SOCIAL GROUPS

meaning and definition of social

groups
• H.M. Johnson remarked that, “Sociology is the
science that deals with social groups”. This
shows the importance of social groups in
sociology.
 meaning
• Human beings never live in isolation. He rarely
exists alone. Human life is essentially a group life.
• As a social animal he always lives in group. He
begins his life as a participating member of the
group i.e. family.
• Individual born, lives, grows and dies in group.
He forms group to fulfill his different needs and
to attain common goals.
• Groups play an important role in shaping
personality, in the development of social
organization and socialization.
 definition
• 1) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff,
“Whenever two or more individuals come
together and influence one another, they may
be said to constitute a social group”.

• 2) According to Maclver and Page a social

group is “any collection of human beings who
are brought into human relationships with one
another”.
• (3) According to E.S. Bogardus
• “A social group may be thought of as a
number of persons two or more, who have
some common objects of attention who are
stimulating to each other, who have common
loyalty and participate in similar activities”.
• A social group is an organised one. Besides having
mutual interaction and reciprocity the members
of a social group have similar goals.
• The members of a social group interact according
to some established patterns.
• Definite relations exist among individuals which
constitute a social group.
• In the truest sociological sense a group refers to
a collection of individuals who are brought into
social relationship with one another and organize
themselves for the fulfillment of common aims.
 social aggregates, social category,
potential group or quasi group.
• it must be distinguished from the terms like social
aggregates, social category, potential group or
quasi group.
• A social aggregate is a mere collection of
individuals who are in a particular place at a
particular time but share no definite relations
with one another e.g. passengers in a train.
• But a social category refers to a collection of
individuals who have some common
characteristics e.g. caste, sex, age and
occupational groups
• A potential or quasi group consists of a group of individuals
having some common characteristics who does not possess
any recognizable structure. But a potential or quasi group
became a social group when it becomes organized.
• A social group has an organizational aspect i.e. rules,
regulations, rivals, structure etc. and a Psychological aspect
i.e. awareness or consciousness of the members.
• Members of a social group linked together in a system of
social relationships with one another and they interact with
each other according to norms of the group. A social group
is also dynamic in nature.
 Characteristics of Social Group

• (1) Given number of Individual:

• Without a number of individuals no social group can be
formed. Two or more than that individual are
necessary to form a group. This number may vary.
• 2) Reciprocal Relations:
• There exist reciprocal relations among the members of
a social group. These reciprocal relations among the
members are the basis or foundation of social group
without which social group cannot be formed. The
members must interact or inter-related with each
other.
 characteristics
• (3) Common Goals:
• It is another important characteristic of a social group.
The aims, objectives and ideals of the members are
common. For the fulfillment of these common goals
social groups are formed. Here individual interests are
sacrificed for group interests.
• (4) Sense of unity and solidarity:
• Members of a social group are always tied by a sense
of unity and bond of solidarity, common goals and
mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and
solidarity. This creates loyalty and sympathy among the
members of social group.
 characteristics
• 5) A strong sense of awe-feeling:
• Members of a social group is characterized by a strong sense of
awe-feeling. This we- feeling fosters co-operation among members.
Because of this we- feeling the members identify themselves with
the group and consider others as outsiders.
• (6) Group Norms:
• Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the
members are supposed to follow. With the help of these rules and
norms the group exercises control over it’s members.
• These norms may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group
norms is followed by punishment. The group norms maintain unity
and integrity in the group.
 characteristics
• (7) Similar Behavior:
• Members of a social group show similar behavior.
As the interests, ideals and values of a group are
common hence its members behave in a similar
manner. This similar behavior helps in the
achievement of common goals.
• (8) Awareness:
• Members of a social group are aware about the
membership which distinguishes them from
others. This is perhaps due to ‘the consciousness
of kind’ as opined by Giddings.
 characteristics
• 9) Group Control:
• Social group exercises some sort of control over
its members and over their activities. This control
may be direct or indirect. Of course group
exercises control only over non-conformists or
deviants.
• (10) Social groups may be permanent or
temporary in nature. There are permanent
groups likes family and temporary groups like
crowd, mob etc.
 characteristics
• (11) Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is
not static. It responds to different changes.
The nature of change may be slow or rapid but
it is bound to occur.
• (12) Social groups have established patterns.
 Classification of Groups:

• Dwight Sanderson has classified groups into three

types:-
• Involuntary, voluntary and delegate groups:-
• An involuntary group is that to which man has no
choice, which is based on kinship such as the family,
tribe or clan.
• A voluntary group is one which a man joins of his
volition or wishes.
• A delegate group is one to which a man joins as a
representative of a number of people either elected or
nominated by them.
• Parliament or Assembly is a delegate group.
 Classification of of groups
• 2. P.A. Sorokin, an American sociologist, has
divided groups into two major types –
Vertical and the Horizontal.
• The vertical group includes persons of
different strata or statuses.
• But the horizontal group includes persons of
the same status.
• A nation, for instance, is a vertical group,
while a class represents horizontal grouping.
 Classification of of groups
• 3. F.H. Giddings classifies groups into :
• Genetic and Congregate.
• The genetic group is the family in which a man
is born involuntarily.
• The congregate group is the voluntary group
to which he joins voluntarily.
 Classification of of groups
• George Hasen
• unsocial, pseudo-social, antisocial and pro-
social groups.
• An unsocial group is one which largely lives to
itself and for itself and does not participate in
the larger society of which it is a part.
• It does not mix-up with other groups and
remains aloof from them. But it never goes
against the interests of the larger group
 Classification of of groups
• A pseudo-social group participates in the
larger group of which it is a part but mainly for
its own gain and not for the greater good.
• An antisocial group is one, which acts against
the interest of the larger group of which it is a
part.
• A pro-social group is the reverse of the
antisocial group. It works for the larger
interest of the society of which it is a part.
 Classification of of groups
• 5. C.H. Cooley classified groups on the basis of
kind of contact into :
• primary and secondary groups
• In primary group, there is face-to-face, close and
intimate relationship among the members such
as in the family.
• But in a secondary group the relationship among
the members are indirect, impersonal and
superficial such a the political party, a city and
trade union etc.
 Classification of of groups
• 6. W.G. Sumner made a division of groups into
• In-group and out-group.
• In-group :-The groups with which the
individual identifies himself are his in-groups
such as his family, tribe, college, occupation
etc. (‘WE’ group)
• out-group.:-All other groups to which he does
not belong are his out-groups.(‘THEY’ group)
 Classification of groups
• Besides these above, the groups can be
classified further into following categories:
• (i) Disjunctive and overlapping groups.
• (ii) Territorial and non-territorial groups.
• (iii) Homogenous and Heterogeneous groups.
• (iv) Permanent and Transitory groups.
• (v) Contractual and non-contractual groups.
• (vi) Open groups and closed groups.
 In-group and Out-group:

• William Graham Sumner, an American Sociologist

in his book “Folkways” made distinction between
in-group and out-group
• According to Sumner, “The groups with which
the individual identifies himself are his in-groups,
his family or tribe or sex or college or occupation
or religion, by virtue of his awareness of likeness
or consciousness of kind”.
• The individual belongs to a number of groups
which are his in-groups; all other groups to which
he does not belong are his out-groups.
 In-group
• In-groupness produces among the members the
sense of belonging together which is the core of
the group life.
• In-group attitudes contain some element of
sympathy and a sense of attachment to the other
members of the group. It embodies the collective
pronoun ‘we’.
• The members of the in-group display
cooperation, goodwill, mutual help and respect
for one another’s rights.
 ingroup
• They possess a sense of solidarity, a feeling of
brotherhood and readiness to sacrifice
themselves for the sake of the group.
• W.G. Sumner also said that ethnocentrism is a
characteristic of the in-group.
• Ethnocentrism is that view of things in which
one’s own group is the centre of everything and
others are scaled and rated with reference to it.
• It is an assumption that the values, the ways of
life and the attitude of one’s own group are
superior to those of others.
 out-group
• An out-group, on the other hand, is defined by an
individual with reference to his in-group.
• He uses the word ‘they’ or ‘other’ with reference
to his out-group. Toward the members of out-
group we feel a sense of indifference, avoidance,
disgust, hostility, competition or outright conflict.
• The relationship of an individual to his out-group
is marked by a sense of remoteness or
detachment and sometimes even of hostility.
 out-group
• The individual belongs not to one group but to
many groups, the membership of which are
overlapping.
• As a member of a family, he is ‘we’ with the
other members of that family, but when he
meets in a club to which the other members
of the family do not belong, these members
become for him ‘they’ for limited purposes.
 Primary Group:

• The concept of primary group was introduced

by Charles Horton Cooley, in his book “Social
Organisation” published in 1909.
• the classification of primary and secondary
groups is made on the basis of the nature of
social contact, the degree of intimacy, size
and the degree of organisation etc.
 Primary group
• In the words of C.H. Cooley “By primary groups I mean
those characterized by intimate face to face association
and cooperation. They are primary, in several senses,
but chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing the
social nature and ideal, of the individual”.
• Such groups in Cooley’s phrase are “the nursery of
human nature”
• C.H. Cooley regards certain face-to-face associations or
groups like the family, tribe, clan, play groups, the
gossip groups, kinship groups, the community groups,
etc, as primary groups.
 Primary group
• The Primary group is the most simple and universal
form of association.
• It is nucleus of all social organisation. It. is a small
group in which a small number of persons come into
direct contact with on another.
• They meet “face to face” for mutual help,
companionships and discussion of common questions.
• They live in the presence and thought of one another.
• The primary group is a small group in which the
members live together.
 Characteristics of a Primary Group:

• 1. Closeness or Physical Proximity:

• Physical proximity or presence provides an
opportunity for the development of intimate and
close relations. In order that relations of the
people may be close, it is necessary that their
contacts also should be close.
• 2. Smallness:
• Primary groups are smaller in size. The smaller
the size of the group, the greater will be the
intimacy among its members.
 Characteristics of a Primary Group:

• 3. Durability:
• Primary group is relatively, a permanent group.
Intimacy between the members becomes deeper
because they meet frequently and are closely
associated with one another
• 4. Identity of Ends:
• Members of a primary group have similar
attitudes, desires and objectives. They all work
together for the fulfillment of their common end.
Every member tries to promote the common
welfare of his group.
 Characteristics of a Primary Group:

• 5. Relationship is an end in itself:

• The Primary relationship is regarded not as a
means to an end but rather as an end itself.
• 6. Relationship is Personal:
• The primary relationship is a matter of persons
• It should be noted that this relationship comes to
an end as soon as one of the partners disappears
from the primary group.
• The personal relationship is non transferable and
irreplaceable.
 Characteristics of a Primary Group:

• (vii) Relationship is Inclusive:

• In the primary group, we face our fellows as
total human beings. A person comes to know
his fellow in all the details of his life, as a
whole being.
 Importance of Primacy Group:
• The primary group plays a commanding role in the
development of human personality. It is fundamental
in forming the social nature and ideal of the individual.
• It is regarded as a nursery of human nature. The
development of “self’ – the core of personality
depends on close, intimate and personal contacts.
• Primary group acts a an agency of social control. It not
only provides security to the members but also control
their behaviour and regulate their relations.
 Importance of Primacy Group
• The primary groups, such as the family or the play
group, are preeminently the agencies of socialization.
They transmit culture and in this respect they are
irreplaceable. They help the individuals to acquire basic
attitudes towards people, social institutions and the
world around him.
• The attitude of kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance,
mutual help and sacrifice which provide the cementing
force to social structure are developed in the primary
groups. From such experiences and attitudes spring the
desire for democracy and freedom.
 Secondary Group:
• Secondary groups may be defined as those
associations which are characterized by
impersonal or secondary relations and
specialization of functions.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff say, “The groups which
provide experience lacking in intimacy are
called secondary groups”.
• .
 Secondary Group:
• The Secondary groups are of special
significance in modern industrial society. They
have become almost inevitable today. Their
appearance is mainly due to the growing
cultural complexity
 Secondary Group:
• They are also called “special interest groups”
or “self-interest groups”.
• The examples of secondary groups include a
city, a nation, a political party, corporation,
labour union, an army, a large crowd etc.
• These groups have no direct bearing on the
members. Here members are too many and
too scattered. Here human contacts are
superficial, undefined and mechanical.
 characteristics of secondary group
• 1. Large in size:
• 2. Formality:
• The relations of members in a secondary
group are of a formal type. They are
controlled by formal rules and regulations.
• Formal social controls such as law, legislation,
police, court etc. are very much important for
the members.
• :
characteristics of secondary group
• 3. Impersonality:-
• Secondary relations are impersonal in nature.
• Here contacts are chiefly indirect. The two persons may
never see each other.
• Relations among them are impersonal, because
members are not very much interested in other
members as ‘persons’.
• They are more concerned with their self-centered goals
than with other persons.
• There is no sentiment attaching to the contacts. It is
not required that the parties know each other
characteristics of secondary group
• 4. Indirect Cooperation:
• All contribute to the same result, but not in
the same process. They do unlike things
together.
• In the large scale organisation where division
of labour is complex, the members have not
only different functions but different powers,
different degrees of participation, different
rights and obligations.
characteristics of secondary group
• 5. Voluntary Membership:
• The membership of most of the secondary groups
is not compulsory but voluntary. Individuals are
at liberty to join or to go away from the groups.
• 6. Status depends upon Role:
• The determination of his status is not influenced
by ascription or by his birth or personal qualities
but by the achievement or the role he plays.
 Importance of Secondary Group:
• The secondary groups occupy a dominant
place in modern civilised and industrial
societies.
• But as the society expands demanding more
and more division of labour and specialization
of functions, the large-scale secondary groups
become necessary.
• The small communities have now given way to
large communities.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 1. Size:
• A primary group is small in size as well as area.
The membership is limited to a small area.
• At the other end in a secondary group the
membership is widespread. It may contain
thousands of members scattered in different
parts of the world
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 2. Physical Proximity:
• Primary groups are based on close contacts.
People in these groups do not merely know
one another and interact frequently. But they
know one another well and have strong
emotional ties.
• Secondary groups do not give its members
feeling of close proximity that primary groups
give.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 3. Duration:
• Primary groups exist for a longer period. Relationships in
primary group are permanent in nature.
• Secondary groups, on the other hand are based on
temporary relationship.
• 4. Kinds of Cooperation:
• In a secondary group, the cooperation with the fellow
members is direct. The members cooperate only to achieve
the objective of the group.
• In a primary group, on the other hand, the members
directly cooperate with each other participating in the
same process. They sit together, discuss together play
together.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 5. Types of Structures:
• Every secondary group is regulated by a set of
formal rules. A formal authority is set up with
designated powers and a clear cut division of
labour in which the function of each is specified
in relation to the function of all the rest fellows.
• The primary group is based on a informal
structure. The members participate in the same
process. The spontaneous adjustment in the
working of the group. No formal and detail rules
are drafted. The structure is simple.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 6. End in itself versus Means to an End:
• Primary groups are an end in themselves.
Individuals enter into primary relations
because such relations contribute to personal
development, security and well-being.
• Secondary group on the other hand is goal
oriented.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 7. Position:
• In primary groups, the position or status of a person is
fixed according to his birth, age and sex.
• But in secondary groups, the position of a person is
determined by his roles.
• 8. Difference in Development of Personality:
• Primary group is concerned with the total aspects
personality of a person and it develops his whole
personality.
• Secondary group, on the other hand, is concerned with
a particular aspect of personality and it develops only
that aspect.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 9. Relationship:
• The relationship of members with each other in
primary group is direct, intimate and personal.
They meet face to face and develop direct
contacts.
• A secondary group is based on impersonal
relationships. It does not exercise a primary
influence over its members because they do not
live in presence and thought of one another.
 Difference between Primary Group
and Secondary Group:
• 10. Social Control:
• Primary group uses informal ways of social
control
• Secondary group on the other hand, uses
formal means of checking deviation of
violation of norms.
 Reference Group:
• The term ‘reference group’ was coined by
Herbert Hyman (1942) to apply to the group
against which an individual evaluates his or
own situation or conduct.
• He distinguished between membership group
to which people actually belong and a
reference group which is used as a basis for
comparison.
 Reference Group
• A reference group may or may not be a
membership group. The term reference was
introduced into the literature on small group
by Muzaffar Sheriff in his book “An Outline of
Social Psychology”.
• The concept was subsequently elaborated by
R.K. Merton and Turner.
 Reference Group
• Strictly specking, a reference group is one to which we
do not actually belong but with which we identify
ourselves or to which we would like to belong.
• We may actually belong to a group, yet we accept the
norms of another group to which we refer but to which
we do not actually belong.
• L Merton writes, individual in the society choose not
only reference group but also reference individual.
• Reference individual has often been described as “role
model”.
 Reference Group
• Horton and Hunt have pointed out, “A reference
group is any group to which we refer when
making judgements – any group whose value-
judgements become our value-judgements”.
• According to Sherif, “A reference group is one to
which the individual refers and with which he
identifies himself, either consciously or sub-
consciously. The central aspect of the reference
group is psychological identification.”
 Reference Group
• Ogbum and Nimkoff say, “Groups which serve
as points of comparison are known as
reference groups”