Objectives

At the end of this presentation, you should be able to:

1. review concepts related to natural science; and

2. inquire into the nature of science --- the scientific enterprise,
inquiry, and worldview.
 Science…
What is
Science? 

comes from the Latin word "scientia"
refers to knowledge covering general
truths
 is the pursuit and application of
knowledge and understanding of the
natural world following a systematic
methodology based on evidence
CONTENT Body of systematic knowledge about nature
METHOD Of obtaining that knowledge, - experiment
ATTITUDE Organized and systematic skepticism
GOALS Explanation, understanding, prediction
LANGUAGE Mathematics and technical vocabulary
TOOLS Uses Instruments and technologies
Classification of Science
 The discussion of the nature of science is divided into three
sections:

1. The Scientific Worldview;

2. The Scientific Inquiry; and
3. The Scientific Enterprise.

Reading assignment: (to be uploaded on our MS Teams Channel)

The Nature of Science. Retrieved from

http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm
The Scientific Worldview
Nature of  The World is Understandable
Science  Scientific Ideas are Subject to
Change
 Scientific Knowledge is
Durable
 Science Cannot Provide
Complete Answers to All
Questions
The Scientific Inquiry
Nature of  Science Demands Evidence
Science  Science Is a Blend of Logic
and Imagination
 Science Explains and Predicts
 Scientists Try to Identify and
Avoid Bias
 Science Is Not Authoritarian
The The Scientific Enterprise
Nature of  Science Is a Complex Social Activity
Science  Science Is Organized Into Content
Disciplines and Is Conducted in Various
Institutions
 There Are Generally Accepted Ethical
Principles in the Conduct of Science
 Scientists Participate in Public Affairs
Both as Specialists and as Citizens
The Natural World is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe

occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through
careful, systematic study. Scientists believe that through the
use of the intellect, and with the aid of instruments that
extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of
nature.
Scientific Ideas are Open to Change

Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists

are always testing and revising their ideas, and as new observations are
made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced with
new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often existing ideas are
simply revised.
Scientific Knowledge is Durable
Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and
accept some uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is
durable. The modification of ideas, rather than their outright rejection, is
the norm in science, as powerful constructs tend to survive and grow
more precise and to become widely accepted. Moreover, the growing
ability of scientists to make accurate predictions about natural
phenomena provides convincing evidence that we really are gaining in
our understanding of how the world works. Continuity and stability are
as characteristic of science as change is, and confidence is as
prevalent as tentativeness.
Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific

way. There are, for instance, beliefs that --- by their very nature ---
cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of supernatural
powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In other cases, a
scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant
by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-
telling, astrology, and superstition). Nor do scientists have the means to
settle issues concerning good and evil, although they can sometimes
contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely
consequences of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing
alternatives.
Science Demands Evidence

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of

phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data.
Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in
situations that range from natural settings (such as a forest) to
completely contrived ones (such as the laboratory). To make their
observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as
microscopes) that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap
characteristics quite different from what humans can sense (such as
magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird
migrations), make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the
world (as by boring into the earth's crust or administering experimental
medicines).
Science is a Blend of Logic and Imagination
The use of logic and the close examination of evidence are necessary but
not usually sufficient for the advancement of science. Scientific concepts do
not emerge automatically from data or from any amount of analysis alone.
Inventing hypotheses or theories to imagine how the world works and
then figuring out how they can be put to the test of reality is as
creative as writing poetry, composing music, or designing
skyscrapers. Sometimes discoveries in science are made unexpectedly,
even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to
recognize the meaning of the unexpected.
Science Explains and Predicts

The essence of science is validation by observation. But it is not enough

for scientific theories to fit only the observations that are already known.
Theories should also fit additional observations that were not used in
formulating the theories in the first place; that is, theories should have
predictive power. Demonstrating the predictive power of a theory does
not necessarily require the prediction of events in the future. The
predictions may be about evidence from the past that has not yet been
found or studied. A theory about the origins of human beings, for
example, can be tested by new discoveries of human-like fossil remains.
This approach is clearly necessary for reconstructing the events in the
history of the earth or of the life forms on it.
Scientists Try to Identify and Avoid Bias

Scientists' nationality, sex, ethnic origin, age, political convictions, and

so on may incline them to look for or emphasize one or another kind of
evidence or interpretation. For example, for many years the study of
primates—by male scientists—focused on the competitive social behavior of
males. Not until female scientists entered the field was the importance of
female primates' community-building behavior recognized.

One safeguard against undetected bias in an area of study is to have many

different investigators or groups of investigators working in it.
Science Is Not Authoritarian

No scientist, however famous or highly placed, is empowered to

decide for other scientists what is true, for none are believed by other
scientists to have special access to the truth. There are no
preestablished conclusions that scientists must reach on the basis of
their investigations.

Theories are judged by their results: when someone comes up with a

new or improved version that explains more phenomena or answers
more important questions than the previous version, the new one
eventually takes its place.
Science is a Complex Social Activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of

work and goes on to some degree in all nations of the world. Men and
women of all ethnic and national backgrounds participate in science
and its applications. These people --- scientists and engineers,
mathematicians, physicians, technicians, computer programmers,
librarians, and others --- may focus on scientific knowledge either for its
own sake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may be
concerned with data gathering, theory building, instrument building, or
communicating.
Science Is Organized Into Content Disciplines and Is
Conducted in Various Institutions
Organizationally, science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different scientific
fields, or content disciplines. From anthropology through zoology, there are dozens of such
disciplines. They differ from one another in many ways, including history, phenomena studied,
techniques and language used, and kinds of outcomes desired.

Universities, industry, and government are also part of the structure of the scientific
endeavor. Universities are particularly committed to educating successive generations of
scientists, mathematicians, and engineers. Industries and businesses usually emphasize
research directed to practical ends. The federal government funds much of the research in
universities and in industry but also supports and conducts research in its many national
laboratories and research centers. Private foundations, public-interest groups, and state
governments also support research.
There Are Generally Accepted Ethical Principles in the
Conduct of Science

Most scientists conduct themselves according to the ethical norms of science. The strongly
held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, buttressed by the
critical review of one's work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority of scientists well
within the bounds of ethical professional behavior.

Modern scientific ethics require that due regard must be given to the health, comfort, and
well-being of animal subjects. Moreover, research involving human subjects may be
conducted only with the informed consent of the subjects, even if this constraint limits
some kinds of potentially important research or influences the results. Informed consent entails
full disclosure of the risks and intended benefits of the research and the right to refuse to
participate. In addition, scientists must not knowingly subject coworkers, students, the
neighborhood, or the community to health or property risks without their knowledge
and consent.
Scientists Participate in Public Affairs Both as Specialists and as
Citizens
Scientists can bring information, insights, and analytical skills to bear on matters of public
concern. Often they can help the public and its representatives to understand the likely causes
of events (such as natural and technological disasters) and to estimate the possible effects of
projected policies (such as ecological effects of various farming methods).

In matters of public interest, scientists, like other people, can be expected to be

biased where their own personal, corporate, institutional, or community interests are at
stake. For example, because of their commitment to science, many scientists may
understandably be less than objective in their beliefs on how science is to be funded in
comparison to other social needs.
Summary/ Reflection/ Key Takeaways
Thank you for listening!