Introduction to Oil and Gas (HND MOCK 2024) marking guides

Petroleum Engineering

Question One

a) Explain your the following Physical/chemical properties of hydrocarbon

i) Salt content (4mks)

Crude oil contains salt, dissolved or suspended. The salt can lead to fouling and corrosion of heat
exchangers and distillation overhead systems. Excessive amounts of chloride salts in crude oil
result in higher corrosion rates in refining units and have a detrimental effect on catalysts.
Desalting techniques are well established, but continuous monitoring of the salt content is needed
for process control and cost reduction.

ii) Sulphur content (4mks)

Oils and gases are mixtures of predominantly hydrocarbon molecules with some inorganic
molecules, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.

Crude Oils with little or no sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are termed sweet
oil, while crude oil with large amount of sulfur–hydrogen functional group such as H2S or a
mercaptan are called “sour oil’’

Hydrogen sulphur can also indicate the presence of pipe leakage.

iii) API gravity (4mks)

API denotes American Petroleum Institute. Crude oil with API>31.1 is term light oil between
10-22.3 is heavy oil, 22.3-31.1 medium oil. (2mks)

141.5
API gravity is defined in terms of oil specific gravity as API= −131.5 (1mk) γ = Specific
γ
gravity of oil (1mk)

b) What are the needed conditions for the fomation of oil in a basin? (5mks)

- Reservoir

- Seal

- source rock, maturation , migration pathway

- trap

- timing

c) How does oil affect the environment? (5mks)

- Oil spill makes its way through the fur of ocean mammals, which affects the way they block
out the cold. They find it harder to float in the water or regulate their body temperatures and
finally die.

- Birds dive into the oceans in search of food and in this process sticky oil spread over the water
surface covers their feathers and impairs their ability to fly. In struggle to clean themselves, they
ingest toxic oil on their bodies leading to death.

- Loads of new born animals and birds die out of starvation as their parents fail to detect their
body scent. In struggle to get rid of oil, many birds swallow the oil accidentally and die out of its
toxicity. Due to regular exposure to oil, large no. of animals like dolphins, otters, marine birds
etc. lose their eye sight.

- Introduction of gases by oil spills in ocean water changes its chemical composition, which in
turn makes water more acidic and leads to the degradation of fragile ocean habitats like the coral
reefs.

Section b: Introduction to Petroleum Geology

Question 1:

A) Define the following terms:

i) Petrophysics: Petrophysics is the study of physical and chemical rock properties and their
interactions with fluids

ii) Primary Porosity : Primary porosity consists of pore space that results from primary
depositional texture (e.g. spaces between grains, or within fossils).

iii) Tortuosity: A measure of the geometric complexity of a porous medium. Tortuosity is a ratio
that characterizes the convoluted pathways of fluid diffusion and electrical conduction through
porous media.

iv) Secondary Porosity : Secondary porosity is pore space generated by post-depositional

processes (e.g. dissolution of grains or cement, fracturing etc.)

v) Wettability : The preference of a solid to contact one liquid or gas, known as the wetting
phase, rather than another. (5*1 = 5mks)

B) how are the following rocks form:

i) Sedimentarv, Metamorphic and Igneous rocks and illustrate with drawings why crude oil is
found mostly in sedimentary rocks (8mks)

Igneous rocks are formed by the crystallization of molten material. Molten material is sourced
from the Earth's interior (from the mantle or asthenosphere, or from melting of previously
existing crust). Igneous rocks are divided into two

Extrusion Igneous rocks which solidifies and cold at the surface. Extrusive igneous rocks cool
relatively fast as they are extruded, and so have fine crystal sizes, often too fine to see
individual crystals with the naked eye. Extrusive rocks often contain gas bubbles and include
lavas (e.g. basalt, andesite, rhyolite) and tuffs (ash deposits).

Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly, because there is less temperature difference between
them and the surrounding rocks at depth, and they therefore have coarser crystals that are
easy to see. These include granite, gabbro, pyroxenite, diorite. At relatively high levels in the
crust, intruded melts cool relatively fast forming medium to fine sized crystals (e.g. basalt).
If these bodies intrude across the stratigraphy they are termed dikes, if they intrude along
the layers they are called sills. Igneous rocks are crystalline, with no porosity, and therefore
rarely form drilling targets for petroleum

Metamorphic rocks are formed by recrystallization of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary

or metamorphic), either by direct heating (thermal metamorphism) or by heating accompanied
by pressure and deformation (regional metamorphism). Thermal metamorphism occurs
around hot igneous intrusions, while regional metamorphism is associated with deep burial
and mountain building processes within the Earth's crust. All metamorphic rocks are
recrystallized, with no porosity, although often they are fractured due to the stress they have
been under. Examples include slate, schist, gneiss, marble, quartzite

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of particles, followed by burial,

compaction and cementation of those particles. Clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks are
formed by the erosion of pre-existing rocks, subsequent transport of the resulting particles by
water or air, and their eventual deposition (forming conglomerates, sandstones,
mudstones). Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by direct precipitation of minerals from
water (limestones and evaporites). Organic sedimentary rocks are those formed by the
accumulation of remains of animals or plants (limestones, chert, coal). Sedimentary rocks
form the large majority of petroleum reservoirs and source rocks

iii) Rearrange the different types of coal in order of increasing carbon content ; anthracite, lignite
(or brown coal), peat and bituminous coal (2mks)

peat ,lignite (or brown coal), sub bituminous coal, bituminous coal and anthracite

Section c: Petroleum Engineering

Question 1

a) Enlist and vividly explain five physicochemical properties of oil and gas (15mks)

Pressure. Fluid properties depend on pressure, temperature, and composition. Pressure is

defined as normal force divided by the area to which it is applied. Some common units of
pressure include pounds/in2or psi, pascals (Newtons/m2), atmospheres, and bars.

Temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a system.

The most commonly used temperature scales are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales

Composition. The composition of a fluid refers to the types and amounts of molecules that
comprise the fluid. Oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and minor amounts of
inorganic molecules such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In situ water usually contains
dissolved solids and dissolved gases. The elemental composition of oil is primarily carbon
(84–87% by mass) and hydrogen (11–14% by mass). Oil can contain other elements as
well, including sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and various metals.

Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a fluid divided by a reference
density. Gas specific gravity is calculated at standard conditions using air density as the
reference density

Viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of resistance of a fluid to shearing. Fluids like honey and
heavy oil have a very high viscosity, while fluids like water have a relatively low viscosity.
In the oil industry, viscosity is often expressed in centipoise, which equals 0.01 poise. One
centipoise (1 cp) equals 1 millipascal second (1 mPa s = 0.001 Pa s), which is the metric
unit for viscosity.

Compressibility. Compressibility is a measure of the change in volume resulting from the

change in pressure applied to the system. The fractional volume change of a system is the
ratio of the change in volume ΔVto the initial volume V. The fractional volume change
ΔV/Vmay be estimated from

b) State and explain five major reasons why price of oil and gas has been fluctuating
since the last 7 months (15mks)
- Global economic recovery:** As the world continues to recover from the economic
impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, changes in economic activity levels in major
 economies can affect the demand for oil and gas. Improving economic conditions can
lead to increased demand for energy, putting upward pressure on prices.

- Supply chain disruptions:** Disruptions in global supply chains due to factors such as
the pandemic, extreme weather events, labor shortages, or geopolitical tensions can
impact the production and distribution of oil and gas. Supply chain disruptions can
lead to temporary shortages or surpluses, causing price fluctuations.

- **Inflation and currency fluctuations:** Inflationary pressures and fluctuations in

currency exchange rates can affect the cost of production, transportation, and
distribution of oil and gas. Changes in inflation rates or currency values can influence
the pricing of oil and gas in international markets, leading to price volatility.

- **Energy transition policies:** Increasing focus on sustainability and climate change

mitigation efforts have led to the implementation of stricter environmental regulations
and policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Such policies can impact the
demand for fossil fuels like oil and gas, as well as investment decisions in the energy
sector, contributing to price fluctuations.

- Weather events:** Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, storms, or heatwaves,

can disrupt oil and gas production, refining, and transportation infrastructure. These
disruptions can lead to supply shortages or delays, causing prices to fluctuate in
response to changing market conditions.

- Geopolitical tensions and conflicts:** Geopolitical events, such as tensions between

major oil-producing countries, trade disputes, sanctions, or conflicts in key oil-
producing regions, can create uncertainty in the oil and gas market. Political instability
can disrupt supply chains and production, leading to price volatility as market
participants react to these developments.

- Speculation and market sentiment: Investor sentiment, speculative trading, and market
expectations can also impact the price of oil and gas. Fluctuations in financial
markets, changes in investor risk appetite, and overall market sentiment can influence
commodity prices, including oil and gas, leading to short-term price fluctuations.