Chapter 3:

The Processes of Science

a. Basic Processes
b. Integrated Processes
Objectives:

At the end of the presentation, you should be able to:

1. explain the basic and integrated processes of

science;
2. give examples of scenarios where these processes
were applied; and
3. conceptualize classroom science activities for
elementary grades where these processes may be
utilized.
A. Basic Processes
1. Observation

• This is the most fundamental of all of the

processes. Observation may be defined as
the gathering of information through the
use of any one, or combination of the five
basic senses; sight, hearing, touch, taste,
and smell.

• Observation should suggest objectivity as opposed

to the expression of opinion.

• For example, "Troy is a bad boy" is not an

observation. On the other hand, "Troy exhibits
behavior that we characterize as bad" is an
observation.
A. Basic Processes
1. Observation

• In observing, we utilize our five senses which

include the sense of touch, sight, taste, smell,
and hearing.

• Technology can be used to amplify the

senses, which provides for even more
analysis. For example, a microscope is a
technology that allows us to see things that
are too small to be seen with the unaided
eye, and a telescope is something we can
use to observe distant objects.
A. Basic Processes
1. Observation

Sample activities for learners:

The learner will create observations

about a fruit using the 5 senses.

The learners will observe the

weather.
A. Basic Processes
2. Measurement
• Measurement is an observation made more
specific by comparing some attribute of a
system to a standard of reference.
• A standard refers to an object, system, or
experiment that bears a defined relationship
to a unit of measurement of a physical
quantity. Modern measurements are
defined in relationship to internationally
standardized reference objects, which are
used under carefully controlled laboratory
conditions to define the units of length,
mass, electrical potential, and other
physical quantities.
A. Basic Processes
2. Measurement
• Measurement and observation are the only process skills that are actually two forms
of the same thing

Examples:
 The learner will measure the distance a candy travels by launching it through the use of a
homemade catapult.
A. Basic Processes
3. Classification
 Classification is the process of grouping objects on the basis of
observable traits. Objects that share a given characteristic can
be said to belong to the same set.
 This is an important process to science because of an underlying
assumption that kinship in one regard may entail kinship in others.
Science assumes that to a large degree the universe is consistent
with it's laws holding true everywhere. Therefore, if a set of
objects share one thing in common they may well share other
attributes.
Examples:
 The learner will use a magnet to classify objects as magnetic or
nonmagnetic.
 The learner will use his/her sense of sight and classify the buttons
according to colors/size.
A. Basic Processes
4. Communication
• This process refers to a group of skills, all of which represent
some form of systematic reporting of data. The most
common examples include data display tables, charts and
graphs.
• The purpose of the communication skills is to represent
information in such a way that the maximum amount of
data can be reviewed with an eye toward discovering
inherent patterns of association.
• It is important to be able to share our experiences. This can
be done with graphs, diagrams, maps, and spoken word.
Examples:
 The learner will discuss possible errors with other classmates.
 The learner creates a pie graph to represent his interest in different
animals.
 The learner will create a graph to monitor the weather everyday.
A. Basic Processes
5. Inference
• Inference refers to the JUDGMENT OR ASSUMPTION of what has happened in the past
or what is happening in the present that may have caused the event to happen
• Conclusion you draw based on your own reasoning.

Sample inference: The child does Sample inference: The child is

not seem to like eating vegetables wet and dirty because maybe
she played in muddy water.
A. Basic Processes
6. Predicting
• This process deals with projecting events based on an observable
body of information. One might project in a future tense, a sort of trend
analysis, or one might look for a historical precedent to a current
circumstance. In either case, the prediction emerges from a database
rather than being just a pure guess. By definition, predictions must also
be testable. This means that predictions are accepted or rejected
based on observed criteria. If they are not testable they are not
predictions.
A. Basic Processes
6. Predicting

Example:

The child will not eat the vegetables because

he doesn’t seem to like them.

The mother will ask the daughter to take a bath

because she is dirty.
 Observation vs Inference vs Prediction
Observation Inference Prediction

-Gathering data through -JUDGMENT based on what -A guess with basis about
senses and tools you have observed what will happen in the future
-ASSUMPTION of what has
happened in the past or
what is happening in the
present thay may have
caused the event to happen (will eventually be answered
(Actual facts) in the future if true or not)
(may or may not be proven)
Example: Example

He is yawning. He is bored. He will go to sleep.

He has spots all over his body. He have eaten something He will be admitted to the
that triggered his allergies hospital.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
1. Experimentation
This process is a systematic approach to solving a problem. Usually
experimenting is synonymous with scientific method which follows the
basic steps on the next slide.
In experimentation each step emerges from the previous one. The
purpose of the process is to judge the extent to which a hypothesis
might be true. Consequently, scientists tend to think in terms of
probabilities of truth rather than absolute correctness.
Example:
The entire process of conducting the experiment on the effect of
organic fertilizer on the growth of monggo bean plants.
 Observe and Identify the problem
STEPS IN Gather information
SCIENTIFIC
Form a hypothesis
METHOD
Test the hypothesis
Record and analyze data
Form a Conclusion

Communicate results
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
2. Formulating and Testing Hypotheses
What is hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a response, potential solution or answer, to a specific
research question, or problem.

HOW TO FORMULATE A GOOD HYPOTHESIS?

-A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.
-A good hypothesis must be stated in the simplest possible form.
-A good hypothesis must be testable.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
2. Formulating and Testing Hypotheses Example: If the amount of
 You could state a scientific hypothesis organic fertilizer is
in various ways, for example: you increased, then the height
could use the "If, then" statements. of eggplant will also
increase.

 You can also state the hypothesis as

the null hypothesis which is
Example: There is no
sometimes called the "no difference"
relationship between the
hypothesis. If you disprove a null
amount of fertilizer and
hypothesis, that is an evidence for a
the height of eggplants.
relationship between the variables
you are examining.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
2. Formulating and Testing Hypotheses

Example
Problem:
What is the effect of the amount of water on the growth of a
bougainvillea plant?

Hypothesis:
If the amount of water is increased, then, the growth of a bougainvillea plant will also
increase.

There is no relationship between the amount of water and the growth of a

bougainvillea plant.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
2. Formulating and Testing Hypotheses

Example

Problem:
What effect does studying with music have on student test scores?

Hypothesis:
Students who study with music tend to have higher test scores.
Studying with music has no effect on student test scores.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
3. Identifying and controlling variables

• In general, this skill is any attempt to isolate a single influence of a

system so that its role can be seen. The process is an attempt to
achieve a circumstance or condition in which the impact of one
variable is clearly exposed.

• A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can be controlled,

changed, or measured in an experiment.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
3. Identifying and controlling variables
Controlled Variable Independent Variable Dependent Variable
The variable that is kept The variable that is The variable being
the same during a altered/changed during a measured/observed during
scientific experiment. scientific experiment. a scientific experiment.

Scenario: A comprehension test was given to students after they had studied textbook
material in an environment either in silence or with the television turned on.

-Type of textbook material -Environment -Result of the comprehension

-Amount of time in (can be a silent environment test
comprehension test or an environment with
-Type of comprehension test television on)
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
4. Interpreting data
• Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which
data is reviewed for the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The
interpretation of data assigns a meaning to the information analyzed and
determines its signification and implications
• This process refers to the intrinsic ability to recognize patterns and
associations within bodies of data.
• There is a direct contribution of the previous process, communication, to
interpreting data. The better the data is represented the more likely one will
detect associations within the data.
Example:
Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and
forming a conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
4. Interpreting data

Example:

Based on the graph, we can

interpret that City 1 receives
more amount of rainfall than
City 2. It can also be noted
that for both cities, January is
the month with the highest
average monthly rainfall.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
5. Defining operationally
• An operational definition is one that is made in measurable, or observable terms. An
operational definition should not require interpretation of meaning nor is it relative.
The meaning of the defined term must be explicit/clearly defined and limited to the
parameters established for the definition.
• The major function of operational definitions is to establish the parameters of an
investigation or conclusion in an attempt to gain a higher degree of objectivity.
Example:
An investigator suggests that by applying some treatment a class of students will
become more intelligent. The problem here lies with the word intelligent. What does it
mean? And, more to the point, what does the investigator mean with the word? In order
to evaluate the treatment intelligence must be defined in a very clear way. Perhaps, in
this case, defining intelligence as a score on an IQ test makes sense. Such a definition
(intelligence = IQ score) would be an excellent example of an operational definition.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
5. Defining operationally

Example:
• A researcher wants to measure if age is related to addiction. Perhaps
their hypothesis is: the incidence of addiction will increase with age.

• Age might seem straightforward. You might be wondering why we

need to define age if we all know what age is. However, one
researcher might decide to measure age in months in order to get
someone’s precise age, while another researcher might just choose to
measure age in years. In order to understand the results of the study,
we will need to know how this researcher operationally defines age.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES

5. Defining operationally

Example:
A researcher wants to measure if there is a correlation between hot
weather and violent crime. Perhaps their guiding hypothesis is: as
temperature increases so will violent crime.

The researcher needs to define how violent crime is measured. Let’s

say that for this study if they use the FBI’s definition of violent crime. This
definition describes violent crime as “murder and manslaughter,
forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault”.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES

6. Constructing models
• This process involves the creation of a mental or physical model of a
process or event. Models are central to the process of understanding,
doing, and communicating about science. Scientists use models to
make predictions and construct explanations for how and why
natural phenomena (i.e., observable facts and events) happen.
• Models also allow scientists to go beyond the visible world to describe
objects that are too large or small, too slow or quick for the human
eye; things that don’t exist anymore; things that have never been
created; and ideas too difficult to communicate in words.
 B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
6. Constructing models
• Scientific models range from a simple diagram illustrating an
organism’s life cycle to a computer simulation that replicates the
complex process of protein synthesis.
• Models can be analogies and can be mathematical formulas.
• A model of the solar system is a physical replica of the planets orbiting
the sun. Scientific models represent something about the structure,
behavior, and function of objects, processes, or events that happen in
the world.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
6. Constructing models

Example:

A diagram/ illustration showing the

processes of evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation in
the water cycle.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
6. Constructing models

Example:

A mathematical formula to measure

force.
B. INTEGRATED PROCESSES
6. Constructing models

Example:

A model of the solar system.

 Prepared by:

Clarisse P. Cacapit
Instructor, PSU – Sta. Maria