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Excretory System

The document provides information about the human excretory system. It describes the kidneys, ureters, and their functions in removing waste from the body through urine production and passage. The kidneys filter blood and regulate homeostasis by controlling the composition of fluids and substances excreted in urine.

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Muskan Tiwari
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views

Excretory System

The document provides information about the human excretory system. It describes the kidneys, ureters, and their functions in removing waste from the body through urine production and passage. The kidneys filter blood and regulate homeostasis by controlling the composition of fluids and substances excreted in urine.

Uploaded by

Muskan Tiwari
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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EXCRETORY

SYSTEM
PREPARED BY,
MS.MUSKAN TIWARI
M.SC.NURSING(OBG)
K.N.P.I.,LUCKNOW
INTRODUCTION

• THE HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM ENCOMPASSES ALL OF THE ORGANS INVOLVED


IN THE REMOVAL OF WASTES PRODUCED BY THE BODY DURING HOMEOSTASIS,
SUCH AS SALTS, CARBON DIOXIDE , AND UREA.
• THE URINARY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF THE KIDNEYS, URETERS, URINARY BLADDER
AND URETHRA.
• URINE IS PRODUCED IN THE KIDNEY AS AN ULTRA FILTRATE OF BLOOD.
• IT THEN PASSES THROUGH THE URETERS TO THE URINARY BLADDER, WHERE IT IS
STORED AND IS READY TO BE EMPTY THROUGH THE URETHRA.
• THE KIDNEYS ARE THE PRIMARY EXCRETORY ORGANS, OTHER ORGANS ARE
SWEAT GLANDS, LIVER (EXCRETES BILE PIGMENTS) AND LUNGS ALSO FUNCTION
AS EXCRETORY ORGANS.
• KIDNEYS : A PAIR OF BEAN-SHAPED ORGANS, LOCATED
RETROPERITONEALLY, RESPONSIBLE FOR BLOOD FILTERING AND URINE
FORMATION.
• RENAL CAPSULE : A LAYER OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERS THE
KIDNEYS.
• THE RENAL (EXCRETORY) SYSTEM INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING ORGANS :
• HILUM : CONCAVE NOTCH OF KIDNEYS WHERE RENAL ARTERY, RENAL VEIN
URETER, NERVES AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS CONVERGE.
• URETERS : A TUBULE THAT TRNASPORTS URINE (MAINLY BY PERISTALSIS)
FROM THE KIDNEY TO THE URINARY BLADDER .
• URINARY BLADDER : A TUBULE TA EXCRETES URINE OU OF THE URINARY
BLADDER TO THE OUTSIDE, THROUGH THE URETHRAL ORIFICE.
KIDNEY

• KIDNEY ARE DESCRIBED AS RETROPERITONEAL ORGANS AS THEY ARE PRESENT IN


BETWEEN THE PERITONEUM AND THE WALL OF THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY.
• THE KIDNEYS ARE SOLID, BEAN-SHAPED ORGANS.
• LOCATED BELOW THE RIBS ON THE POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL.
• THE RIGHT KIDNEY IS POSITIONED SLIGHTLY LOWER THAN THE LEFT.
• EACH OF WHICH IS ABOUT 11CM LONG, 6 CM WIDE, AND 3 CM THICK.
• THE AVERAGE WEIGHT IS 150 GM IN MALES AND 135 GM IN FEMALES.
• EACH KIDNEY HAS A LATERAL CONVEX AND MEDIAL CONCAVE BORDER.
• GROSS FEATURES OF KIDNEYS :
• EACH KIDNEY PRESENT THE FOLLOWING FEATURES :

 TWO POLES :
 UPPER : BROAD
 LOWER : POINTED
 TWO BORDERS :
 LATERAL : CONVEX
 MEDIAL : CONCAVE
 TWO SURFACES :
 ANTERIOR : CONVEX
 POSTERIOR : FLAT
HILUM : EACH KIDNEY HAS THICK LIPS OF RENAL MATERIAL TERMED THE HILUM, WHICH
SURROUNDS ITS MEDIAL CONCAVE BORDER. THE RIGHT KIDNEY HILUM IS LOCATED 5 CM
FROM THE MIDLINE, BENEATH THE LEFT KIDNEY IN THE TRANSPYLORIC PLANE. THE RENAL
SINUS IS A WIDE CAVITY INTO WHICH HILUM EXPANDS. THE RENAL VEIN, RENAL ARTERY,
THE URETER, LYMPHATIC VESSELS, AND SYMPATHETIC FIBERS ARE ALL SENT FROM THE
FRONT TO THE BACK BY THE HILUM.
COVERINGS OF KIDNEYS
THE KIDNEYS HAVE THE FOLLOWING COVERINGS:
FIBROUS CAPSULE: THIS CLOSELY ENCIRCLES THE KIDNEY, IS APPLIED TO ITS OUTSIDE, AND IS
EASILY DETACHED FROM THE KIDNEY'S SURFACE.
PERIRENAL FAT: THIS IS ADIPOSE TISSUE THAT COVERS THE FIBROUS CAPSULE.
RENAL FASCIA: THIS CONNECTIVE TISSUE SURROUNDS THE KIDNEYS AND SUPRARENAL GLANDS
AND IS LOCATED OUTSIDE THE PERIRENAL FAT. IT IS SITUATED BETWEEN THE POSTERIOR
ABDOMINAL WALL AND PARIETAL PERITONEUM.
PARARENAL FAT: THIS IS LOCATED OUTSIDE OF THE RENAL FASCIA AND IS FREQUENTLY PRESENT
IN CONSIDERABLE AMOUNTS. IT IS A COMPONENT OF THE RETROPERITONEAL FAT.
• THE KIDNEYS ARE HELD IN PLACE ON THE POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL BY THE PERIRENAL FAT, RENAL
FASCIA, AND PARARENAL FAT.

• RENAL STRUCTURE
• CORTEX: THE OUTER REGION IS DARK BROWN IN COLOR. THE CORTEX PENETRATES
INTO THE MEDULLA BETWEEN TWO PYRAMIDS. MEDULLARY RAYS ARE STRIATIONS THAT
EXTEND INTO THE CORTEX FROM THE BASE OF THE RENAL PYRAMIDS.
• MEDULLA: THE INNER REGION IS LIGHT BROWN AREA, DEEP TO THE CORTEX. THE
MEDULLA IS MADE UP OF AROUND A DOZEN RENAL PYRAMIDS, EACH OF WHICH HAS
THE RENAL PAPILLA PROTRUDING MEDIALLY AT ITS PEAK AND ITS BASE
FACING THE CORTEX.
• THE UPPER ENLARGED ENDS OF THE URETER AND THE RENAL A PELVIS ARE LOCATED IN
THE RENAL SINUS REGION, WHICH IS A REGION R WITHIN THE HILUM. THE RENAL PELVIS
HAS A 5 ML CAPACITY. THIS SPLITS INTO TWO OR THREE BIG CALYCES, AND THEN EACH
OF THOSE BREAKS DOWN INTO THE SAME NUMBER OF MINOR CALYCES. EACH MINOR
• ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR RELATIONS OF KIDNEYS :
• THE ANTERIOR RELATIONS:
• RIGHT KIDNEY
• ANTERIORLY: THE SUPRARENAL GLAND, THE LIVER, SECOND PART OF DUODENUM, AND RIGHT COLIC
FLEXURE.
• LEFT KIDNEY
• ANTERIORLY: THE SUPRA RENAL GLAND, THE SPLEEN, STOMACH, PANCREAS, THE COLIC FLEXURE, AND
COILS OF JEJUNUM.
• THE POSTERIOR RELATIONS
• LEFT KIDNEY
• POSTERIORLY: DIAPHRAGM, 12TH RIB, PSOAS MAJOR, QUADRATUS LUMBORUM, AND TRANSVERSE
ABDOMINAL MUSCLE.
• RIGHT KIDNEY
• POSTERIOR: DIAPHRAGM, 11TH AND 12TH RIBS, PSOAS MAJOR, QUADRATUS LUMBORUM, AND
TRANSVERSE ABDOMINAL MUSCLE.
• BLOOD SUPPLY TO KIDNEY:
• BLOOD IS SUPPLIED BY RENAL ARTERIES ARISING FROM THE AORTA AT
THE LEVEL OF THE 2ND LUMBER VERTEBRA. RENAL ARTERY DIVIDES INTO
POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR SEGMENTAL ARTERY, LOBAR ARTERY,
INTERLOBAR ARTERY, AND ARCUATE ARTERY.
• LYMPH DRAINAGE
• LYMPH DRAINS TO THE LATERAL AORTIC LYMPH NODES AROUND THE
ORIGIN OF THE RENAL ARTERY.
• NERVE SUPPLY
• NERVE SUPPLIES THROUGH RENAL SYMPATHETIC PLEXUS. THE AFFERENT
FIBERS THAT TRAVEL THROUGH THE RENAL PLEXUS ENTER THE SPINAL
CORD IN THE 10TH, 11TH, AND 12TH THORACIC NERVE.
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
• MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
• THE KIDNEYS PLAY SEVERAL IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS IN HOMEOSTASIS. THEY
COLLABORATE WITH NUMEROUS OTHER ORGAN SYSTEMS TO DO THIS. THEY, FOR
EXAMPLE, COLLABORATE WITH THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM TO FILTER BLOOD AND THE
URINE SYSTEM TO ELIMINATE WASTES. EVERY DAY, THE KIDNEYS FILTER ALL OF THE
BLOOD IN THE BODY AND CREATE AROUND 1.5 LITRES OF URINE. THE KIDNEYS
REGULATE BLOOD VOLUME BY EXCRETING MORE OR LESS WATER, IONS, AND OTHER
CHEMICALS IN URINE. THE KIDNEYS ALSO RELEASE HORMONES THAT AID IN THE
MAINTENANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS. ERYTHROPOIETIN IS A KIDNEY HORMONE THAT
INDUCES BONE MARROW TO CREATE MORE RED BLOOD CELLS WHEN NEEDED. THEY
ALSO RELEASE RENIN, WHICH CONTROLS BLOOD PRESSURE, AS WELL AS THE ACTIVE
FORM CALCITRIOL. THE KIDNEYS PERFORM THE FOLLOWING PRIMARY FUNCTIONS.
• REGULATION OF PLASMA IONIC COMPOSITION
• BY INCREASING OR DECREASING THE EXCRETION OF SPECIFIC IONS IN THE URINE, THE KIDNEYS REGULATE
THE CONCENTRATION OF:
• SODIUM (NA+), POTASSIUM (K+), AND CALCIUM (CA2+)
• MAGNESIUM (MG2+), CHLORIDE (CL-), AND BICARBONATE(HCO3)
• HYDROGEN (H+), PHOSPHATES (HPO4 2- AND H2PO4-).
• REGULATION OF PLASMA VOLUME AND BLOOD PRESSURE
• RENAL TUBULES CAN ABSORB WATER BACK INTO THE BLOOD AND BY THIS PROCESS THE RENAL TUBULES
CAN CONTROL THE RATE AT WHICH WATER IS EXCRETED IN THE URINE. IN THIS WAY, THE KIDNEYS
REGULATE PLASMA VOLUME, WHICH HAS A DIRECT EFFECT ON TOTAL BLOOD VOLUME AND, THEREFORE,
ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
• REGULATION OF PLASMA OSMOLARITY :
• BECAUSE THE KIDNEYS VARY THE RATE AT WHICH THEY EXCRETE WATER RELATIVE TO SOLUTES, THEY HAVE
THE ABILITY TO REGULATE THE OSMOLARITY (SOLUTE CONCENTRATION) OF THE PLASMA.
• REGULATION OF THE PH OF PLASMA
• BY REGULATING THE CONCENTRATION OF BICARBONATE AND HYDROGEN IONS
IN THE PLASMA, THE KIDNEYS PARTNER WITH THE LUNGS TO
REGULATE BLOOD PH.
• REMOVAL OF METABOLIC WASTE PRODUCTS PLASMA CONTAINS METABOLIC
WASTES AND OTHER UNDESIRABLE SUBSTANCES. THE NEPHRONS CLEAR THE
PLASMA OF WASTE PRODUCTS AND ELIMINATE THEM FROM THE BODY IN THE
URINE. THESE MATERIALS INCLUDE METABOLIC BY-PRODUCTS SUCH AS UREA
AND URIC ACID THAT ARE GENERATED DURING PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACID
CATABOLISM, RESPECTIVELY, AS WELL AS FOREIGN SUBSTANCES SUCH AS FOOD
ADDITIVES, DRUGS, OR PESTICIDES THAT ENTER THE BODY FROM THE EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT.
• ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS
• THE KIDNEYS ARE CONSIDERED ENDOCRINE ORGANS.
• SPECIAL CELLS PRESENT IN THE INTERSTITIAL TISSUE OF KIDNEY CAN SENSE HYPOXIC
CONDITION WHICH STIMULATES THE SECRETION OF ERYTHROPOIETIN. THE HORMONE
STIMULATES ERYTHROCYTE PRODUCTION BY THE BONE MARROW.
• THE JUXTAGLOMERULAR CELLS OF NEPHRON SECRETE RENIN IN RESPONSE TO DECREASE
SODIUM CONCENTRATION IN THE RENAL TUBULAR FLUID. THE RENIN IS NECESSARY FOR
THE PRODUCTION OF ANGIOTENSIN II, A HORMONE THAT CORRECTS PLASMA SALT AND
WATER BALANCE AS WELL AS BLOOD PRESSURE. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE BY
THE RENIN ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM IS CALLED LONG- TERM CONTROL OF BLOOD
PRESSURE.
• THE KIDNEYS ARE ALSO NECESSARY FOR THE ACTIVATION OF VITAMIN D3 ULTIMATELY
TO 1,25(OH)2 VITAMIN D3, WHICH IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN REGULATING BLOOD
CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE LEVELS.
URETER
• THE URETER ARE TWO MUSCULAR TUBES THAT RUN FROM THE KIDNEY TO THE URINARY
BLADDER (POSTERIOR) SURFACE. EACH URETER IS 6 MM IN DIAMETER AND AROUND 25 CM
(10 INCHES ) LONG.

• SIMILAR IN LENGTH (10 INCHES) AND POSSESSING THREE CONSTRICTIONS THROUGHOUT ITS
PATH, THE URETER RESEMBLES THE ESOPHAGUS. THESE CONSTRICTIONS ARE :
• WHERE THE RENAL PELVIS JOINS THE URETER (PELVIURETERIC JUNCTION).
• WHERE IT IS CURVED AS IT CROSSES THE PELVIC BRIM (PELVIC BRIM).
• WHERE IT PIERCES THE BLADDER WALL (URETEROVESICAL JUNCTION).
COURSE OF URETER
• ABDOMINAL PART:

• THE EXTENDED UPPER END OF THE URETER THAT HAS A FUNNEL-LIKE STRUCTURE CALLED THE RENAL PELVIS.

• IT LIES WITHIN THE HILUM OF THE KIDNEY AND RECEIVES THE MAJOR CALYCES.

• THE URETER EMERGES FROM THE HILUM OF THE KIDNEY AND TRAVELS OVER THE PSOAS MAJOR MUSCLE, RUNNING VERTICALLY
DOWNWARD BENEATH THE PARIETAL PERITONEUM.

• RELATIONS IN ABDOMINAL PART OF URETER:

• RIGHT URETER:

• ANTERIORLY : DUODENUM, TERMINAL PART OF ILEUM, RIGHT TESTICULAR, OR OVARIAN VESSELS.

• POSTERIORLY : THE RIGHT PSOAS MAJOR MUSCLE, THE BIFURCATION OF RIGHT COMMON ILIAC ARTERY.

• LEFT URETER :

• ANTERIORLY : SIGMOID COLON, MESOCOLON, LEFT TESTICULAR, OR OVARIAN VESSELS.

• POSTERIORLY : LEFT PSOAS MAJOR MUSCLE, THE BIFURCATION OF LEFT COMM0ON ILIAC ARTERY.
• PELVIC PART :
• IT ENTERS THE PELVIS BY CROSSING THE BIFURCATION OF THE
COMMON ILIAC ARTERY IN FRONT OF SACROILIAC JOINT.
• THE URETER THEN RUNS DOWN THE LATERAL WALL OF THE PELVIS
TO THE REGION OF THE ISCHIAL SPINE AND TURNS FORWARD TO
ENTER THE LATERAL ANGLE OF THE BLADDER.
• RELATIONS :
• ANTERIORLY : DUCTUS DEFERENS, SEMINAL VESICLE, AND VESICAL
VEINS.
• POSTERIORLY : COMMON ILIAC ARTERY, INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERY
AND VEIN, AND SUPERIOR VESICLE ARTERY.
• BLOOD SUPPLY :
• UPPER END : THE RENAL ARTERY
• MIDDLE PART : TESTICULAR OR OVARIAN ARTERY
• PELVIC PART : SUPERIOR VESICLE ARTERY, UTERINE, AND MIDDLE
RECTAL ARTERIES.
• VEINS : VENOUS BLOOD DRAIN INTO VEIN THAT CORRESPONDS
TO THE ARTERIES.
• NERVE SUPPLY : RENAL, TESTICULAR (OR OVARIAN), AND
HYPOGASTRIC PLEXUES.
FUNCTION OF URETER
• THE WALL OF THE URETER INCLUDES A LINING OF EPITHELIAL CELLS, A
RELATIVELY THICK LAYER OF INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE, AND FINALLY, AN
OUTER COAT OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES.
• THE EPITHELIUM IS THE TRANSITIONAL TYPE . WHEN URINE ENTERS THE
URETER, THE TUBE STRETCHES BY FLATTENING OF ITS CUBOIDAL
EPITHELIUM.

• THE INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES IN URETER ARE CAPABLE OF THE RHYTHMIC


CONTRACTION (PERISTALSIS). THE MUSCLES CONTRACTS AND INITIATES A
PERISTALTIC WAVE THAT “MILK” THE URINE DOWN TO THE BLADDER.
• THESE CONTRACTIONS OCCUR EVERY FEW SECONDS TO FEW MINUTES,
PROPORTIONAL TO THE RATE AT WHICH URINE ENTERS THE URETER.
• THE URINE MOVEMENT ALONG THE URETER FROM THE KIDNEYS TO THE
BLADDER IS ASSISTED BY PERISTALSIS AT FREQUENT INTERVALS AND ALSO
BY GRAVITY.
URINARY BLADDER

• LOCATION OF URINARY BLADDER:


• THE URINARY BLADDER IS SITUATED IMMEDIATELY BEHIND THE
PUBIC BONES WITHIN THE PELVIS.
• THE EMPTY BLADDER IS 5-7.5 CM LONG , WHILE THE FULL
BLADDER IS ABOUT 12.5 CM LONG AND HOLDS ABOUT 500
ML OF URINE, BUT IT IS CAPABLE OF HOLDING MORE THAN
TWICE THAT AMOUNT (1500 ML).
• IT IS A SMOOTH, COLLAPSIBLE MUSCULAR SAC THAT STORES
URINE TEMPORARILY.
• THE EMPTY BLADDER IS PYRAMIDAL HAVING:
• APEX
• BASE
• NECK
• SUPERIOR SURFACE
• TWO INFERO-LATERAL SURFACES
• THREE OPENINGS ARE SEEN IN THE BLADDER-TWO URETER OPENING AND SINGLE OPENING OF THE URETHRA-
WHICH DRAIN THE BLADDER.
• APEX : POINTED ANTERIORLY. IT IS CONNECTED TO THE UMBILICUS BY THE MEDIAN UMBILICAL LIGAMENT
(REMAINS OF URACHUS).
• BASE OR POSTERIOR SURFACE : FACES POSTERIOR AND IS TRIANGULAR. SUPEROLATERAL ANGLES ARE TO THE
URETERS AND THE INFERIOR ANGLE GIVES RISE TO URETHRA.
• SUPERIOR SURFACE : COVERED BY PERITONEUM AND IS RELATED TO THE COILS OF ILEUM.
• INFEROLATERAL SURFACE : RELATED TO IN FRONT OF RETROPUBIC PAD OF FAT.
• NECK : THE NECK OF BLADDER LAID INFERIORLY, REST ON UPPER SURFACE OF PROSTATE. THE NECK OF THE
BLADDER IS HELD IN POSITION BY THE PUBOPROSTATIC LIGAMENTS IN MALES AND PUBOVESICAL LIGAMENTS
IN FEMALES.
• WHEN THE BLADDER IS FULL, THE FOLDS IN THE MUCUS MEMBRANE THAT WERE PRESENT IN THE EMPTY
BLADDER DISAPPEAR.
• THE THREE LAYERS OF INTERLACING BUNDLES OF SMOOTH
MUSCLES CALLED DETRUSOR MUSCLES THAT MAKE UP
MUSCULAR COVERING OF THE BLADDER. THE SPHINCTER
VESICAE ARE FORMED AT THE NECK OF BLADDER BY
THICKENING THE CIRCULAR MUSCLE COVERING.
• LIGAMENTS OF URINARY BLADDER
• TRUE LIGAMENTS :
• LATERAL TRUE LIGAMENTS
• LATERAL PUBOPROSTATIC LIGAMENTS
• MEDIAL PUBOPROSTATIC LIGAMENTS
• POSTERIOR LIGAMENTS
• FALSE LIGAMENTS :
• MEDIAL UMBILICAL LIGAMENTS-URACHAL REMNANT
• LATERAL AND POSTERIOR FALSE LIGAMENTS
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• THE SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR VESICLE ARTERIES, BRANCH
OF INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERY.
• VEINS FORM THE VESICAL VENOUS PLEXUS THAT DRAIN
INTO INTERNAL ILIAC VEIN.
• LYMPH
• IT DRAINS INTO INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ILIAC NODES.
• FUNCTION OF URINARY BLADDER
• THE BLADDER UNDERGOES RELAXATION AND
CONTRACTION. AT THE TIME OF RELAXATION, IT BECOMES
FILLED WITH THE URINE COMING THROUGH THE URETER.
DURING CONTRACTION, THE URINE IS SQUEEZED OUT
FROM THE BLADDER INTO THE URETHRA.
URETHRA
• MALE URETHRA:
• THE MALE URETHRA IS ABOUT 20CM (8 INCHES) LONG AND EXTENDS FROM THE
NECK OF THE BLADDER TO THE EXTERNAL MEATUS ON THE GLANS PENIS.
• IT IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS:
• A) PROSTATIC URETHRA : IT IS ABOUT 3 CM (1.25 INCH) LONG PASSES
THROUGH THE PROSTATE FROM THE BASE TO THE APEX. IT IS THE WIDEST AND
MOST DILATABLE PORTION OF THE URETHRA.

• B) MEMBRANOUS URETHRA : IT IS ABOUT 1.25CM (0.5 INCH) LONG AND LIES


WITHIN THE UROGENITAL DIAPHRAGM, SURROUNDED BY THE SPHINCTER
URETHRAE MUSCLE. IT IS THE LEAST DILATABLE PORTION.

• C) PENILE URETHRA : IT IS ABOUT 15-16CM (6 INCHES) LONG AND IS


ENCLOSED IN THE BULB AND THE CORPUS SPONGIOSUM OF THE PENIS. THE
EXTERNAL MEATUS IS THE NARROWEST PART OF THE ENTIRE URETHRA. THE PART
OF THE URETHRA LIES WITHIN THE GLANS PENIS IS DILATED TO FORM THE
FOSSA TERMINALIS (NAVICULAR FOSSA).
MALE URETHRA

THE MALE URETHRA IS APPROXIMATELY 15-20CM LONG.


IN ADDITION TO URINE, THE MALE URETHRA TRANSPORTS
SEMEN – A FLUID CONTAINING SPERMATOZOA AND SEX
GLAND SECRETIONS.

• PROSTATIC URETHRA:BEGINS AS A CONTINUATION OF


THE BLADDER NECK AND PASSES THROUGH THE
PROSTATE GLAND.
• MEMBRANOUS URETHRA:PASSES THROUGH THE PELVIC
FLOOR AND THE DEEP PERINEAL POUCH.
• SURROUNDED BY THE EXTERNAL URETHRAL SPHINCTER –
WHICH PROVIDES VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF
MICTURITION.
• PENILE (BULBOUS) URETHRA:PASSES THROUGH THE
BULB AND CORPUS SPONGIOSUM OF THE PENIS,
ENDING AT THE EXTERNAL URETHRAL ORIFICE (THE
MEATUS).
• FEMALE URETHRA :
• THE FEMALE URETHRA IS ABOUT 1.5
INCHES (4 CM) LONG. IT EXTENDS
FROM THE NECK OF THE BLADDER TO
THE EXTERNAL MEATUS, WHERE IT
OPENS INTO THE VESTIBULE ABOUT 1
INCH (2.5 CM) BELOW THE CLITORIS
AND LIES IN FRONT OF THE VAGINA. AT
THE SIDE OF THE EXTERNAL URETHRAL
MEATUS, THERE ARE THE SMALL
OPENING OF THE DUCTS OF THE PARA
URETHRAL GLANDS.
•URINE FORMATION
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

• THE FIRST STEP IN URINE FORMATION

• BLOOD FLOWS THROUGH THE GLOMERULUS, ALLOWING PROTEIN-FREE


PLASMA TO BE FILTERED THROUGH THE GLOMERULAR CAPILLARIES INTO THE
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE.

• ~20% OF PLASMA ENTERING THE GLOMERULUS IS FILTERED

• 125 ML/MIN FILTERED FLUID


TUBULAR REABSORPTION

• MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES FROM TUBULAR LUMEN BACK INTO


THE BLOOD

• REABSORBED SUBSTANCES NOT LOST IN THE URINE, BUT ARE


CARRIED BY THE PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES TO THE VENOUS SYSTEM

• MOST OF THE FILTERED PLASMA IS REABSORBED


TUBULAR SECRETION

• THE SELECTIVE TRANSFER OF SUBSTANCES FROM THE PERITUBULAR


CAPILLARY INTO THE TUBULAR LUMEN

• ALLOWS FOR RAPID ELIMINATION OF SUBSTANCES FROM THE


PLASMA VIA EXTRACTION OF THE 80% OF UNFILTERED PLASMA IN
PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES AND ADDING IT TO THE SUBSTANCES
ALREADY IN TUBULE AS RESULT OF FILTRATION
NORMAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF URINE
• URINE IS AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION OF GREATER THAN 95% WATER, WITH A MINIMUM OF THESE
REMAINING CONSTITUENTS, IN ORDER OF DECREASING CONCENTRATION:
• UREA 9.3 G/L.
• CHLORIDE 1.87 G/L.
• SODIUM 1.17 G/L.
• POTASSIUM 0.750 G/L.
• CREATININE 0.670 G/L .
• OTHER DISSOLVED IONS, INORGANIC AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (PROTEINS, HORMONES,
METABOLITES).
• URINE IS STERILE UNTIL IT REACHES THE URETHRA, WHERE EPITHELIAL CELLS LINING THE URETHRA ARE
COLONIZED BY FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC GRAM-NEGATIVE RODS AND COCCI. UREA IS ESSENTIALLY A
PROCESSED FORM OF AMMONIA THAT IS NON-TOXIC TO MAMMALS, UNLIKE AMMONIA, WHICH CAN BE
HIGHLY TOXIC. IT IS PROCESSED FROM AMMONIA AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE LIVER.
FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
Regulation of Electrolytes
REGULATION OF THE BODY TEMPERATURE
• THERMOREGULATION IN HUMANS IS AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF HOMEOSTASIS. IN THERMOREGULATION,
BODY HEAT IS GENERATED MOSTLY IN THE DEEP ORGANS, ESPECIALLY THE LIVER, BRAIN, AND HEART, AND IN
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES. HUMANS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO ADAPT TO A GREAT DIVERSITY OF
CLIMATES, INCLUDING HOT HUMID AND HOT ARID. HIGH TEMPERATURES POSE SERIOUS STRESS FOR THE HUMAN
BODY, PLACING IT IN GREAT DANGER OF INJURY OR EVEN DEATH. FOR HUMANS, ADAPTATION TO VARYING
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS INCLUDES BOTH PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS RESULTING FROM EVOLUTION AND
BEHAVIOURAL MECHANISMS RESULTING FROM CONSCIOUS CULTURAL ADAPTATIONS.
• THERE ARE FOUR AVENUES OF HEAT LOSS: CONVECTION, CONDUCTION, RADIATION, AND EVAPORATION. IF SKIN
TEMPERATURE IS GREATER THAN THAT OF THE SURROUNDINGS, THE BODY CAN LOSE HEAT BY RADIATION AND
CONDUCTION. BUT, IF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SURROUNDINGS IS GREATER THAN THAT OF THE SKIN, THE
BODY ACTUALLY GAINS HEAT BY RADIATION AND CONDUCTION. IN SUCH CONDITIONS, THE ONLY MEANS BY
WHICH THE BODY CAN RID ITSELF OF HEAT IS BY EVAPORATION. SO, WHEN THE SURROUNDING TEMPERATURE IS
HIGHER THAN THE SKIN TEMPERATURE, ANYTHING THAT PREVENTS ADEQUATE EVAPORATION WILL CAUSE THE
INTERNAL BODY TEMPERATURE TO RISE. DURING SPORTS ACTIVITIES, EVAPORATION BECOMES THE MAIN AVENUE
OF HEAT LOSS. HUMIDITY AFFECTS THERMOREGULATION BY LIMITING SWEAT EVAPORATION AND THUS HEAT
LOSS.

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