beams, while heavier elements bear directly on the pile
cap. Deep foundations of The Marina
Torch, a skyscraper in Dubai

Monopile foundation
A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-
diameter, foundation structural element to support all the
loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.

A large number of monopile foundations[2] have been utilized

in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom
offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.[3] For
example, the Horns Rev wind farm in the North Sea west of
Pipe piles being driven into the
Denmark utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 metres diameter
ground
sunk 25 meters deep into the seabed,[4] while the Lynn and
Inner Dowsing Wind Farm off the coast of England went online
in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-metre-
diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18
metres.[5]

The typical construction process for a wind turbine subsea

monopile foundation in sand includes driving a large hollow
steel pile, of some 4 m in diameter with approximately 50mm
thick walls, some 25 m deep into the seabed, through a 0.5 m
layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the
pile. A transition piece (complete with pre-installed features
such as boat-landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable
ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is
attached to the driven pile, and the sand and water are
removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with concrete.
An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter,
is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion
protection.[3]
Illustration of a hand-operated pile
driver in Germany after 1480
Drilled piles
Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles)
or cast-in-situ piles, a borehole is drilled into the ground, then concrete (and often some sort of
reinforcing) is placed into the borehole to form the pile. Rotary boring techniques allow larger
diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile construction through particularly
dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site; in particular,

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whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions

or through water-saturated strata. Casing is often used when
the sides of the borehole are likely to slough off before concrete
is poured.

For end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has

extended a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently
strong layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a rock
layer, or hardpan, or other dense, strong layers. Both the
diameter of the pile and the depth of the pile are highly specific
to the ground conditions, loading conditions, and nature of the
project. Pile depths may vary substantially across a project if
the bearing layer is not level. Drilled piles can be tested using a
variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during
installation.
A pile machine in Amsterdam.

Under-reamed piles
Under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that are as much as 6 m in diameter.
The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils or rocks. The larger base
diameter allows greater bearing capacity than a straight-shaft pile.

These piles are suited for expansive soils which are often subjected to seasonal moisture variations,
or for loose or soft strata. They are used in normal ground condition also where economics are
favorable. [6]

Under reamed piles foundation is used for the following soils:-

1. Under reamed piles are used in black cotton soil: This type of soil expands when it
comes in contact with water and contraction occurs when water is removed. So that cracks appear
in the construction done on such clay. An under reamed pile is used in the base to remove this
defect.

2. Under reamed piles are used in low bearing capacity Outdated soil (filled soil)

3.Under reamed piles are used in sandy soil when water table is high.

4. Under reamed piles are used, Where lifting forces appear at the base of
foundation.

Augercast pile
An augercast pile, often known as a continuous flight augering (CFA) pile, is formed by drilling into
the ground with a hollow stemmed continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of
resistance. No casing is required. A cement grout mix is then pumped down the stem of the auger.
While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn, conveying the soil upward along
the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement can be installed.
Recent innovations in addition to stringent quality control allows reinforcing cages to be placed up
to the full length of a pile when required.

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Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance and are often used for noise-sensitive and
environmentally-sensitive sites. Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated
soils, because of expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these, a displacement pile (like
Olivier piles) may provide the cost efficiency of an augercast pile and minimal environmental
impact. In ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less
suitable as refusal above the design pile tip elevation may be encountered.

Small Sectional Flight Auger piling rigs can also be used for piled raft foundations. These produce
the same type of pile as a Continuous Flight Auger rig but using smaller, more lightweight
equipment. This piling method is fast, cost-effective and suitable for the majority of ground
types.[6][7]

Pier and grade beam foundation

In drilled pier foundations, the piers can be connected with grade beams on which the structure
sits, sometimes with heavy column loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential
construction, the piers are extended above the ground level, and wood beams bearing on the piers
are used to support the structure. This type of foundation results in a crawl space underneath the
building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during construction or re-modelling.[8]

Speciality piles

Jet-piles
In jet piling high pressure water is used to set piles.[9] High pressure water cuts through soil with a
high-pressure jet flow and allows the pile to be fitted.[10] One advantage of Jet Piling: the water jet
lubricates the pile and softens the ground.[11] The method is in use in Norway.[12]

Micropiles
Micropiles are small diameter, generally less than 300mm diameter, elements that are drilled and
grouted in place. They typically get their capacity from skin friction along the sides of the element,
but can be end bearing in hard rock as well. Micropiles are usually heavily reinforced with steel
comprising more than 40% of their cross section. They can be used as direct structural support or
as ground reinforcement elements. Due to their relatively high cost and the type of equipment
used to install these elements, they are often used where access restrictions and or very difficult
ground conditions (cobbles and boulders, construction debris, karst, environmental sensitivity)
exists or to retrofit existing structures. Occasionally, in difficult ground, they are used for new
construction foundation elements. Typical applications include underpinning, bridge, transmission
tower and slope stabilization projects.[7][13][14][15]

Tripod piles

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The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although
unit costs are generally higher than with most other forms of piling, it has several advantages
which have ensured its continued use through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and
inexpensive to bring to site, making it ideal for jobs with a small number of piles.

Sheet piles
Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking
sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground. The
main application of sheet piles is in retaining walls and
cofferdams erected to enable permanent works to proceed.
Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are
used to establish sheet piles.

Soldier piles Sheet piles are used to restrain soft

Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are soil above the bedrock in this
constructed of steel H sections spaced about 2 to 3 m apart and excavation

are driven or drilled prior to excavation. As the excavation

proceeds, horizontal timber sheeting (lagging) is inserted
behind the H pile flanges.

The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier

piles because of their relative rigidity compared to the lagging.
Soil movement and subsidence is minimized by installing the
lagging immediately after excavation to avoid soil loss. Lagging
can be constructed by timber, precast concrete, shotcrete and
steel plates depending on spacing of the soldier piles and the
A soldier pile wall using reclaimed
type of soils.
railway sleepers as lagging.

Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well

constructed walls will not result in subsidence such as over-consolidated clays, soils above the
water table if they have some cohesion, and free draining soils which can be effectively dewatered,
like sands.

Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose
sands. It is also not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation, and
dewatering is often required.

Screw piles
Screw piles, also called helical piers and screw foundations, have been used as foundations since
the mid 19th century in screw-pile lighthouses. Screw piles are galvanized iron pipe with helical
fins that are turned into the ground by machines to the required depth. The screw distributes the
load to the soil and is sized accordingly.

Suction piles

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Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the
seabed (or more commonly dropped a few metres into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water
out at the top of the tubular, pulling the pile further down.

The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type. Sand is difficult
to penetrate but provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter.
Clays and muds are easy to penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as
much as eight times the diameter. The open nature of gravel means that water would flow through
the ground during installation, causing 'piping' flow (where water boils up through weaker paths
through the soil). Therefore, suction piles cannot be used in gravel seabeds.

Adfreeze piles
In high latitudes where the ground is continuously frozen,
adfreeze piles are used as the primary structural foundation
method.

Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen
ground around them to the surface of the pile.

Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in

conditions which cause the permafrost to melt. If a building is
constructed improperly then it can melt the ground below, Adfreeze piles supporting a building
resulting in a failure of the foundation system. in Utqiaġvik, Alaska

Vibrated stone columns

Vibrated stone columns are a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse aggregate
are placed in soils with poor drainage or bearing capacity to improve the soils.

Hospital piles
Specific to marine structures, hospital piles (also known as gallow piles) are built to provide
temporary support to marine structure components during refurbishment works. For example,
when removing a river pontoon, the brow will be attached to hospital pile to support it. They are
normal piles, usually with a chain or hook attachment.

Piled walls
Piled walls can be drivene or bored. They provide special advantages where available working
space dictates and open cut excavation not feasible. Both methods offer technically effective and
offer a cost efficient temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides of bulk excavations even
in water bearing strata. When used in permanent works, these walls can be designed to resist
vertical loads in addition lateral load from retaining soil. Construction of both methods is the same
as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls are constructed with small gaps between adjacent
piles. The spacing of the piles can be varies to provded suitable bending stiffness.

Secant piled walls

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Secant pile walls are constructed such that space is left between
alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent construction of
'male' piles. Construction of 'male' piles involves boring
through the concrete in the 'female' piles hole in order to key
'male' piles between. The male pile is the one where steel
reinforcement cages are installed, though in some cases the
female piles are also reinforced.

Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, Sheet piling, by a bridge, was used
to block a canal in New Orleans
hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design
after Hurricane Katrina damaged it.
requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or
soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing bentonite. All
types of wall can be constructed as free standing cantilevers, or may be propped if space and sub-
structure design permit. Where party wall agreements allow, ground anchors can be used as tie
backs.

Slurry walls
A slurry wall is a barrier built under ground using a mix of bentonite and water to prevent the flow
of groundwater. A trench that would collapse due to the hydraulic pressure in the surrounding soil
does not collapse as the slurry balances the hydraulic pressure.

Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques

These are essentially variations of in situ reinforcements in the form of piles (as mentioned above),
blocks or larger volumes.

Cement, lime/quick lime, flyash, sludge and/or other binders (sometimes called stabilizer) are
mixed into the soil to increase bearing capacity. The result is not as solid as concrete, but should be
seen as an improvement of the bearing capacity of the original soil.

The technique is most often applied on clays or organic soils like peat. The mixing can be carried
out by pumping the binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an
excavator or by excavating the masses, mixing them separately with the binders and refilling them
in the desired area. The technique can also be used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of
binding contaminants, as opposed to excavating them and transporting to landfill or processing.

Materials

Timber
As the name implies, timber piles are made of wood.

Historically, timber has been a plentiful, locally available resource in many areas. Today, timber
piles are still more affordable than concrete or steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or
concrete), and depending on the source/type of timber, timber piles may not be suitable for
heavier loads.

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A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be protected from rotting above
groundwater level. Timber will last for a long time below the groundwater level. For timber to rot,
two elements are needed: water and oxygen. Below the groundwater level, dissolved oxygen is
lacking even though there is ample water. Hence, timber tends to last for a long time below the
groundwater level. In 1648, the Royal Palace of Amsterdam was constructed on 13,659 timber piles
that still survive today since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above
the water table can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of wood preservation
using pressure treatment (alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), chromated copper arsenate (CCA),
creosote, etc.).

Splicing timber piles is still quite common and is the easiest of all the piling materials to splice. The
normal method for splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube (normally 60–
100 cm long, with an internal diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its length
onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile is then simply slotted into the other end of the
tube and driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure that the two pieces follow each
other during driving. If uplift capacity is required, the splice can incorporate bolts, coach screws,
spikes or the like to give it the necessary capacity.

Iron
Cast iron may be used for piling. These may be ductile.

Steel
Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good
candidate for inclined (battered) piles.

Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven
open end, soil is allowed to enter the bottom of the pipe or tube. If
an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to
Cutaway illustration. Deep
remove the soil inside following driving. Closed end pipe piles are
inclined (battered) pipe piles
constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a steel plate or support a precast segmented
cast steel shoe. skyway where upper soil layers
are weak muds.
In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide
additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance. In the United
Kingdom, this is generally not done in order to reduce the cost. In these cases corrosion protection
is provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of steel. If a
concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile will remain intact
due to the concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile. The structural capacity of pipe piles
is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete strength (if filled). An allowance is
made for corrosion depending on the site conditions and local building codes. Steel pipe piles can
either be new steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular
casing previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration.

H-Piles are structural beams that are driven in the ground for deep foundation application. They
can be easily cut off or joined by welding or mechanical drive-fit splicers. If the pile is driven into a
soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, coal-tar epoxy or cathodic protection can

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be applied to slow or eliminate the corrosion process. It is common to allow for an amount of
corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this
way, the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years.

Prestressed concrete piles

Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the
tensile strength required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending
resistance.

Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short
piles to form one long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles.

Composite piles
A "composite pile" is a pile made of steel and concrete members that are fastened together, end to
end, to form a single pile. It is a combination of different materials or different shaped materials
such as pipe and H-beams or steel and concrete.

Construction machinery for driving

piles into the ground
Construction machinery used to drive piles into the ground:[16]

Pile driver is a device for placing piles in their designed

position.
Diesel pile hammer is a device for hammering piles into the
ground.
Hydraulic hammer is removable working equipment of
hydraulic excavators, hydroficated machines (stationary
rock breakers, loaders, manipulators, pile driving hammers)
used for processing strong materials (rock, soil, metal) or
pile driving elements by impact of falling parts dispersed by
high-pressure fluid.
Vibratory pile driver is a machine for driving piles into sandy 'Pile jackets' encasing old concrete
and clay soils. piles in a saltwater environment to
Press-in pile driver is a machine for sinking piles into the prevent corrosion and consequential
ground by means of static force transmission.[17] weakening of the piles when cracks
allow saltwater to contact the
Universal drilling machine.
internal steel reinforcement rods

Construction machinery for

replacement piles
Construction machinery used to construct replacement piles:[16]

Sectional Flight Auger or Continuous Flight Auger

Reverse circulation drilling

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Ring bit concentric drilling

See also
Eurocode EN 1997
International Society for Micropiles
Post in ground construction also called earthfast or posthole construction; a historic method of
building wooden structures.
Stilt house, also known as a lake house; an ancient, historic house type built on pilings.
Shallow foundations
Pile bridge
Larssen sheet piling

Notes
1. PDCA (https://secure.piledrivers.org/)
2. Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations (http://offshorewind.net/Other_Pages/Turbine-Foundation
s.html), 2009-09-09, accessed 2010-04-12.
3. Constructing a turbine foundation (http://www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/Opstillingen/uk-fundament.h
tm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110521095525/http://www.hornsrev.dk/Engelsk/O
pstillingen/uk-fundament.htm) 21 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Horns Rev project, Elsam
monopile foundation construction process, accessed 2010-04-12]
4. Horns Revolution (http://www.modernpowersystems.com/story.asp?storyCode=2017033)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110714110540/http://www.modernpowersystems.com/
story.asp?storyCode=2017033) 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Modern Power
Systems, 2002-10-05, accessed 2010-04-14.
5. "Lynn and Inner Dowsing description" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110726131800/http://ww
w.greenenergytalkdirectory.org/library/Lynn-and-Inner-Dowsing.php). Archived from the original
(http://www.greenenergytalkdirectory.org/library/Lynn-and-Inner-Dowsing.php) on 26 July 2011.
Retrieved 23 July 2010.
6. Handbook on Under-reamed and bored compaction pile foundation, Central building research
institute Roorkee, Prepared by Devendra Sharma, M. P. Jain, Chandra Prakash
7. Siel, Barry D.; Anderson, Scott A. "Implementation of Micropiles by the Federal Highway
Administration" (https://www.pwri.go.jp/eng/ujnr/tc/g/pdf/22/22-8-1siel.pdf) (PDF). Federal
Highway Administration (US). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
8. Marshall, Brain (April 2000). "How House Construction Works" (http://home.howstuffworks.co
m/home-improvement/repair/house6.htm). How Stuff Works. HowStuffWorks, Inc. Retrieved
4 April 2013.
9. "jet-pile" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jet-pile). Merriam-Webster. Retrieved
2 August 2020.
10. Guan, Chengli; Yang, Yuyou (21 February 2019). "Field Study on the Waterstop of the Rodin
Jet Pile" (https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/8/1709/pdf). Applied Sciences.
doi:10.3390/app9081709 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp9081709). Retrieved 2 August 2020.
11. "Press-in with Water Jetting" (https://www.giken.com/en/press-in_method/penetration_tech/wat
er_jetting/). Giken.com. Giken Ltd. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
12. "City Lade, Trondheim" (https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=no&u=http://www.jetgr
unn.no/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D128%26Itemid%3
D136&prev=search&pto=aue). Jetgrunn.no. Jetgrunn AS. Retrieved 2 August 2020.

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23/05/2024, 10:54 Deep foundation - Wikipedia

13. Omer, Joshua R. (2010). "A Numerical Model for Load Transfer and Settlement of Bored Cast
In-Situ Piles" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210414131811/http://www.dfi.org/pubdetail.asp?id
=1725). Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on Deep Foundations. Archived from the
original (http://www.dfi.org/pubdetail.asp?id=1725) on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
14. "International Society for Micropiles" (http://www.ismicropiles.org). Retrieved 2 February 2007.
15. "GeoTechTools" (https://www.geoinstitute.org/geotechtools/login). Geo-Institute. Retrieved
15 April 2022.
16. McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopaedia of the history of technolology (https://archive.org/details/i
sbn_9780415147927). Routledge. ISBN 9780415147927. Retrieved 20 July 2022 – via
Internet Archive.
17. "General description of the press-in pile driving unit" (https://www.concretepumpingmelbourne.
com/general-description-of-the-press-in-pile-driving-unit/). Concrete Pumping Melbourne. 13
October 2021. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221225224154/https://www.concretepu
mpingmelbourne.com/general-description-of-the-press-in-pile-driving-unit/) from the original on
25 December 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2022.

References
Italiantrivelle Foundation Industry (http://www.italiantrivelle.com) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20140625044717/http://www.italiantrivelle.com/) 25 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine
The Deep Foundation web portal Italiantrivelle is the number one source of information
regarding the Foundation Industry. (Link needs to be removed or updated, links to
inappropriate content)
Fleming, W. G. K. et al., 1985, Piling Engineering, Surrey University Press; Hunt, R. E.,
Geotechnical Engineering Analysis and Evaluation, 1986, McGraw-Hill.
Coduto, Donald P. Foundation Design: Principles and Practices 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall Inc.,
2001.
NAVFAC DM 7.02 Foundations and Earth Structures (https://web.archive.org/web/2006121419
2549/http://www2.ce.washington.edu/~geotech/courses/cee523/manuals/NAVFAC72.pdf) U.S.
Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 1986.
Rajapakse, Ruwan., Pile Design and Construction Guide, 2003
Tomlinson, P.J., Pile Design and Construction Practice, 1984
Stabilization of Organic Soils (http://ns.swedgeo.se/sd/pdf/SD-R3E.pdf) Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20120222083743/http://ns.swedgeo.se/sd/pdf/SD-R3E.pdf) 22 February 2012
at the Wayback Machine
Sheet piling handbook (http://www.thyssenkrupp-bautechnik.com/fileadmin/download/pdf/eng/
Rammprofile/SWHB_EBOOK_ENG.pdf), 2010

External links
Deep Foundations Institute (http://www.dfi.org)

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