PHYSICS 5124

MEASUREMENTS
1. Identify basic units and derived units.
Answer:
International System of Units (SI)
Quantity SI unit symbol

Time second s

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Electric current ampere A

kelvin K
Temperature

Light intensity candela cd

Amount of substance mole mol

Derived units
QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL

Area square metre m2

Acceleration (m·s−2)

Frequency hertz Hz

Energy joule J

Power watt W

Force newton N

Pressure Pascal Pa

Electric charge coulomb C

Potential difference volt V

2. Recognise prefixes, multiples and submultiples of fundamental and derived

units.
Answer:

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 The names of metric units are formed by adding a prefix to the basic unit of
measurement.
To tell how large or small a unit is, you look at the prefix.
To tell whether the unit is measuring length, mass, or volume, you look at the base.

Prefixes in the Metric System

meter
kilo- hecto- deka- gram deci- centi- milli-
liter
1,000 100 10 10 100 1,000
times lar times larger times larg base times smalle times smalle times smalle
ger than than base er than units r than base r than base r than base
base unit unit base unit unit unit unit

The most commonly used metric prefixes

PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR NUMERICALLY NAME

giga G 109 1 000 000 000 Billion
mega M 106 1 000 000 Million
kilo k 103 1 000 Thousand
centi c 10-2 0.01 Hundredth
milli m 10-3 0.001 Thousandth
Micro μ 10-6 0.000 001 Millionth
Nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 Billionth

3. Use scientific notation

Answer:
 Helps to make it easy to read large or small numbers which are inconveniencing when
they are not converted to scientific notation. Scientific notation is the use of power in
writing numbers in a form of Z x 10n
 Z is the non-zero figure on either the left or right hand side of the decimal point.
 n is the positive or negative exponent
 Determine Z by shifting the decimal point in the original number to either the right or
the left until a non-zero digit is on its left.

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  n is determined by counting the number of places the decimal point has been moved.
It is positive if it is moved to the left and negative if it moves to the right.
Example 1 .00000031 in scientific notation.

 Move the decimal place to the right to create a new number from 1 up to 10.

So, Z = 3.1.

 Determine the exponent, which is the number of times you moved the decimal.
 In this example, you moved the decimal 7 times; also, because you moved the decimal
to the right, the exponent is negative. Therefore, n = –7, and so you get
 Put the number in the correct form for scientific notation is 3.1 x 10 -7
 Example 2. 300 000 000 in scientific notation
 Z=3
 n=8
 scientific notation = 3 x 108

Significant figures

 Use of significant figures is one way of indicating the accuracy of measurements

 They are figures in numbers known with certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain
Rules/examples
 All non-zero figures are significant e.g. 449.5 has 4 sig. figures
 All zeros in between non zeros are significant e.g. 103. 006 has 6 sig. figures
 All zeros to the right hand side of the decimal point are not e.g. 0.00753 has 3
significant figure i.e. 753.
 Zeros to the right of the decimal point following a non-zero figure are significant e.g.
0.07020 has 4 sig. figures i.e. 7020

Length and time

4. Demonstratetheuseofrules todeterminelength
Answer:
 Rules come in various forms. These include metre rule, measuring tape, etc.
 A meter rule is used to measure medium lengths i.e. 0 to 1m. It has an accuracy of
0.1cm.

 A measuring tape measures long lengths i.e. 0 to 100m .It has an accuracy of 0.1 cm

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  A metre rule is the most commonly used to measure length in the laboratory.
Useofrules todeterminelength:
Study the markings on the rule (cm and mm)
Align the rule to the object to be measured.
Take the reading by placing the eye correctly as shown in the diagram to
prevent error by parallax. Parallax error is the error caused due to reading
from the side of the Tape or the Rule. For accurate measurement, the eye
must always be placed vertically above the mark being read.

5. Demonstratetheuseofa mechanicalmethodforthe measurementofasmall

distance:
Answer:
Vernier Caliper
Used to measure short lengths i.e. 0 to 15 cm.
It is accurate to 0.01 cm or 0.1mm
Consists of a Main Scale and a Vernier Scale.
The outside jaws, are used to measure the outer dimensions of an object.
The inner jaws for the inner ones.
The stem is used to measure the depth.

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 Figure 1: Major Parts of the Vernier Calipers

To measure gently grip the object with the straight edges of outside or inside jaws.

How to take reading

First read the main scale, and note down the reading before the 0 on the Vernier
scale, as shown in the diagram below.
The reading on it is 2.8 cm, as the .8 after the 2 on the main scale is before the 0 on
the Vernier scale.
For the second place of decimal, look at the Vernier scale. Find a marking on the
Vernier scale that coincides exactly with the reading on the main scale.
In the diagram below, the 6 on the Vernier scale coincides exactly with a line on the
main scale (it does not matter with which line on the main scale this line coincides).
So the second place of the decimal would 6, i e .06.
To get the total reading, add the two readings i-e 2.8+.06. The final reading is 2.86cm
or 286mm.

Figure 2: How to Read the Vernier Calipers

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Error in a Vernier caliper
Negative zero error: Occurs when the zero of the Vernier scale is to the left of the
Vernier scale when the two jaws are in contact.
To take the precise value for the measurement we are taking, we have to add the value
of the negative zero error to the obtained measurement.
No zero error is the precise arrangement of the meter scale and the Vernier scale so
that the zeros of both scales fit each other.
Precautions
i. Zero the instrument before taking measurements
ii. Lubricate moving part
iii. Do not store the instrument in a dump place to avoid rusting
2 Micrometer

Used to measure very short readings i.e. 0 to 2.5cm.

It has an accuracy of 0.001cm or 0.01 mm.
It has two scales; main scale (on the sleeve) and the circular scale (on the thimble).
Each division on the main scale represents 1 mm.
Each division on the thimble represents a distance of 0.01mm.

Figure 3: Main parts of a Micrometer Screw Gauge

How to take reading

Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently.

Read the main scale on the sleeve. This reading would be in millimeters.
In the diagram below, the reading is 5.5mm.
Then read the line on the circular scale that coincides with the line on the main scale.

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 In the diagram below, the 28th line on the circular scale coincides with the line.
So, the reading would be 0.28mm.
Then add 5.5 with 0.28 and you will obtain your answer in millimeters.

Parallax Error

Parallax errors affects the accuracy of the measurement.

Consistently using the incorrect angle to view the markings, measurements will be
displaced from the true values by the same amount. This is called systematic error.
If different angles are used to view the markings, measurements will be displaced
from the true values by different amounts. This is called random error.

Precautions
i. Zero the instrument before taking measurements
ii. Lubricate moving part for easy sliding.
iii. Do not store the instrument in a dump place to avoid rusting.
iv. Clean the anvil and the spindle to remove dust particle because it can take the
measurement of even dust particles.

6. Demonstratetheuseof clocksand other devicesfor measuringanintervalof time

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 Answer:
Clocks
A unit of time is any particular time interval, used as a standard way of measuring or
expressing duration.
The International System of Units (SI), is the second (s).
It is calculated in a variety of ways such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, and
etc.

TYPE OF CLOCK/WATCH USE AND ACCURACY

Atomic clock Used to measure very shorty time intervals of about 10 -10 seconds

Digital stopwatch Used to measure short time intervals of minutes and seconds to an accuracy
of ±0.01 s±0.01 s
Analogue stopwatch Used to measure short time intervals of minutes and seconds to an accuracy
of ±0.1s±0.1s
Ticker-tape timer Used to measure short time intervals of 0.02 s

Watch Used to measure longer time intervals of hours, minutes and seconds

Pendulum clock Used to measure longer time intervals of hours, minutes and seconds

Radioactive decay clock Used to measure LONG time intervals of years to thousands of years

Analogue/Digital Clocks
Can be read in hours, minutes and seconds.
How to use:
The clock is set to commence at a particular time or the start time is noted.

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 The time event is then allowed to occur, and at the end of the event, the end time is
noted. The difference provides the required time interval.
Accuracy: ± 1 s

Stopwatch and Stopclock

A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed

from a particular time when it is activated to the time when the piece is deactivated.
A large digital version of a stopwatch designed for viewing at a distance, as in a
sports stadium, is called a stopclock.

In manual timing, the clock is started and stopped by a person pressing a button.
In fully automatic time, both starting and stopping are triggered automatically, by
sensors.
The timing functions are mostly controlled by two buttons.
Pressing the top button starts the timer running, and pressing the button a second time
stops it, leaving the elapsed time displayed.
A press of the second button then resets the stopwatch to zero. The second button is
also used to record split times or lap times.
When the split time button is pressed while the watch is running, the display freezes,
allowing the elapsed time to that point to be read, but the watch mechanism continues
running to record total elapsed time.
Pressing the split button a second time allows the watch to resume display of total
time.

Precautions
Inaccurate reading of the time when using an analogue stop watch (stop clock),
parallax error should be avoided.
Repeat the experiment to get an accurate reading by taking an average of the readings.
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 Human reaction error can also generate a difference in the time recorded and
original time.
Ticker Tape Timer

A ticker tape timer produce a dot on a tape at a fixed time interval.

How to use: The tape is attached to an object and the state of motion of the object can be
deduced from the dots on the tape.
Reading the tape from ticker tape timer

The procedure to deducing the state of motion from the resulting tape is best explained using
an example. The 3 tapes, X, Y and Z, have a length of 1 m from the first dot to the last dot.
The dots are made by a ticker tape timer with a time interval of 0.1 seconds.

For X, the dots are evenly spaced. Since the length is 1 m, the spacing between each dots is
0.2 m. We can calculate the speed of the object using
Speed=Distance X time=0.20s X 1m =2m/s
Hence, X represent the tape from an object that is moving at constant speed.

For Y, the spacing between the dots increases as time passes. Since the dots are made with a
fixed time interval, the time in the formula above is fixed. We will get an increasing speed as
the distance between the dots increases. Hence, Y represent the tape from an object that
is accelerating.
For Z, the spacing between the dots decreases as time passes. Using the same reasoning as
above, Z represent the tape from an object that is decelerating.

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Periodofa Pendulum(T=t/n)

A simple pendulum makes use of a swing (oscillation) of the metallic bob to measure time
period.

Note:
The oscillation refers to a swing of bob from left to right and back to the starting position.

The Time period of the pendulum is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

Frequency is the number of oscillations of the pendulum in one second.

Answer:
How to find time period using a Simple pendulum.

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  First measure time for 20 complete oscillations using a stop watch or a stop clock
(remember measuring time period of just one oscillation will not be accurate and can
introduce errors)
n
 Find T1 (time period 1) using formula total time for 20 oscillations/20 ( )
t
 Once you have found T1 repeat the experiment for next four times to find T2 T3 T4
T5
 To get an accurate reading of time period take average of the 5 time periods
i.e. T1+T2+T3+T4+T5/5

6. Identifyfactorsthataffect theperiodofasimple pendulum

The period is affected the length of the pendulum (i.e. distance from fixed point to
the middle of the bob). When the length increases time period increases.
It is also affected by the gravitational force. When gravitational force increases time
period decreases.

N.B. Massofthebob and amplitude have no effect on the periodic time

MASS AND, WEIGHT

7. Distinguish between mass and weight
Answer:
MASS WEIGHT
 Is a quantity of matter in a  Is the force of gravity acting on
body an object
 Measured in kilogram (Kg)  Measured in Newtons (N)
 Is a scalar quantity  Is vector quantity
 It is constant  Not constant
 Measured using beam  Measured using spring balance
balance scales

8. Demonstratehowto measuremassandweight byusingappropriate balances

Answer:
 How to use a Triplebeambalances

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 Triple beam balance consist of three beams with known masses
stuck on each beam

Method:
Put the solid substance to be measured on the scale pan.
Start sliding the bigger mass until the pointer is pushed bellow the zero
mark.
Keep sliding the other masses to and fro until the pointer points towards
the points towards the zero mark

Sum up the readings of the three masses to get the total mass of the
object.Therefore, the mass of the object in the pan is 335.1 grams (300
grams + 30 grams + 5.1 grams).
Precautions:
Clean the pan and the beams to remove dust
Zero the scale (the pointer must point at the zero mark) before
measurement is started.

How to measure weight using a springbalances

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 The spring scale has a spring that stretches when an object is attached to it. The
amount of stretching increases with increasing weight. We use standard weights to
calibrate the stretch of the spring. An object that stretches the spring the same distance
a standard weight does has the same weight as the standard. If the sample stretches
the spring half the distance that the standard did then the object weighs half as much.
Hmmm! Is it this easy?

9. Demonstratehowto determinethecentreof massofanobject

Answer
 For a regular shape: centre of mass is at the geometric centre.
 For an irregular lamina:
a. Make three holes near the edge.
b. Hang the lamina on a nail using one of the holes and allow it to swing freely.
c. Hang a plumb line by the same nail and trace along it.
d. Repeat procedures b and c for the other holes.
e. The point where lines meet is the centre of mass.
10. Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the
stability of an object.
Answer
 The lower the centre of gravity (G) is, the more stable the object. The higher it
is the more likely the object is to topple over if it is pushed. Racing cars have
really low centres of gravity so that they can corner rapidly without turning
over.
 Increasing the area of the base increases the space within which the line of G
operates. This also increase the stability of an object. The bigger the area the
more stable the object. Rugby players will stand with their feet well apart if
they are standing and expect to be tackled.
 If an object is tilted it will topple over if a vertical line from its centre of
gravity falls outside its base.
 The higher the centre of gravity the more likely an object is to topple over if it
is tilted.

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 VOLUME AND DENSITY

11. Demonstratehowto measure volume of different liquidsandsolids

Answer
 Liquids
Measuring the Volume of a Liquid
Step 1: Gather the liquid you want to measure and a graduated cylinder.
Step 2: Pour the liquid into the graduated cylinder. Don't fill it up all the way!
Step 3: Place the graduated cylinder on a flat surface.
Step 4: Read the meniscus at eye level to get the most accurate volume.

The volume of the liquid is the number in mL that matches up with the bottom of
the meniscus.
 solids(regular)
Measuring the Volume of a Rectangular Solid
Step 1: Gather a rectangular solid (e.g. a wooden block), a ruler, and a calculator.
Step 2: Place the object on a flat surface and measure the length, width, and height
of the object with the ruler.
Step 3: Use the formula

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 Volume=Length x Width x Height to calculate the volume of the object.
 Solids (irregular)
Measuring the Volume of a Small, Irregular solid
Step 1: Gather a small irregular solid (e.g. a pebble), and a graduated cylinder.
Step 2: Place the graduated cylinder on a flat surface.
Step 3: Pour some water into the graduated cylinder and read the meniscus at eye
level. Record the volume of the water.
Step 4: Drop the object into the graduated cylinder and try not to make a splash! If
the object floats, get a long object (e.g. a pencil) and push the object down,
remember not let go!
Step 5: Read the new meniscus at eye level and record it.
Step 6: Subtract the volume of the water from the volume of the water with the
object it in it. This is called Volume by Displacement.
The number that you get from subtracting is the volume of the small, irregular
solid.

 Large, irregular Solid

Measuring the Volume of a Large, irregular Solid
Step 1: Gather a large, irregular solid (e.g. a large rock), an overflow can, and a
graduated cylinder.
Step 2: Fill the overflow can with water and place it on the edge of a sink, so the
water can pour out of the spout on the can.

Step 3: When water stops coming out of the overflow can, place a graduated
cylinder underneath the spout of the overflow can.

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 Step 4: Put the object in the overflow can and try not to splash! Catch the water
that comes out in the graduated cylinder.
This is called Volume by Overflow.
Step 5: Place the graduated cylinder on a flat surface and read the meniscus at eye
level.

12. Determinethedensityofa liquid,aregularlyandan irregularlyshapedsolid

Answer
 Determining the Density of an object
Use the formula Density=Mass/Volume.
To use this formula you need to know the mass and volume of the object, and you can
find that by following the steps I showed you.
Once you have the mass and volume, use the formula to calculate the density.

 Measuring the Mass of a solid

Step 1: Gather the object you want to measure and an electronic mass balance.
Step 2: Make sure the object weighs below 200g, and then place it on the balance.
The mass of the solid is the number that appears on the balance.

 Measuring the Mass of a Liquid

Step 1: Gather the liquid you want to measure, a beaker, and an electronic mass
balance.
Step 2: Put the beaker on the electronic mass balance and press the "tare" button. This
will make the numbers on the balance reset.
Step 3: Carefully pour the liquid into the beaker. Don't fill the beaker to the top or the
mliquid could spill onto the balance!
The numbers shown on the balance is the mass of the liquid.

13. Demonstratehowto calculatedensity usingthe appropriateformula

Answer:

 In simple cases we will be provided with two quantities. They are, mass and volume.
 Convert the given mass of the object in kg if not in this unit.
 Now convert the volume in cubic meter if not in the given unit.

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 Simply divide mass by volume to find the density.
 The units of the answer are kg/m3.

Example 1.
 A block of ice with volume 5.5m3 has a mass of 5060kg find the density of ice.
Solution
 Volume of block=5.5m3
 Mass of block=5060kg
 Density=mass /volume =5060/5.5m3.
= 920kg/m3.
14. Explain relative density
Answer:
 Relative density is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of a given
reference material. It has no units. It is just a number which shows how many times
the material is denser than the standard substance (water =1000kg m-3, for solids and
liquids and hydrogen =0.1kg m-3 for gases).

density of the substance

elative density =
density of the standard substance

When relative density of Relationship with the Sinking and floating

substance is: standard
Less than one Substance is less dense Substance will float on
than the standard the standard e.g. ice on
water
Greater than one Substance is denser than Substance will sink into
the standard the standard
Exactly one Densities are equal

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 15. Demonstrate how to calculaterelativedensityusingtheappropriate formula
Answer:
Examples:
A globe of steel has a mass of 12g and a volume of 15.2cm³, find its relative density.

To measure relative density of liquid by density bottle

 Find mass of empty bottle –m0
 Find mass of bottle and liquid-m1
 Empty the bottle and rinse it with water
 Fill the bottle with water and find mass m2

Mass of liquid= (m1-m0)g

Mass of equal volume of water= (m2-m0)g

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Example
The mass of density bottle is 19g when dry and empty, 45g when filled with water and 40g
when full of liquid x. calculate the density of the liquid x.

MECHANICS
Speed, velocity and acceleration
16. Explain the terms used in mechanics.
Distance, Displacement, Velocity, Speed and Acceleration
Answers
i. Distance is the total path length traveled from one location to another.
It is a scalar quantity measured in metres (m).
ii. Displacement is the distance between two locations measured along the shortest
path connecting them, in specified location. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit is
metre m).
iii. Speed is the distance traveled per unit time or the rate of change of distance. It is a
scalar quantity measured in metres /second (m/s).

total distance travelled

speed=
time taken

iv. Velocity is the speed in a given direction or the rate of change of displacement. It
is a vector quantity. The SI units are metres /second (m/s).

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 displacement
Average velocity=
time taken

v. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity measured in

metres /second squared

change∈ velicity
Acceleration=
time taken
Change of velocity=final velocity (v )– initial velocity(u)
v−u
Acceleration=(final velocity – initial velocity)/timetakena= NB .
t
1. Constant velocity means the object is not accelerating . Acceleration is zero .
2. Constant accelerationmeans the object is increasing its velocity .
17.Demonstrate interpretation of graphical representation:
Graphs of Motion
Answer:
If the line is diagonal then its moving with a constant speed and if it is anything other than a
straight line then the speed is varying.

A body is said to be in uniform motion when the body covers the equal distance in
equal time intervals.
Graph for uniform motion
In uniform motion, the distance time graph would be a straight line, because the equal
distance is covered in equal units of time.

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 The three bodies A, B and C, are all in uniform motion but they have different slopes
because the slope of a distance-time graph determines the speed of that body.
The steeper the slope the greater will be the speed of the body. From the above graph,
body A has the highest speed and body C has the least speed.

Velocity time graph

It is the graph of velocity against time; it shows us how the velocity changes with
respect to time. The slope of a velocity-time graph determines its acceleration.

A flat horizontal line in a velocity-time graph states that the body is moving at a constant
velocity.

Constant acceleration

If the straight line has a slope, then that indicates the body is changing its velocity at a
constant rate, or it means that the body has constant acceleration.

In this graph, the bodies has uniform motion, their velocity does not change with respect to
time.

Uniformly accelerated

In the velocity time graph below velocity changes at a constant rate with respect to time. This
is uniformly accelerating motion.

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The graph is a straight line with its slope indicating the amount of acceleration.

18. Identify motion from the shape of a speed- time graph

Answer:

19. Demonstrate the use of equations of uniformly accelerated motion to solve

problems
Answer:
 Examples:
 A body starting from rest travels for 10s with an acceleration of 5m/s2. Find its
i. final velocity and
ii. the distance it cover in 10s.
Solution
Where v = final velocity, u = intial velocity, a = acceleration and t = time
Data: u = 0 m/s, a = 5m/s2, t = 10s
Solution:

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v = u + at,
v= 0m/s + 5m/s2 X 10
V = 50m/s
2
ii. s = ut + ½ at

s = (0m/s X 10s) + ½ X 5m/s2 X (10s)2

s= 250m
2 2
iii. v = u + 2as
502 = 02 + 2 X 5 X S
2500 = 10s
S = 250
20. Demonstrate the
use of graphs to
solve problems of
motion

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21. Explain consequences of over speeding
Answers:
Reaction time: the time it takes between a people perceiving a danger and reacting
to it is compromised.
Braking distance: the distance a car travels before stopping when the brakes are
applied depends on a number of variables. These include slope or grade of the
roadway, the frictional resistance between the road and the car's tyres and high speed.
Impact on a pedestrian: The impact speed increases rapidly as the travel speed
increases, because the brakes are unable to bring the car to a stop in time.
Impact on a large object: increases as the velocity increases.
Less control: At higher speeds cars become more difficult to manoeuvre, due
to inertia. It is inertia that keep a passenger moving when the car suddenly stop
(unless restrained by a seatbelt).
Killer speed: the risk of being involved in a casualty crash increases dramatically
with increasing speed. The risk doubled with every 5 kilometres/hour above the speed
limit.

22. Demonstrate that the acceleration of free fall for a body near the earth is
constant.
Answer:
A stone and a piece of paper, both of the same weight released at the same height do
not touch down at the same time. The stone reaches the ground first because it
experiences less air resistance due to its smaller surface area. However, when air
resistance is neglected, they will both touch the ground at the same time because
acceleration of free fall for a body near the earth is constant. It is approximately
2
10m/s .

23. Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational

field with and without air resistance
Answer:

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  When the speed of an object increases air resistance to a point where the air resistance
becomes equal to the weight of the object, the object stops accelerating and falls with
a constant speed. It reaches its terminal velocity.

FORCES
24. Explain what force is.
Answer:
 Force is defined as a Pull or push.
 It can also be said to be any influence that causes an object to undergo a certain
change concerning movement, direction or shape.
 It is a vector quantity measured in Newtons.
25. Explain the effect of forces on bodies.
Answers:
 Force causes: motion of objects, change of direction of a moving object, stoppage,
acceleration, change of shape of objects it acts on, stretche and compression of
objects
26. Demonstrate mass as a measure of inertia.
Answer:
 Inertia is the ability of a body to resist change of state.
 If it is in motion it would want o continue in that state or a state of rest if it is at rest
unless it is acted upon by an external force.
 The greater the mass the greater the inertia.
27. Demonstrate the relationship between force and acceleration
 Newton's second law of motion indicate that the relationship between force and
acceleration is directly proportional. If the force applied to an object is increased,
the acceleration of that object increases by the same factor. In short, force equals
mass times acceleration.
 A constant force produces a constant acceleration
Force = mass X acceleration
F = ma
28. Demonstrate the relationship between mass and acceleration
The relationship between mass and acceleration is one where if one increases, the
other decreases. For the same force, a body with a larger mass will accelerate less
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 than a body with a smaller mass. They are inversely proportion i.e. acceleration is
inversely proportional to mass, provided that the force applied remains constant.
force
Mass=
acceleration
33. Perform calculations on force.
 Acceleration is directly proportional to the force for a constant mass
 Use theformula(force =massxacceleration)
Example:
Calculate the acceleration of a 200kg body pushed along a holizontal surface with a
20N force.
force
acceleration=
mass

a = 20N/ 200kg
a = 0.1m/s2

34. Demonstrate the effect of force on a spring.

 Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the
stretching force provided the elastic limit is not exceeded (F α e)

 Graphical expression of extension against force

Extension
(cm)

Stretching force (N)

E
NB; E is the elastic limit or limit of proportionality

Formula:

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 stretching force
Spring constant=
extention

35. Demonstrate the effects of friction on the motion of a body.

 Loss of energy through heat,
 wear and tear of machinery
 reduces the effectiveness of a machine
36. Describe qualitatively the motion in a curved path due to a perpendicular force.
 For a body to move in a circular motion, two opposite forces must be exerted on it.
These are Centripetal and centrifugal forces
 Centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path. Its direction is
always at right angle to the velocity of the body, towards a fixed point of the centre
of curvature.
 Centrifugal force is a force that draws a rotating body away from the centr of
rotation.

MOMENT OF FORCES

37. Describe the moment of a force in terms of its turning effects.

Answer:
 Moment of a force is the turning effect produced by the force. It is equal to the
product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point of application of
the force to pivot.
 It is measured in newton metre
38. State the Principle of moments.
Answer:
 For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
(Inequilibrium,totalanti- clockwisemoment= total closemoment)
39. Demonstrate the verification of the principle of moments.
Answer:
Moments Acting On A Seesaw
Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their weights.
28
Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst person B’s weight is
trying to turn the seesaw clockwise.
Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum
1000 x 1 = 1000 Nm

Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

500 x 2 = 1000 Nm
Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium

40. Perform calculations based on the principle of moments.

Answer:
Examples;
 A 10N force acts at a perpendicular distance of 0.50m from the turning point.
What is the moment of the force?


 Moment = Fd
= 10 x 0.50
= 5.0 Nm

29
Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments
F 1 x d 1 = F2 x d 2
OR

Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments

F1 x d1 = (F2 x d2) + (F3 x d3)

41. Explain the everyday application of moments.

Answer:
 Hinged door,
 seesaw,
 steering wheel

30
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER.
45. Explain the meaning of the terms work, energy and power.
Answer:
 Work (force moving through a distance in direction of force)
 Energy (ability to work)
 Power (rate of doing work)
46. Identify units of measurement for work, energy and power.
Answer:
 Work(joule),
 energy(joule) and
 power(watt)
47. Calculate work using the appropriate formula
Answer:
Work is a product of applied force and the perpendicular distance moved in the direction
of the force.

work =force X distance

48. Identify different types of energy

Answer:
 Mechanical(Kinetics and gravitational potential energy),
 Sound Energy
 Chemical Energy
 Electrical Energy
 Atomic Energy
49. Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the terms gravitational potential and
kinetic energy.
Answer:
 Gravitational potential (energy due to position) or stored energy or energy
possessed by objects at rest
 Kinetic energy(energy due to motion) or energy possessed by objects in motion

31
  NB: Gravitational potential energy(EP = mgh)
GPE=mgh
2
 Kinetic energy (EK=1/2mv )

1 2
KE= mv
2
50. Identify sources of renewable and non-renewable energy.
Answer:
Renewable sources of energy
 solar,
 wind,
 hydroelectric
 geothermal,
 bio-gas)
Non-renewable energy
 chemical/fuel,
 nuclear energy
51. Explain the effects of the use of energy sources on the environment.
Answer:
 pollution,
 land degradation
52. Demonstrate energy transformation from one form to another.
Answer:
 Chemical energy in a battery to heat energy in a wire cable to light energy in a bulb.
 Electric energy in a bulb to heat and light energy
 Hydroelectric power: potential to kinetic to magnetic to electrical energy
53. Explain nuclear fusion and fission in terms of energy releasing processes.
Answer:
 Fusion is called 'fusion' because the energy is produced by fusing together light
atoms, such as hydrogen, at the extremely high pressures and temperatures which
exist at the centre of the sun (15 million ºC). ... When deuterium and tritium nuclei
fuse, they form a helium nucleus, a neutron and a lot of energy.
 Fission(producing energy)
32
 Fission is the splitting of heavy nuclei (such as uranium) – in two smaller nuclei. This
process needs less energy to 'bind' them together – so energy is released.
Fission happens quite easily – and is used to generate electricity in conventional
nuclear power stations.
54. Describe the conservation of energy.
Answer:
 Principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but changes from one form into another.
55. Demonstrate the solving of energy problems using the mass- energy equation.
Answer:
 E = mc2: Meaning. ... Equivalence of the mass and energy is described by Einstein's
famous formula E= mc2. In words, energy equals mass multiplied by the speed of
light squared. Because the speed of light is a very large number, the formula implies
that any small amount of matter contains a very large amount of energy.

 Using the formula (E=mc2)

56. Demonstrate the calculation of efficiency of energy conversion using the

appropriate formula.
Answer:
energy output
 Efficiency= ×100.
energy ∈ put

57. Demonstrate calculation of power using the appropriate formula

Answer:
work done
 Power=
timetaken

33
 SIMPLE MACHINES
58. Describe a simple machine.
Answer:
 Simple machine is any device which enable a large weight to be overcome by a
small effort
59. Identify different types of simple machines.
Answer:
 Levers,
 pulleys,
 gears
 inclined plane (ramp)
 wheel and axle
 screw
 hydraulic press
60. Describe the distances moved by the effort and the load in a simple machine.
Answer:
 Distance moved by effort is greater than distance moved by the load
61. Explain the terms Mechanical advantage (MA), Velocity Ratio (VR) and Efficiency.
Answer:
 Mechanical advantage (MA)
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of the load to effort. The dividend is the factor by
which a given machine multiplies the effort applied to make doing work easy

LOAD
MA=
EFFORT

Velocity Ratio (VR)

 Velocity Ratio (VR) is the ratio of distance moved by effort to distance moved by
load. It has no units of measurement.
34
 d i s t anc e move d b y effo rt
VR=
d ist anc e m ove d b y l o a d

 Efficiency
MA
Efficiency= ×100
VR

workoutput
Efficiency= × 100
work input

energy output
Efficiency= ×100
energy input

MA
Efficiency= ×100
VR

62. Demonstrate calculations involving simple machines

Answer:
 Pulleys
A block and tackle of four pulleys, a force of 200N was applied to overcome a load
of 600N which was lifted 1m high.
Calculate:
i. The Mechanical advantage of this pulley system.
ii. The velocity ratio (distance ratio)
iii. The efficiency of the above pulley system

i. MA = Load/ Effort =600N/200N = 3

ii. VR = Distance moved by effort/ distance moved by load = 4m/1m = 4
iii. Eff. = work done by load (output)/work done by effort X100%
Eff. = 600 X1m/200 X4m X 100% = 75%

35
PHYSICS 11
63. Explain the assumption of the kinetic theory
 Matter is composed of very tiny, discrete particles (atoms or molecules)
1. Describe quantitatively the molecular model of matter
 The arrangement and movement of particles and strength of intermolecular
forces determine which physical state (solid , liquid or gas) the substance is in

64. Demonstrate the application of the kinetic theory to explain rates of diffusion,
Brownian motion, evaporation and cooling effect of evaporation
 Diffusion is the movement of particles from areas of high concentration to
areas of low concentration. Both gases and liquids will mix spontaneously
without mechanical or outside help
 The rate of diffusion depends on the temperature and the density of the
substance involved
 Brownian motion provides an evidence of the continuous random motion of
molecules in air OR it is the random movement of microscopic particles
suspended in a liquid or gas. The movement is caused by collision of the
molecules of the surrounding gas or liquid.
 Evaporation is defined as the change of a liquid into a gas at the surface. It
occurs more at any temperature, but occurs more rapidly at higher temperature
because heat gives more kinetic energy to the molecules and they escape from
the surface faster
65. Demonstrate the kinetic theory to explain gas pressure
 When a gas is enclosed in a container it exerts a pressure on the container.
This gas pressure is caused by the collision of the gas particles with the walls
of the container

36
  Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of a dry gas at constant temperature,
the product of its volume and pressure is constant.
66. Demonstrate the effect of varying pressure on volume leading to Boyle’s law
 The pressure of a gas of constant volume increases when
I. There are more molecules in the gas
II. The molecules have a greater mass ( PV = a constant at constant
pressure)
CHANGES OF STATE
(A) Melting: solid to liquid
When a solid is heated the particles gain heat energy and their kinetic energy
increases they vibrate faster and the spaces between them get larger
(B) Vaporization : liquid to gas
When a liquid is heated the particles gain heat energy and their kinetic energy
increases the force of attraction between the particles is weakened.
(C) Freezing : solidifying liquid to solid
When a liquid is cooled the particles lose heat energy and their kinetic energy
decreases they move slower and the space between them get smaller
(D) Condensation : gas to liquid
When a gas is cooled the particles lose heat energy and their kinetic energy
decreases they move slower.
67. Describe temperature
 Temperature is the degree of hotness
 Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particle in a
substance
68. Describe quantitatively thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
 Thermal expansion is the process of particles in a substance moving further
apart because they have been heated
 When molecules get heat energy they have more kinetic energy. They move or
vibrate more. Then they need larger space between them.
69. Identify some of everyday application and consequences of thermal expansion.
 Thermal expansion is used n thermometer
 Used in bimetallic strip
CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION
 The expansion of materials may cause bad influences if a solid or a liquid is
prevented from expanding, very large forces are exerted. This force can destroy
something egg bridge, buildings and roads.
70. Explain how a physical property which varies with temperature may be used for the
measurement of temperature
 Two different materials e.g. copper and iron are used. The wires are soldered or just
twisted tightly together at the end. When the two are placed in different temperatures
an electric current flows around the circuit. The amount of current depends on the
difference in temperature. If one of the junction is placed into the known.
71. demonstrate the construction of the following,
i) Laboratory thermometers
ii) Clinical thermometers both thermometers are calibrated by using the lower and up
fixed points
37
 72. The experiment below shows the calibration of thermometer using the lower fixed
point.

The reading on the thermometer is 0℃ indicating the lower fixed point. Pure ice is used
because it has in impurities that can affect the melting or boiling points.

The upper fixed point can be determined using the experiment below.

38
 73. When the water boils, the thermometer records the highest mark of 100. This is the
upper fixed point of the thermometer.
The diagrams below show structures of clinical and laboratory thermometers.

Clinical (ordinary) clinical digital

Laboratory thermometer

Describe the suitability of alcohol and mercury for use in liquid in gas thermometers.
- Suitability of thermometric liquids includes (properties)
 Should be easily and cleanly seen i.e. do not wet the glass tube.
 Should be able to expand and contract evenly or rapidly.
 Should not stick to the glass

74. Describe the relationship between the Celsius and Kelvin scale.
 Celsius and Kelvin scale
(K =t+ 273)

39
 75. describe the structure of the thermocouple thermometers
It has two different metals i.e. copper and iron to measure rapid temperature changes.

76. describe the relation between temperature and volume.

From Charles law: law it states that the volume of the fixed mass of dry air is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature at constant pressure.

77. From boyles law: the volume of a fixed mass of dry air inversely proportional to the
pressure exerted on it at constant temperature.
Hence Boyle’s law mathematically is.

40
 78. Demonstrate the use of idea gas equation to solve simple numerical problems.
Idea gas law equation is,

This is also known as general gas law equation

79. Explain methods of heat transfers
 Conduction, convection and radiation
 Conduction: is the method of heat transfer through a material without the movement
of any part of the material itself. When a material is heated, the particles gain more
heat energy and vibrate more. Hence transferring heat energy.
 Convection: this is the method of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
 Radiation: this is the method of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.

The following are experiment showing conduction, convection and radiation.

A simple demonstration of the different conducting powers of various metals is shown
below. A match is fixed to one end of each rod using a little melted wax. The other
ends of the rods are heated by a burner. When the temperatures of the far ends reach
the melting point of wax, the matches drop off. The match on copper falls first,
showing it is the best conductor, followed by aluminum, brass and then iron.

41
 A
B
80. Liquids and gases also conduct heat but only very slowly. Water is a very poor
conductor, as
shown in part B. The water at the top of the tube can be boiled before the ice at the
bottom melts.

81. Demonstrate the uses of bad and good conductors of heat.

 Cooking utensils are made of good conductors of heat. E.g. pots, pans
 Building materials, hair, blankets, handles of electric kettles are made of bad
conductors. They slow down the conduction process

82. Explain the everyday

applications of convection and
radiation

They are used in thermos or vacuum

flasks, electric kettles, land
and sea breeze and greenhouse
effect.

- Vacuum space prevents heat loss and gain by radiation process

- Silvered wall/vessel and cork stopper prevents heat loss by radiation and conduction.

42
 83. Describe the effect of radiation on human population
 It leads to global warming and ozone layer depletion resulting in excess radiation
from the sun, droughts and excessive coldness.

84. Demonstrate the refraction of light.

The bending of light when it passes from one material (called a medium) to another is called
refraction.

85. Demonstrate the laws of refraction of light

- The refracted ray, normal ray and emergent results in the ratio
- This constant value is the refractive index
- The incident ray, the normal ray and the refracted ray all lie in the same plain.

86. Demonstrate the passage of light through parallel sided transparent material.
- From the experiment, the table below should be completed.
- By using n = the refractive index of a given material can be found.

87. Demonstrate refractive index (n) in terms of real and apparent depth
- Refractive index of a substance is given by;

88. Describe types of lens.

- Convex: thicker at the middle
- Concave thinner at the middle
89. Describe the action of a thin converging and diverging lens on a beam of light.

43
i). convex ii) concave

90. Describe how to determine the focal [point, focal length optical centre and principle
axis of a lens.
By using the method known as plain mirror method,
The image formed is inverted.
The lens formula is also used
By lens formulae
1/f = 1/u +1/v

91. Demonstrate how to obtain images formed by converging lenses

 By using Characteristics of image in terms of the position, size and nature of images
formed by converging lenses.

92. Describe the uses of lenses in everyday life.

Use of lens: in correcting defects in vision: short sight-concave lens, long sight-convex lens,
LCD, Camera etc.

93. Describe the main components of electromagnet spectrum

44
 93. The main components includes gamma rays (o) ultra violet, visible light, infrared,
microwaves radio waves and x-rays

NAME WAVE SOURCE DETECTION USE

LENGTH (M)
Radio 10 – 10 Radion Radio T.V radar Communication
waves circulates in TV, radion,
aerials phones
Microwaves 10 – 10 Special Special circuits Forrada,
electric cooking in
circuits microwaves
Infrared 7.5x10 – 10 All matters Transistor, Burglar alarms
e.g hot photographic films, security lights,
objects sun blankenedthermomoter remove heating
heat purposes.
Light 3.5 x 10 – 7.5x Lamp, Eye photographic film Seein g
10 flames, hot photocells
objects
Ultra- 10 – 3.5 x 10 Hot object Fluorescent, In hospitals to
violent mercury photographit, kill microbes
vapour photocells

94. Describe the properties of electromagnetic spectrum

In vacuum they travel at 3.0 x 10mls
Are produced by varying electric and magnetic fields
Are not affected by either electric or magnetic field
Are transverse
Travel in straight lines
Show interference and diffraction
95. Describe the methods of detection of each of the following
Gamma rays: by Geiger mulur
X-rays: giegermuller tube and photographic plates
Ultraviolet: by photographic plates, photocells and photo electric devices
Infrated: by photographic plates , heat sensitive dectors, thermopiles
Microwaves: by electric circuit
Radio waves: by T.V, Radios

96. Describe the use of electromagnetic spectrum fractures in everyday life.

X-rays are used in hospitals to detect fractures in bones
Gamma is used in welding
Radio waves are used in T.Vs and radios
45
 GRADE 12
PHYSICS 5124
UNIT: MAGNETISM
97. Describe the properties of magnets?
Ans. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
Magnets have two poles; north and south poles.
When suspended freely the magnet always lie in the north south direction
98. Demonstrate induced magnetism?
Ans. When you stroke a needle with a permanent magnet several times lift the
magnet every time you reach one end will make the needle to become
magnetized. And you also use electrical method to magnetize a steel bar. Place a
bar of unmagnetised in a solenoid and switch on D.C current and after a while it
will be observed that the steel bar will be magnetized.
99. Demonstrate the methods of demagnetizing of a magnet?
Ans. The methods to demagnetize a magnet include;
(i) Electrical method
(ii)Hammering,
(iii) Heating

Electrical method: To demagnetize a magnet; the magnet is placed in a coil in series

with a.c supply. The magnet is withdrawn along a East-west direction until the
magnet is a large distance away from the coil. The magnet will be demagnetized.
100. Distinguish the magnetic properties of iron and steel?
Ans. Iron is easily magnetized and steel is easily demagnetized. This can be
concluded by iron being susceptible while steel is retentive.
101. Explain the use of magnetic screening and magnetic keepers?
Ans. Magnetic screening is used for shielding equipment while magnetic keepers are
used to prevent loss of magnetic strength.
102. Describe the uses of magnets?
Ans. They are used in circuit breakers, loud speakers and electromagnets.

46
UNIT: STATIC ELECTRICITY
103. Demonstrate the existence of static charges?
Ans. There are positive and negative charges and these charges obey the law of
electric charge which states that like charges repel while unlike charges repel.
104. Explain how to detect the electric charges?
Ans. Charges can be detected by;
(i) Charging by contact: When a glass rod is rubbed against with fur it
acquires positive charges
(ii) Testing the sign of charges by using gold-leaf electroscope.
105. Describe the properties and uses of static charges
Ans. (i) Like charges repel, unlike charges attract (Law of electrostatics)
Uses: (ii) Dust precipitation, ink jet printers, photocopiers.
106. Describe the electric charging and discharging of objects?
Ans. (i) Electric charging can be done by friction (when a glass rod is rubbed
against with fur it acquires positive charges.
((ii) induction. (When a negatively charged rod is brought near the metal
cap electrons are repelled to the metal on the metal cap)
Discharging of objects by static electricity.
(i) Objects can be discharged by touching the metal cap with the finger.
The electrons flow to the earth if the electroscope is negatively
charged or electrons flow from the earth if the electroscope is
positively charged.
(ii) Bringing the cap of the charged electroscope near a water tap.
(iii) Putting a bare flame of a candle close to the cap
107. Explain the relationship between current and static electricity?
Ans. The relationship between current and static electricity in terms of effects as
static electricity produces same effects as current electricity. The effects include
lighting.

UNIT: ELECTRIC CURRENT

108. (i) Describe the terms associated with electricity?

Ans. (i) Current is the flow of charge in a metallic conductor
47
 (ii) Electric charge is the quantity of electric current passing a point
every second.
(iii) Potential difference is the work done in moving a coulomb of
charge between two points or the energy lost when one coulomb of
charge passes between two points and it can also be defined as
energy required to move a unit charge between two points in a
circuit.
(iv) Volt is joule per coulomb
109. Identify the units of electric charge and current?
Ans. Electric current is measured in Amperes (A) and Electric charge is
measured in Coulombs. (C).But current also has a derived unit of volt per ohm.

110. Differentiate between potential difference (PD) and electromotive force

(EMF)?
Ans. The difference is in terms of work done per unit of charge in driving charge
in a circuit and through a component. In (PD) energy is lost while in (EMF)
energy is gained.
111. Explain the meaning of resistance?
Ans. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of charge.
112. Describe what the internal resistance of a cell is?
Ans. This is the resistance of a cell offered by the electrolyte in cells or batteries.
113. How to determine the resistance in a simple circuit?
Ans. 1/R= 1/R1 + 1/R2). This formula is for series circuit.

114. Describe the relationship of voltage, current and power?

48
 Ans. You can demonstrate the relationship by using the formula E=VIt. This is
the formula for electrical energy.
115. Demonstrate energy transformations in an electric circuit?
Ans. The energy of an electric current can be converted into various forms for
example
(i) Electrical can be converted to mechanical energy in motors and washing
machines.
(ii) Electrical energy can be converted to sound energy in record players and
telephones
(iii) Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy in heating elements
(iv) Electrical energy can be converted to light energy or radian heat like in a
filament lamps.
116. Investigate the heating effect of an electric current?
Ans. When the switch is closed, current flows and after some time the resistance
wire feels hot but the copper wire remains cold.

117. Explain the need for earthling metal cases and for double insulation?
Ans. The reason for this is to prevent electric shock and also as a safety
precaution.
118. Describe the meaning of three wires found in the cable?
Ans. The three types of wires: Live (brown), earthing (green and yellow) and
neutral is blue.

earth live

fuse

neutral

cord grip

119. Describe ways of conserving electrical in homes and industries?

49
 Ans. You can conserve electrical energy by using energy saving bulbs and also
switching off lights when you are not using them. You can also use gas cooker
instead of electric stove.
120. Demonstrate how to calculate the cost of using electrical Energy?
Ans. Electrical Energy can be calculated using the formula E= Pt where power is
in Kilowatt and time should be in hours to form Kwh which is equal to 1 x
1000W x 60 and the answer should be in Kwh.
121. Describe the use of fuses, earthing and the three pin-plug?
Ans. These serve as safety electrical components which prevent electrical shock
and overload of power.

122. Describe the applications of the magnetic effect of an electric current?

Ans. Applications of electromagnetics include electric bell, relay switches and
simple motor

Simple motor
axle
Relay machine
magnet

coil
N S
split-ring
commutator

carbon brush

123. Explain the behavior of an electric current in a magnetic field?

Ans. Displacement of current carrying wire or electron and there is attraction
and repulsion of forces between parallel currents.

50
 axle

magnet

coil

N S
slip rings

carbon brush

When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, there will be an

interaction between the two fields which will create a force and this force will be
induced in the current carrying conductor.

124. Describe the nature of forces between parallel currents?

Ans. There is attraction and repulsion between parallel currents

Series Circuit

125. Describe the factors that affect the magnitude and direction of induced EMF?
Ans.
(i) Speed of either magnet or coil
(ii) Strength of magnet
(iii) Number of turns of a coil
126. State the direction of current produced by an induced EMF?

51
 Ans. To determine the direction you use Fleming right hand law
127. Describe a simple AC and D.C generators?
Ans. It consists of a rectangular coil made of insulated copper wire which rotates
between permanent magnets. It has slip rings (fixed to the coil and rotates with
it). It has two brushes (carbon) which are contacts that rub against slip rings. It
produces alternating current.

A DC generator is known as a dynamo. It consists of split rings (fixed to the coil and
rotate with it). It produces direct current.

128. Explain the conversion of an A.C generator to a D.C generator?

Ans. A rectifiers an electric device which coverts a.c. current to D.C. There are a
number of rectifiers such as vacuum tube diode, Mercury – arc – valve, copper
and selenium oxide rectifier, semi-conductors, silicon controlled etc.
129. Demonstrate the principles of mutual induction?
Ans. Principles of mutual induction says that changing current in one coil gives
rise to current in the other

52
130. Explain the advantages of high alternating potential difference power
transmission?
Ans. The advantage is that it helps reduce power losses in cables.
131. Describe the effects of improper management of transformers?
Ans. The effects include overheating, low voltages and also high voltages.
132. Describe what thermionic emission is?
Ans. The removal of electrons from the atoms by applying heat energy. Therefore,
thermionic emission is the evaporation of electrons from the metal that is heated.
133. State properties of cathode rays?
Ans.
(i) They can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
(ii) They travel in a straight line
(iii) They are electron beam
(iv) They carry a positive charge
134. Describe the uses of cathode-ray oscilloscope?
Ans. They are used in picture tubes in television receivers, electrocardiographs,
computers and oscillators.
ATOMIC PHYSICS
135. Describe the structure of an atom?
Ans. An atom is a smallest particle of an element which take part in a chemical
reaction and it is made of up of nucleus and electrons. The nucleus is made of
protons and neutrons.

Neutron
protons

Electron

136. Describe the nature of radioactivity?

Ans. Nature of radioactivity can either be random or spontaneous.

An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus

53
 It contains two protons and two neutrons.

137. Describe the characteristics of Alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (ϒ)
Ans.
RADIATIO PENETRATIO IONISATIO CHARG MAS NATURE STOPPED
N N N POWER E S BY
POWER
ALPHA Weak Strong 4amu Helium Piece of
+ paper
BETA Medium Medium 0 electron 5mm of
- aluminum
foil
GAMMA Strong Weak Electromagneti Lead
c energy concrete

138. Describe the methods of detecting radioactive emissions?

Ans. You can detect radioactive emission by using Geiger Muller (G.M) tube,
photographic film, scintillation counter and Cloud chamber, Gold leaf,
Ratemeter.
 Photographic film gets exposed.
 G.M. tube contains Argon /Neon. Charged particles of alpha and beta ionize
the Argon and Neon atoms. The electric field accelerates the ions leading to
further collisions. This collision produces more ionization to give a pulse on
the meter connected to output.
139. Explain the origin and effects of background radiations?
Ans. Causes of background radiations are;
(i) Cosmic rays
(ii) Radioactive elements under rocks
140. Describe what radioactive decay is?
Ans. Radioactive decay is the disintegration of nucleus by alpha, beta and
gamma emissions.
141. Describe what nuclear fusion and fission is?

54
 Ans. Nuclear fusion occurs when nuclei of light elements are forced togather at a
high temperature and releases enormous energy while nuclear fission is the
splitting process of nucleus.
142. Explain uses of radioactive substances?
Ans. Radioactive substances are used;
 in treatment of cancer,
 as tracers to check the flow of liquids underground,
 to sterilize hospital utensils detection of certain metals
143. Define half-life?
Ans. Half-life is time taken for half the nucleus of a radioactive element to decay.
144. Describe the safety precautions necessary when handling or storing
radioactive substances?
Ans. Use protective materials such as gloves, goggles, overalls and lead shields.
145. Explain the effects of radioactive substances on the environment and health?
Ans. The effects include radiation pollution and health hazards.

55