APS402-

Cogni
ti
vePsy
chol
ogy
Cour
tesyofALPHONCENZYOKA-
SHSS(
0746781145)
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOGNI
TIVEPSYCHOLOGY
Cogni
ti
oni
sakeyaspecti
nli
vesofhumanbei
ngs.I
tist
heaspectofhumanl
i
fet
hat
cont
rol
sal
lthement
alpr
ocessaswel
last
heact
ivi
ti
esi
nourdai
l
yli
ves.Tobeabl
eto
useourl
i
mbs,t
ocommuni
cat
ewi
thpeopl
eort
olear
nandper
for
m aspeci
fi
ctaskwe
appl
yourcogni
ti
ver
esour
ces.I
nessencecogni
ti
oni
somni
presenti
nal
laspect
sinour
l
i
ves.Ont
heot
herhandpsy
chol
ogyi
sast
udyoft
hemi
ndandbehav
ior
.Thr
ough
psy
chol
ogy
,we l
ear
n aboutouremot
ions,ourt
houghtpr
ocessand ourbehav
ior
.
Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyhel
psust
o under
stand ouremot
ions,ourt
hought
sand our
behav
iori
nresponset
oouremot
ionsandt
hought
s.Wear
eal
soabl
etounder
stand
ot
herpeopl
ethatwei
nter
actwi
thbasedonpsy
chol
ogyofourcogni
ti
on.I
nthi
suni
tyou
wi
l
llear
nhowcogni
ti
vepr
ocessaf
fect
sourt
hought
s,emot
ionsandbehav
ior
.Thi
swi
l
l
hel
pyouunder
standy
our
sel
fbet
terandt
hosey
oui
nter
actwi
th.

Whydoy
ouf
orgeti
nfor
mat
ionaboutsomet
hingst
hatwehav
eexper
iencedi
nli
feand
r
ememberot
her
ssocl
ear
?Howdoy
oumanaget
osol
vepr
obl
emst
haty
ouencount
er
i
nli
fe?

Howdoy
oumanaget
oli
stent
omusi
cwhi
l
eatt
hesamet
imer
eadi
ngf
ory
ourex
ams?
Howar
eyouabl
etochooseanout
fi
tforapar
tyf
rom t
hemanyi
nashop?Thesear
e
someoft
hemanyquest
ionst
hatar
eaddr
essedbyt
hef
iel
dofcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
.
Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stsst
udyhowpeopl
eper
cei
ve,l
ear
n,r
emember
,andt
hink.Asy
ou
shal
lreal
i
zecogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
dr
awsonmanyot
herf
iel
ds,mostnot
abl
yneur
osci
ence,comput
ersci
ence,l
i
ngui
sti
cs,
and phi
l
osophy
.Mor
eov
er,cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogyi
nter
act
s wi
th ot
herf
iel
ds wi
thi
n
psy
chol
ogy
,suchasdev
elopment
alpsy
chol
ogy
,soci
alpsy
chol
ogy
,counsel
l
ingand
cl
i
nicalpsy
chol
ogy
.Forexampl
etobeabl
etoof
feref
fect
ivet
her
apyy
ouneedt
o
under
standt
het
houghtpr
ocessoft
hecl
i
ent
sandhow t
hisi
nfor
mst
hemal
adapt
ive
behav
iour
.Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyenabl
esy
out
ounder
standt
het
hinki
ngpr
ocesst
hat
wi
l
lnotonl
yhel
pyoui
nthedi
agnosi
sbutal
soi
nthet
reat
ment
.

1
Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogywi
l
lal
sohel
pyoui
nyourwor
k.Forexampl
eyouwi
l
lbeabl
eto
l
ear
nhowt
ost
udyf
ory
ourexami
nat
ions,howt
osol
vey
ourdai
l
ypr
obl
emsandhowt
o
communi
cat
eef
fect
ivel
yamongot
hert
hings.

Def
ini
ngcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy

Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyi
sasub-
disci
pli
neofpsy
chol
ogyt
hatempl
oyst
hesci
ent
if
ic
met
hodt
oanswerf
undament
alquest
ionsabouthow t
hemi
ndwor
ks.Themi
ndi
sa
sy
stem t
hatcr
eat
esandcont
rol
sment
alf
unct
ionssuchasper
cept
ionandat
tent
ion.
Thr
oughdi
ff
erentpr
ocess,
themi
ndcr
eat
esr
epr
esent
ati
onoft
hewor
ldsot
hatwecan
actwi
thi
nitt
oachi
eveourgoal
s.Themi
ndcr
eat
esandcont
rol
sment
alf
unct
ionssuch
asper
cept
ions,at
tent
ion,memor
y,emot
ions,l
anguage,deci
sionmaki
ng,t
hinki
ng,and
r
easoni
ng.Forexampl
etobeabl
etor
eadandunder
standt
hismodul
e,y
ouhav
etopay
at
tent
iont
owhaty
ouar
ereadi
ng.At
tent
ioni
sanact
ivi
tyoft
hemi
nd.Byusi
ngourmi
nd,
wear
eabl
etounder
takedi
ff
erentact
ivi
ti
esf
oroursur
viv
al.Weal
somakedi
ff
erent
deci
sionsi
nourl
i
vesusi
ngourmi
nds.Themi
ndi
sthusi
mpor
tantf
orf
unct
ioni
ngand
sur
viv
al.

Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stsf
ocust
hei
rat
tent
iononst
udy
ingt
hei
nter
nalment
alpr
ocesses.
Thr
oughcont
rol
l
edr
esear
ch(
Mai
nlyexper
iment
s),cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stsst
udyand
at
temptt
oexpl
ainhowt
hement
alpr
ocesssuchasmemor
y,per
cept
ionandl
anguage
anddeci
sionmaki
ngt
akespl
ace.Thesepr
ocessar
eimpor
tanti
nourdai
l
yli
ves.For
exampl
e,pr
obl
emsar
eendemi
cin ourdai
l
yli
ves,l
ear
ninghow t
osol
vepr
obl
ems
ef
fect
ivel
yist
her
efor
eimpor
tant
.Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyhel
psy
ouunder
standhowy
ou
sol
vepr
obl
em.
Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyhel
psust
olear
nandexpl
aint
her
oleofdi
ff
erent
ment
alpr
ocessi
nunder
standi
ngourwor
ld.Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyal
soenabl
esust
o
gai
nknowl
edgeofour
sel
vesandot
her
s.

I
nher
enti
nthecogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyappr
oachi
sthei
deaofmodul
ari
ty.Modul
esar
e
f
unct
ional
l
yindependentment
aluni
tst
hatr
ecei
vei
nput
sfr
om ot
hermodul
es,
per
for
ma
speci
fi
cpr
ocessi
ngt
ask,andpasst
her
esul
tsoft
hei
rcomput
ati
onont
oyetaddi
ti
onal
modul
es.Fr
om t
hisappr
oach cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stst
ryt
o expl
ainhow di
ff
erent

2
subsy
stemsofcogni
ti
oncombi
nei
n ef
fect
ingt
hecogni
ti
ve pr
ocess.Forexampl
ein
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngdi
ff
erentcogni
ti
vepr
ocessi
ndi
ff
erentmodul
essuchassensor
ybuf
fer
,
bot
hwor
kingandl
ongt
erm memor
yandhi
gherl
evelment
alpr
ocessi
ngt
osol
vet
he
pr
obl
em. Cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogi
sts hav
e st
udi
ed a wi
de v
ari
ety of ment
al
pr
ocesses.
Thesei
ncl
udepat
ter
nrecogni
ti
on,at
tent
ion,memor
y,i
mager
y,andpr
obl
em
sol
vi
ng.

Howdowel
ear
n?Howdowemakedeci
sions?Howdowef
ormr
elat
ions? Thesear
e
someoft
hequest
ionst
hatcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyaddr
esses.

Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyi
sal
soconcer
nedwi
tht
heacqui
sit
ionofgener
alknowl
edgeabout
t
hewor
ldwel
i
vei
n. Tobeabl
etof
unct
ionwel
lweneedt
ounder
standourwor
ld.
Thr
oughdi
ff
erentcogni
ti
vepr
ocess,
e.g.l
anguageandmemor
ywear
eabl
etol
ear
nthe
wor
ldar
oundusandt
akecont
rol
oft
hesi
tuat
ionswef
indour
sel
ves.
cogni
ti
vepr
ocessesi
nourdai
lyl
if
e
Cogni
ti
vepr
ocessesar
eresponsi
blef
orourdai
l
yal
lourdai
l
yact
ivi
ti
es.Wear
eabl
eto
f
unct
ioni
nthewor
ldbecauseofourcogni
ti
on.Amongt
hecogni
ti
vepr
ocesst
hatwe
appl
yinourdai
l
yli
vesi
ncl
ude
 At
tent
ion:
 Per
cept
ion
 memor
y:
 Recogni
ti
onandconceptr
epr
esent
ati
on
 Language;
 Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng:
and.
 Deci
sionmaki
ng;
Thesear
eimpor
tantpr
ocesst
hatmakesusf
unct
ioni
nthewor
ld. Forexampl
e,t
o
under
standwhaty
ouar
ebei
ngt
aughti
ncl
assort
oli
stent
oyourf
ri
endormum t
alki
ng
t
oyou i
nvol
ves pay
ing at
tent
ion and per
cept
ion whi
ch i
s a cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess.
Per
cept
ioni
sthebasi
csetoff
ront
-endpr
ocesst
hroughwhi
chwer
ecogni
zeand
i
nter
preti
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Tobeabl
etounder
standwhaty
ouar
etaughti
ncl
ass

3
orwhaty
ourf
ri
endi
stel
l
ingy
ou,y
oumustdi
scer
nwhati
sbei
ngt
aughtorsai
dtobe
abl
etomakesenseofwhati
tis.Tor
ecogni
zeandi
nter
prett
hei
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion
y
ouneedabuf
fert
ohol
dthei
nfor
mat
ionl
ongenought
oenabl
eyouascer
tai
nwhati
s
bei
ngt
aughtorsai
dtoy
ou. Thesensor
ymemor
yact
sasabuf
fer
. Toactont
he
i
nfor
mat
iony
ouar
erecei
vi
ngy
ouwi
l
lneedt
oremembert
het
hingssai
dtoy
ou..Thi
sis
t
hewor
kingmemor
y.Forexampl
e,supposey
ourf
ri
endasksy
out
ocal
lherf
atherand
r
epor
tthatshei
sunwel
l
.Shemi
ghtr
eci
teherf
ather
’st
elephonenumbert
oyou.
Thr
oughy
ouraudi
tor
ysensesy
ouwi
l
lbeabl
etor
ecogni
zet
henumber
s.Buty
ouwi
l
l
needt
oremembert
henumbert
obeabl
etomaket
hecal
l
.Thi
scoul
dbeei
thert
hrough
not
ingi
tdownorr
eci
ti
ng.Al
lthesear
ecogni
ti
vepr
ocesses. Cogni
ti
oni
sther
efor
e
i
mpor
tanti
nyourdayt
odayt
odayl
i
ving.

Cogni
ti
oni
sthemostappl
i
cabl
ewayi
npsy
chol
ogi
calsub-
disci
pli
nes.Thi
sisbecause
t
ypi
cal
l
ypsy
chol
ogyi
sthest
udyoft
hinki
ngandbehav
iourandquest
ionsoft
hinki
ngi
s
att
hecor
eofev
erypsy
chol
ogi
cal
disci
pli
ne.Forexampl
e;
 Cl
i
nicalpsy
chol
ogy
:Howdepr
essedpeopl
erememberev
ent
s i
n
t
hei
rli
ves
 Neur
opsy
chol
ogi
cal
:Whathappensi
nthear
easofbr
ain
 Dev
elopment
alpsy
chol
ogy:How cogni
ti
vepr
ocessl
i
kememor
y
andr
easoni
ngchangewi
thage
 Per
sonal
i
ty:
Howper
sonal
i
tyaf
fect
sdeci
sionmaki
ng.
 Soci
alpsy
chol
ogy
:Whatf
act
orsourabi
l
ityt
orememberi
ndi
vi
dual
s?
Cogni
ti
vePsy
chol
ogyi
sal
soakeypl
ayert
oint
erdi
sci
pli
nar
yappr
oachi
nthef
iel
dof
cogni
ti
vesci
ence.Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stsadopt
edt
hecomput
erasamet
aphorf
or
mi
nd,anddescr
ibedment
alf
unct
ioni
ngi
nter
msofr
epr
esent
ati
onandcomput
ati
on.
Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyhasenabl
edbet
terunder
standi
ngofhow t
hemi
ndwor
ksasan
i
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessorandal
sot
heunder
standi
ngofl
anguageacqui
sit
ion.Si
mil
arl
y
t
hroughmodul
arappr
oach,cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyhasenabl
edbet
terunder
standi
ngof
howdi
ff
erentsubsy
stemsofcogni
ti
oncombi
net
oef
fectact
ion.

4
Hi
stor
yofcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy

Ear
lypsy
chophy
sics
Ear
ly psy
chophy
sici
stwer
e ot
hersci
ent
ist
s who cont
ri
but
ed t
othe dev
elopment
cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogy.
Psy
chophy
sics r
efer
stot
he st
udyofr
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween
phy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esofst
imul
usandpr
oper
ti
est
akenonwhent
hest
imul
usi
sfi
l
ter
ed
t
hroughsubj
ect
iveexper
ience.E.
g.Li
ghti
saphy
sicalpr
oper
tybutl
i
ghti
ntensi
tycoul
d
be subj
ect
ivel
ydet
ermi
ned byone exper
ienci
ng i
t.Br
ight
nessi
sa psy
chol
ogi
cal
di
mensi
onnotphy
sical
.

Under
standi
ngt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenphy
sicalandpsy
chol
ogi
caldi
mensi
onwasa
maj
orconcer
n ofpsy
chophy
sici
stsuch as Gust
avFechner(
1801-
1878)
.A maj
or
cont
ri
but
ionofFechnerwashi
squant
if
icat
ionoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weeni
ncomi
ng
st
imul
iandcor
respondi
ngper
cept
ion.Hedemonst
rat
edr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenchanges
i
nthephy
sical
int
ensi
tyofast
imul
usandchangesi
npsy
chol
ogi
cal
(per
cei
ved)i
ntensi
ty
ar
e notobj
ect
ive.I
ndi
vi
dual
s hav
e per
cei
ve phy
sicalst
imul
isubj
ect
ivel
y.Ot
her
psy
chophy
sici
stsuchasHer
manv
onHel
mhol
tz(
1821-
1894)i
nfl
uencedt
hedev
elopi
ng
sci
enceoft
hemi
ndt
hroughhi
swor
konv
isualper
cept
ion.Hear
guedt
hatt
hroughuse
oft
hei
nfor
mat
ionwegat
herasweper
cei
vet
hest
imul
iinourwor
ld,andpr
evi
ous
exper
ienceswemakei
nfer
encesaboutt
hewor
ld.Forexampl
e,i
fweseeacr
owdof
peopl
einsi
deaf
oot
bal
lmat
chaf
terascor
e,basedonourpr
evi
ousexper
iencewemay
i
nter
preti
tasacel
ebr
ati
onoranat
tack.Hel
mhol
tzar
guedt
hatourv
isualsy
stemsar
e
const
ant
lymaki
ngi
nfer
encesaboutt
heext
ernalwor
ldbasedoni
nfor
mat
iongat
her
ed
as wel
las pr
evi
ous exper
ience.Thr
ee i
mpor
tantpr
inci
ples can be deduced f
rom
Hel
mhol
tzconceptofunconsci
ousi
nfer
ence.Thesear
e;
 Per
cept
ion i
s notpassi
ve and t
her
efor
ethe per
cei
ver pl
ays an
i
nter
pret
iver
oleofwhati
nwhati
sper
cei
ved.
 Per
cept
ual
andcogni
ti
onpr
ocessar
einf
luencedbypr
evi
ousexper
ience
 Per
cept
ion and cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess of
ten occur out
side consci
ous
awar
eness.
Thepsy
chophy
sici
stswer
eamongt
hef
ir
stpeopl
etoappl
ythesci
ent
if
icmet
hodst
o

5
br
idge t
he phy
sicaland ment
alpr
ocess.Bot
h psy
chophy
sici
sts and cogni
ti
ve
psy
chol
ogi
star
eint
erest
edi
nhowst
imul
ati
onandi
nfor
mat
ioni
ntheout
sidewor
ldar
e
l
i
nked wi
thi
nter
nalpr
ocess,r
epr
esent
ati
on and consci
ous exper
ience.Howev
er,
psy
chophy
sici
stst
end t
ofocus on ear
lyst
ages ofhow we pr
ocess i
nfor
mat
ion,
cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
stf
ocusatal
lst
agesofi
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ng.

St
ruct
ural
ism
St
ruct
ural
i
sm isanot
herbr
anchofpsy
chol
ogyt
hatcont
ri
but
edt
ocogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
.
St
ruct
ural
i
sm Wi
l
hem Wundt(
1832-
1920)est
abl
i
shedt
hef
ir
stpsy
chol
ogi
call
abor
ator
y
wi
tht
he goalof st
udy
ing t
he mi
nd sci
ent
if
ical
l
y. Wundt used st
ruct
ural
i
sm.
St
ruct
ural
i
sm pr
oposest
hatourov
eral
lexper
iencee.
g.Exper
ienci
ngahappymoment
ar
ebasedoncombi
ningbasi
cel
ement
sofsensat
ion.Accor
dingt
othest
ruct
ural
i
sm,
el
ement
scoul
dli
kel
ybe;
a)sensat
ion(t
hebasi
csensor
ydi
mensi
onst
hatencodef
rom
t
hest
imul
ib)f
eel
ings (
emot
ionsar
ousedbyst
imul
us)andi
mages(
pur
elyment
al
r
epr
esent
ati
ons t
hatwoul
dseem sensor
yinnat
ure)
.Wundtwant
edt
ounder
standt
he
basi
cel
ement
soft
hemi
ndt
hatcombi
net
opr
ovi
deanov
eral
lexper
ience.Hesoughtt
o
usei
ntr
ospect
iont
echni
quei
nwhi
chpar
ti
cipant
swoul
ddescr
ibet
hei
rexper
iencesand
t
houghtpr
ocessi
nresponset
othest
imul
i
.Int
rospect
ioni
sapr
ocedur
ethatr
equi
res
par
ti
cipant
sto pr
ovi
de r
igor
ous unbi
ased r
epor
tofev
ery el
ementofconsci
ous
exper
iencet
hataccompani
est
hepr
esent
ati
onofsomest
imul
us.

Funct
ional
ism:TheFunct
ionofMent
alExper
iences
Thef
unct
ional
i
stappr
oachemer
gedasacr
it
iqueofst
ruct
ural
i
sm.Wi
l
li
am James(
1842
-
1910)andot
her
swer
ehi
ghl
ycr
it
icaloft
hest
ruct
ural
i
sm andar
guedf
ort
hef
ocusoft
o
beonunder
standi
ngt
hef
unct
ionoft
hemi
nd.Sowhi
l
est
ruct
ural
i
stwoul
dat
temptt
o
det
ermi
ne t
he basi
cimages,f
eel
i
ngs and sensat
ion t
hat compr
ise consci
ous
exper
iencesofbei
ngangr
y,t
hef
act
ioni
stswoul
dst
udyt
heemot
ionsuchas angerby
t
ryi
ngt
odet
ermi
net
hepur
poseorf
unct
ionofbei
ngangr
y.Gi
veni
ts emphasi
s on
ment
alpr
ocessi
ng r
athert
han t
hest
ruct
ure,f
unct
ional
i
sm had mor
einf
luenceon
cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy

Behav
ior
ism:

6
Anot
hergr
oupt
hatcont
ri
but
edt
othedev
elopmentofpsy
chol
ogywer
ethebehav
ior
ist
s.
Behav
ior
ialpsy
chol
ogi
stsl
i
ke psy
chol
ogi
stJohnB.Wat
son(
1878-
1958)suggesta
shi
ft
edf
rom consci
ousnesst
oObser
var
abl
eandmeasur
abl
ebehav
iour
.Accor
dingl
y
t
he behav
ior
istpsy
chol
ogi
stshoul
d dedi
cat
eit
sel
fto di
scov
eri
ng t
he connect
ion
bet
weent
hest
imul
usandt
her
esponse.Theyar
guedt
hatbet
weent
hest
imul
usand
t
he r
esponse t
her
eis a bl
ack box t
hathouses t
he consci
ousness St
imul
us
Response.Howev
er,
thebehav
ior
istbel
i
evedt
hati
nvest
igat
ionoft
hebl
ackboxi
sfut
il
e
si
ncei
tscont
ent
sdonotl
endt
hemsel
vest
osci
ent
if
icobser
vat
ion.Theybel
i
evedt
hat
al
thoughi
twasnotpossi
blet
ost
udyt
hemi
ndi
nthesamewayashar
dsci
ences
r
igor
ousobser
vat
ionandmeasur
ementofment
alpr
ocessi
spossi
ble
Howev
er,behav
ior
ist
swer
enotabl
etoexpl
ainal
lfor
msofl
ear
ningandt
hisl
edt
o
manyquest
ionsespeci
all
ythecompl
exbehav
ior
.Amongt
hecr
it
icswasLashel
y(1948)
whoar
guedt
hatcompl
exbehav
iorcannotbeexpl
ainedf
rom st
imul
iandr
esponse
per
spect
ive. Forexampl
e,i
ncal
cul
ati
ngmat
hemat
icalpr
obl
em i
tisnopossi
blet
o
under
standal
lthement
alpr
ocesst
hroughst
imul
iandr
esponse.

Equal
l
yfr
om l
anguageper
spect
ivef
rom t
heLanguagef
iel
d,Chomsky r
eject
edt
heS-
R
v
iew i
nthe st
udyofl
anguage.She chal
l
enged t
he concept
ual
i
zat
ion ofl
anguage
l
ear
ningf
rom anS-
Rper
spect
ivear
gui
ngt
hatt
hest
imul
icoul
dmeandi
ff
erentt
hingst
o
di
ff
erentpeopl
ethusappl
i
cat
ionofS-
Rlossesmeani
ngi
nLanguage
Shear
guedt
hatl
anguagei
nvol
vedcr
eat
ivi
tyandcompr
ehensi
ont
hatcoul
dnotal
lbe
expl
ainedt
hroughS-
R.Accor
dingl
ythepr
oduct
ivi
tyandnov
elt
yinl
anguagecanonl
ybe
expl
ainedbyappeal
i
ngt
oment
alr
epr
esent
ati
on.

Thecr
it
ici
sm aboutbehav
ior
ism poi
ntedt
o conv
ergenceofonei
mpor
tantpoi
ntt
hat
l
i
esatt
hecor
eofcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyandt
hati
sthatanysat
isf
act
oryexpl
anat
ionof
behav
iourmustt
aker
efer
encest
oment
alpr
ocessandment
alr
epr
esent
ati
ons

Lay
ingaf
oundat
ionf
orcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
Bar
tl
ett
’smemor
yResear
ch
Bar
tl
ettobj
ect
edt
otheuseoft
ight
lycont
rol
ledl
abor
ator
ypr
ocedur
esf
orr
eveal
i
ng

7
memor
y.
Hebel
i
evedi
nnat
ural
ist
icappr
oachi
nthest
udyofpsy
chol
ogy
.Fol
l
owi
ngt
hispr
inci
ple
hi
sappr
oachi
nvol
vedpr
esent
ati
onofmeani
ngf
ulmat
eri
alsr
athert
hannonsensi
cal
.In
assessi
ngpar
ti
cipant
s’memor
yofst
ori
esandf
olkt
alesBar
tl
ett(
1932)di
scov
eredf
air
amountofr
econst
ruct
ion.Hechar
act
eri
zedmemor
yasr
econst
ruct
ionr
athert
han
r
epr
oduct
ion.Ther
econst
ruct
ionwasgui
dedbyschemat
a,gener
ali
zedknowl
edge
st
ruct
uresofsi
tuat
ionsandev
ent
sbasedonexper
ience.Thi
sappr
oacht
houghnot
cont
rol
l
ed exper
imentpr
ovi
ded an al
ter
nat
ivet
o behav
ior
ism set
ti
ng a st
age f
or
sci
ent
if
icst
udyofcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy

I
nasi
mil
arat
temptt
ost
udycogni
ti
vepr
ocesssci
ent
if
ical
l
y,Ebbi
nghausPi
oneer
ed
exper
iment
son memor
y.I
nlat
e1980sheembar
ked on i
nvest
igat
ion ofhi
sown
memor
y,anexper
imentt
hatdemonst
rat
edt
hatcompl
exment
alpr
ocesscoul
dbe
submi
tt
edt
oexper
iment
alt
est
s.Hememor
izedl
i
staf
terl
i
stofnonsensesy
ll
abl
es
l
ett
ersandaf
tersomet
imet
est
edhi
msel
fonr
ecal
l
.Hecoi
nedt
hewor
dsav
ingt
oshow
t
her
educedt
imeheusedt
orecal
l
ingt
hel
i
stshehadear
li
ermemor
ized. Fr
om hi
s
exper
imenthef
oundt
hat
 r
ecal
lwasmor
edi
ff
icul
twhent
hel
isti
slong
 Ret
ent
ioni
ncr
easedwi
thr
epet
it
ion
 Hecapt
uredt
hepat
ter
noff
orget
ti
ngov
ert
imei
nwhathasbeent
ermed
t
hef
orget
ti
ngcur
ve.
Theexper
imentdemonst
rat
edt
hepossi
bil
i
tyofst
udy
ingment
alpr
ocessi
nacont
rol
l
ed
set
ti
ng t
husl
ayi
ngaf
oundat
ionf
orcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyasasci
ent
if
icst
udy
.In
gener
almanyf
iel
dshav
econt
ri
but
edt
othedev
elopmentofcogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy

Technol
ogi
cali
nfl
uence
Otherthan di
ff
erentdisci
pli
nes ofpsy
chol
ogy
,dev
elopmentoft
echnol
ogy has
cont
ri
but
ed a gr
eat dealt
o dev
elopment of cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogy
. Fr
om t
he
communi
cat
ionEngi
neer
ing,dev
icessuchasr
adi
os,TVsandt
elephonesar
eexampl
es
of i
nfor
mat
ion t
ransmi
ssi
on sy
stems t
hat hav
e hel
ped i
n under
standi
ng how
i
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocessed.I
n1948f
orexampl
e,Bel
lTel
ephonemat
hemat
ici
anCl
aude
Shannondev
elopat
heor
yofhowcommuni
cat
ionsy
stemswor
ks

8
Accor
dingt
oShannoncommuni
cat
ionchannel
shav
esev
eralkeycomponent
sincl
udi
ng
i
nfor
mat
ionsour
ce,at
ransmi
tt
er,Channelt
hroughwhi
cht
hemessagei
str
ansmi
tt
ed
andt
her
ecei
ver
.Consi
dery
our
sel
ftaki
ngt
oaf
ri
endov
ert
hephone.Yourf
ri
edi
sthe
sour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ion,t
hephonei
sthet
ransmi
tt
erandy
ouar
ether
ecei
ver
.Shannon
al
soar
guedt
hatanef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ionchannelwi
l
ltr
ansmi
tinf
ormat
ionwi
thas
muchf
idel
i
tyaspossi
blemi
nimi
zi
ngdi
stor
ti
onandt
heef
fect
sofout
sidei
nter
fer
ence
orsy
stem. I
ntheexampl
eabov
e,t
hei
nfor
mat
iont
hatwi
l
lcomet
oyouv
iay
ourphone
wi
l
lbe whaty
ourf
ri
end say
,buthow y
ou r
espond wi
l
lbe based on y
ourown
i
nter
pret
ati
on.
Shannon’
sconceptofcommuni
cat
ionpr
ovi
dedaf
rui
tf
ulmet
aphorf
orconsi
der
inghow
humant
houghtpr
ocessmi
ghtwor
kandsuggest
edway
stheymaybeanal
yzedand
i
nvest
igat
ed(
Riegl
erandRi
egl
er,
2004
Comput
erSci
ence
Comput
ersci
encewast
hesecondt
echnol
ogi
caladv
ancet
hathaddr
amat
ici
mpacton
dev
elopi
ng t
he st
udyoft
he mi
nd.Cogni
ve psy
chol
ogi
stsv
iewed t
he mi
nd as a
comput
er
Comput
ershandl
einf
ormat
ioni
nthr
eebasi
cst
ages:I
n-put
,somet
ypeofpr
ocessi
ng
andout
-put
.Thecomput
erpr
ovi
dedagooddescr
ipt
ionofhowt
hemi
ndcoul
dwor
ks.
Fori
nst
anty
our
ecei
vei
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hest
imul
ithr
oughy
oursensor
yor
gans(
Input
),
y
ourmi
ndwor
ks ont
hei
nfor
mat
ion y
our
ecei
ve(pr
ocessi
ng)andy
our
espond
(out
put
).Li
kecomput
ers,humanbei
ngscanal
sost
orei
nfor
mat
ionandr
etr
iev
ewhen
needed.Thepar
all
elsdr
awnbet
weencomput
erand humanpr
ocessi
ngofi
nfor
mat
ion
hashel
pedi
nunder
standi
nghowt
hemi
ndwor
ks.Forexampl
e, Lachman,Lachman
andBut
ter
fi
eldasci
tedbyRi
egl
erandRi
egl
er,
obser
vet
hat
 Humanandcomputeraregeneral
inf
ormat
ionpr
ocesser
s.Thi
smeanst
heycan
pr
ocessanyt
ypeofinf
ormation

 Bot
hcanperf
orm awi
dev
ari
etyoft
asksbasedonmani
pul
ati
onofi
nter
nal
pr
ocesses

 Bot
htr
ansl
atei
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
iont
odi
ff
erentf
orm

 Bot
hhav
ecapaci
tyf
orexecut
ingl
ogi
caldeci
sionchai
n

 Bot
hhav
ecapaci
tyt
ost
orepr
ogr
ammes.

9
 Usi
ngthemet
aphorofacomput
erpav
edwayf
orbet
terunder
standi
ngofment
al
pr
ocesses

PI
AGET’
STHEORYOFCOGNI
TIVEDEVEOPMENT

THECONCEPTOFTHEORY
Cogni
ti
vedev
elopmentt
akespl
acewi
thi
nfai
rl
yregul
arst
agesofdev
elopmentwhi
ch
whencar
eful
l
yexami
nedmakesense.Di
ff
erentt
heor
iest
ryt
oexpl
aincondi
ti
onsunder
whi
chdi
ff
erentst
agesdev
elopt
oenabl
edev
elopmentofcogni
ti
onatv
ari
ousst
ages.
Accor
dingt
oSki
modor
e(1979)
,at
heor
yissetofi
nter
rel
ated,abst
ractpr
oposi
ti
onor
st
atement
sthatof
feranexpl
anat
ionofsomephenomenon.Thekeywor
dsi
nthe
def
ini
ti
onar
e pr
oposi
ti
onwhi
char
est
atement
saboutar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weensome
el
ement
s ofa t
heor
y. Pi
aget
’s cogni
ti
vet
heor
yther
efor
e pr
oposes st
ages and
condi
ti
onst
hroughwhi
chcogni
ti
vepr
ocessdev
elop.

Pi
aget
stheor
yofcogni
ti
vedevel
opment
Pi
agetwasaSwi t
zebiologyschol
arwhost
udi
edchi
l
dren’
scogni
ti
vedev
elopment
ext
ensi
vel
y.Hedi
sagr
eedwi
tht
hosewhosawi
ntel
l
igenceascompr
isi
nganumberof
f
ixedchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatcoul
dbemeasur
ed.Hi
sbasi
cideawast
hatoursensest
akei
n
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom out
sidewor
ld,ourbr
ainspr
ocessandst
oret
hisi
nfor
mat
ionandour
behav
iourchangesasar
esul
tofi
t.
Thi
spr
ocessi
scal
l
edcogni
ti
on.
Piagetbel
i
evedt
hat
genet
icmake-
uppr
epar
esev
eryani
mali
ncl
udi
nghumanbei
ngst
oli
veandbehav
ein
cer
tai
nway
s.Accor
dingl
y,humansl
ear
nandhav
emanyway
sofadapt
ingt
ovar
ious
si
tuat
ionsDav
enpor
t,1988)
.Het
her
efor
epr
oposedt
hatt
ounder
standt
hehumanmi
nd
weshoul
dst
artatbi
rt
h

Pi
agetobser
vedt
hathumani
nfant
sar
ebor
nwi
thaf
ew r
efl
exest
hathel
pthem t
o
sur
viv
eint
hef
ir
stmont
hsofl
i
fe.
Aref
lexi
sanyact
iont
hati
str
igger
edbysome
st
imul
us.Ther
efl
exesar
euncont
rol
l
abl
eandsot
heyar
einv
olunt
aryr
esponsest
o
par
ti
cul
arst
imul
i
.Pi
agetobser
vedt
hathumani
nfant
sar
ebor
nwi
thaf
ewr
efl
exest
hat
hel
pthem t
osur
viv
eint
hef
ir
stmont
hsofl
i
fe.
Aref
lexi
sanyact
iont
hati
str
igger
edby

10
somest
imul
us.Ther
efl
exesar
euncont
rol
l
abl
eandsot
heyar
einv
olunt
aryr
esponsest
o
par
ti
cul
arst
imul
i
.Def
ini
tel
yyouwi
l
ldr
opi
twi
thoutt
hinki
ngt
wice.Thi
sisr
efl
exact
ion.
I
tsav
esy
ouf
rom bur
ningy
ourhandbadl
y.Sor
efl
exesar
emai
nlyf
orsur
viv
al.
Fr
om r
efl
exact
ionst
hement
alpr
ocessdev
elopsi
nchi
l
dreni
ndi
ff
erentst
agesas
chi
l
drengr
ow ol
der
.Ther
efor
efr
om di
ff
erentexper
ienceschi
l
drenconst
ructt
hei
rown
knowl
edgef
rom exper
iment
ingast
heyi
nter
actwi
tht
hei
rwor
ld.

I
nvari
antfunct
ionsandv ari
antst
ruct
ures
Accor
dingtoPiagetthi
nkingdevel
opsthrought
hesamesequenceofst
ages.I
tst
art
s
wi
thsi
mpl
ement
alst
ruct
urescal
l
edschemas.Thef
ir
stschemasar
eforr
efl
exes.Fr
om
r
efl
exeschi
l
drendev
elopt
hinki
ngpr
ocessgr
adual
l
yast
hegr
ow.Thef
ir
stmodeof
t
hinki
ng i
s concer
ned wi
tht
he babi
es senses and wi
thl
ear
ning t
o cont
rolt
hei
r
mov
ement
sfort
hef
ir
stf
ewy
ear
s.Fort
hef
ir
stf
ewy
ear
sthi
nki
ngi
smai
nlyaboutt
he
babi
esownneedsandi
tis qui
tei
l
logi
cal buti
mpr
oveswi
thy
ear
s.Byar
oundt
heage
ofsev
en chi
l
dren st
artt
hinki
ng aboutt
hei
ract
ions and consequences f
orot
her
peopl
e.Accor
dingt
oPi
agett
het
hinki
ngdev
elopmentofcogni
ti
oni
ssequent
ialand
f
ixat
edandal
lchi
l
drenwi
l
lgot
hrought
hesameor
der
.Hedescr
ibedt
hesequenceas
i
nvar
iant
.

Knowl
edgeofi
nvar
iantst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopmenti
nchi
l
dreni
scr
uci
alf
ormany
r
easonsandi
sappl
i
edf
orpl
anni
ngdi
ff
erentact
ivi
ti
esandser
vicesf
ordi
ff
erentgr
oups
ofpeopl
eindi
ff
erentf
iel
dsofl
i
fe.Forexampl
e,i
naschoolset
ti
ngknowl
edgeof
i
nvar
iantdev
elopmenthel
psi
npl
anni
ngandpr
ovi
ding l
ear
ningact
ivi
ti
esofchi
l
dreni
n
di
ff
erentst
agesofdev
elopment
.Ithel
psi
npl
acementandev
endev
elopmentofpl
ay
mat
eri
als.Schoolpsy
chol
ogi
stsar
eabl
etoi
dent
if
ychi
l
drenwi
thl
ear
ningdi
sabi
l
iti
es
basedonknowl
edgeofi
nvar
iantdev
elopment
.Inheal
thset
ti
ngst
heknowl
edgeof
i
nvar
iantdev
elopmenthas hel
ped i
n dev
elopmentoft
reat
ment
,dr
ugs and ev
en
admi
nist
eri
ngdr
ugdosagef
orpeopl
eofdi
ff
erentages.Cany
out
hinkofhowbusi
ness
communi
ty may use knowl
edge ofi
nvar
iantdev
elopment
.Whataboutr
eli
gious

11
communi
ti
escant
heybei
nfor
medbyi
nvar
iantdev
elopmentpr
ocess.
Var
iantcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
Al
thoughst
agesofi
nvar
iantdev
elopmenti
ndi
vi
dual
shav
edi
ff
erentexper
iencesand
wi
l
llear
nthesamet
hingsdi
ff
erent
ly.Accor
dingl
y,eachi
ndi
vi
dual
’
scogni
ti
oni
sar
esul
t
ofcount
lessi
deasasar
esul
tofdi
ff
erentexper
ienceswhi
chl
eadst
o v
ari
antcogni
ti
ve
dev
elopment
. Some exper
iences ar
e st
imul
ati
ng l
eadi
ng t
ofastdev
elopmentof
chi
l
dren’
scogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.A t
woy
earchi
l
dwhogr
owsupi
nanenv
ironmentf
ull
oft
oysandwi
thf
ri
endl
ysoci
alsuppor
tisl
i
kel
ytodev
elopf
ast
er,
impr
ove/
shar
pent
hei
r
cogni
ti
ve dev
elopmentt
han one who gr
ow up i
n a poorphy
sicaland soci
al
env
ironment
.Inaddi
ti
ondi
ff
erentcommunalset
ti
ngwi
l
lexposechi
l
drent
odi
ff
erent
exper
ienci
ngi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hei
rschemat
a.Dependi
ngont
heenv
ironmentt
hroughwhi
ch
chi
l
drengr
ow,
theyl
ear
ntocompr
ehendandconcept
ual
i
zedi
ff
erentaspect
sinl
i
fe.For
exampl
e,peopl
efr
om di
ff
erentenv
ironment
swi
l
lut
il
izesamer
esour
cesdi
ff
erent
ly
dependi
ngonexposur
e. I
magi
ney
ouhav
eonehundr
edandf
if
tyt
housandKeny
a
shi
l
li
ngsandy
ouwantt
ogi
vet
othr
eepeopl
efr
om di
ff
erentcul
tur
alset
ti
ngs.Theycan
uset
hemoneyi
nthewayt
heywant
.Ify
ougav
ethemoneyt
opeopl
efr
om di
ff
erent
et
hni
ccul
tur
essuchas Masai
,LuoandKi
kuy
uofKeny
a,woul
dtheyuset
hemoneyi
n
t
he same way
? Based on Pi
aget
’s cogni
ti
ve dev
elopment t
heor
y,di
ff
erent
env
ironment
sexposespeopl
etodi
ff
erentexper
iencest
hatl
eadst
odev
elopmentof
ment
alst
ruct
uret
hroughwhi
chi
taf
fect
sourbehav
ior
.Thi
sist
hev
ari
antdev
elopment

Pi
agetobser
vedt
hatt
her
ear
etwot
ypesofv
ari
antment
alst
ruct
ures.Thesear
ecal
l
ed
schemasandoper
ati
ons.Schemasar
ement
alr
epr
esent
ati
onsaboutwhatt
hingsar
e
andhow wedealwi
tht
hem.Theyar
eacqui
redf
rom di
ff
erentenv
ironment
sthatwe
i
nter
actwi
th.Oper
ati
onsar
ement
alst
ruct
uret
hatal
l
owust
ocombi
neschemasi
nan
or
der
lysensi
bleandl
ogi
calmannere.
g.gazi
ngandr
eachi
ngandgr
aspi
ngi
nor
dert
o
pi
ckupsomet
hing(Dev
ort
,1988)
. Thi
sal
l
owsast
ooper
atei
nourenv
ironment
s.
Thesement
alst
ruct
uresgr
ow ov
ert
hey
ear
s.Aschi
l
dren gr
ow t
hei
rexper
iences
br
oadensot
heywi
l
lbeabl
etohandl
eincr
easi
ngl
ydi
ff
icul
toper
ati
ons.Ther
efor
eol
der
chi
l
drenar
eabl
etohandl
emor
ecompl
exoper
ati
ons.

12
Thebr
oadeni
ngofdi
ff
erentment
alpr
ocessoccur
sthr
oughl
ear
ningaswei
nter
actwi
th
ourenv
ironment
.Lear
ning accor
ding t
o Pi
ageti
s a pr
ocess ofadapt
ing t
othe
env
ironment
.Hebel
i
evedt
hati
ntel
l
igencewasal
laboutmaki
ngappr
opr
iat
eadapt
ati
on
t
othi
ngsar
oundourenv
ironmentqui
ckl
yandef
fi
cient
ly.Adapt
ati
oni
nvol
vedt
aki
ngi
n,
pr
ocessi
ngandusi
ngt
henew i
nfor
mat
ioni
nappr
opr
iat
eway
. Fort
hist
ooccur
,it
r
equi
rest
hatwet
akei
n t
he mai
nel
ement
sofasi
tuat
ioncal
l
edassi
mil
ati
onand
modi
fyi
ngschemast
hroughapr
ocesscal
ledaccommodat
ion.Toadaptourt
hinki
ng
t
othi
ngswewantt
odoi
naspeci
fi
cwaychi
l
drenmustor
gani
zet
hei
rexper
iences.The
ment
alor
gani
zat
ioni
nvol
vesi
ntel
l
igence,memor
ye.
t.
c.Wi
thoutment
alor
gani
zat
ions
wewi
l
lfi
nd i
tdi
ff
icul
ttol
ear
n new exper
iences.For
tunat
elysomeofourment
al
or
gani
zat
ionsi
saut
omat
icand t
her
efor
ewedo nothav
eto spend al
otoft
ime
or
gani
zi
ngourexper
iences.
Knowl
edge ofi
nvar
iantdev
elopmenthas al
so been used wi
del
yacr
oss di
ff
erent
di
sci
pli
nes. I
naschoolset
ti
ngknowl
edgeofi
nvar
iantdev
elopmenthasbeenusedt
o
desi
gnandor
gani
zeenv
ironmentt
oimpr
ovel
ear
ning.Cany
out
hinkofhowknowl
edge
ofi
nvar
iantdev
elopmenthasbeenusedi
nheal
thset
ti
ngs?

St
agesofdev
elopment
Pi
agetpr
oposedf
ourst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.Thesei
ncl
udeSensor
ymot
or
st
age,Pr
e-oper
ati
onalst
age,Concr
eteoper
ati
onalst
ageandf
ormaloper
ati
onst
age.
Qual
i
tat
ivechangesoccuri
nchi
l
drenofdi
ff
erentagesatdi
ff
erentst
ages.Chi
l
drenat
di
ff
erentst
agest
hinki
ndi
ff
erentway
sandt
het
ypeoft
hinki
ngi
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
he
cont
entar
easi
nthest
age.Tr
ansi
ti
onst
ohi
gherst
agesoft
hinki
ngar
enotnecessar
il
y
cont
inuous,butt
hesequencesofst
agesar
est
abl
eforal
lpeopl
ethr
oughal
lti
me.
St
ages ar
e not ski
pped. The t
abl
e bel
ow shows dev
elopment
alst
ages and
dev
elopmentpr
ocesst
hatoccuri
nthest
ages.

Piaget
’sf
ourstagesofint
ell
ect
ualdevel
opment
age st
age char
acteri
sti
cs
0- Sensorymotor  Ref l
exi
vebehavi
our
2years st age  Learnst ousel
imbsandmuscl esformovement
 Ref l
exi
veschemasprovi
desoluti
onstoexper
iences
i
nthef i
rstf
ewweeks.Hecal
ledthisact
ion

13
 schemas
 Egocentri
candunabl etoanybodiesneedsor
i
nterests
 Babiesstartt
olearnaboutobjectsandwhatthey
canbemadet odo
 Assimil
ationandaccommodat ion
 Beginni
ngt ounderst
andhowt hingscancause
others.
 Buil
dingofment alst
ruct
ures
 Feeli
ngandst udyi
ngobjects
 Expandedexisti
ngactionschemas
 Objectpermanence

2-7 Pr
e-oper
ati
onal Symbolizati
on
years st
age  Al l
owingthingst ostandforother
 Expandedv ocabulary
 Expandedi magi nati
on
Egocentri
sm
 Chi ldr
enseet hingsonlyfrom therownper specti
ve
Animism
 Abel i
efthatev eryt
hingthatexist
shassome
consciousness
 Thechi l
drenbelievethateveryt
hingfeelspain
Moralreali
sm
 Chi l
drenbelievethatthewayt heyv i
ewthingstobe
wrongorr i
ghtwi l
lbesharedbyot hers.
 Theydi scoverhowchi ldr
enofv ariousagesr egar
d
r
ules

7-11 Concrete Thinkingbecomesoper ati

onal i
.e.morer at
ionalandadul t
year
s operat
ional l
ike.Theper iodi sdiv
idedi nt wost ages
stage  Concr et
eoper ational
Chi l
dr enthinklogicall
y,theycanmani pulateobj ects
 For maloper at
ional;
Theydev el
opabst r
actlear ningandcanmani pulate
thought s
Duringconcr et
est ageegocent r
icdeclinessoi sthebel i
ef
i
nani mi sm
I
deasaboutobj ect
sar edomi nat edbyhowobj ectsappear .
Theyl er anaboutconser vationi .
e.objectsarenotal way s
whatt heyappeart obe
Conser vat i
on:tobeabl et ot hinkaboutsev eralfeatures
Theyl ear n
 Conser v ati
onofv olume
 conser v
at i
onofnumber s

14
  conser vat
ionoflength
 conser vat
ionofmass
11-16 Formal Moreadultlike
years operat
ionst
age Candependmor eoni deasratherthanmani pul
ateobj
ect
s
Abstr
actthinkinge.g.mentalmathemat i
cs
Teenagersthinkofmor alphi
losophical
issues
Thi
st akessev er
alyears.

RESEARCHMETHODSI
NCOGNI
TIVEPSYCHOLOGY

Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyi
sasci
enceand sci
ent
if
icmet
hodsar
eusedi
nthest
udy
.Al
l
sci
ent
if
icr
esear
chseekst
odescr
ibe,expl
ain,pr
edi
ctandmodi
fysomeset
soft
he
pr
obl
em t
heyaddr
ess.Resear
chi
ncogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyi
snodi
ff
erent
.Ther
esear
cher
s
usedi
ff
erentdesi
gnst
odescr
ibe,expl
ain,pr
edi
ctandmodi
fyt
hepr
ocessoft
hemi
nd.
Toachi
evet
hegoal
sofcogni
ti
ver
esear
chi
schal
l
engi
ngsi
ncemostment
al\
process
ar
enotobser
vabl
e.Theexi
stenceofmostt
hement
alpr
ocesssuchasmemor
ymust
bei
nfer
redbasedonbehav
iourt
hati
sobser
vabl
e.Toachi
evet
hiscogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
cr
eat
ivel
ydesi
gnt
hest
udi
esusi
ngdi
ff
erentmet
hods

Resear
chmet
hods
Resear
chi
sasci
enceandt
her
efor
eresear
chmet
hodsar
eunder
pinnedbysci
ent
if
ic
pr
inci
ples.Sci
ent
if
icmet
hodshencer
esear
char
e sy
stemat
ic,cont
rol
l
edempi
ri
cal
andai
m atcr
it
icali
nvest
igat
ionofhy
pot
het
ical(
Imagi
nar
y)pr
oposi
ti
onsaboutt
he
pr
esumedr
elat
ions(
Cohenetal2000)
.Resear
chi
s al
soacont
rol
l
edi
nvest
igat
ion:
t
hisr
efer
stot
heneedf
orr
esear
cher
stousedi
ff
erentt
echni
quesandpr
ocedur
est
o
i
sol
ateandt
estoneormor
evar
iabl
esoft
heal
l
egedi
nfl
uence.Thesci
ent
ist
sar
e
awar
eofmul
ti
pli
cit
yof f
act
orst
hatmi
ghti
nfl
uenceanoccur
rence;hencet
hey
at
temptt
oappl
ycont
rolmeasur
es.Byi
sol
ati
ngt
heoccur
renceandt
hent
est
ing
v
ari
abl
esoft
hei
nter
estt
her
esear
cher
sar
eabl
etomakeaccur
ateobser
vat
ions.
Sci
encesear
chesf
orcausesi
nthepr
obl
em t
hest
udyaddr
esses.Fur
thersci
encei
s

15
 pr
ovi
sionaland t
her
efor
e al
lthe sci
ent
if
icf
indi
ngs ar
etent
ati
ve I
n addi
ti
on
sci
ent
ist
sst
ri
vef
orobj
ect
ivi
ty..Char
act
eri
sti
csofsci
ent
if
icmet
hodsar
eout
li
ned
i
nthet
abl
ebel
ow

Summar
yofChar
act
eri
sti
csofsci
ence

Charact
eri
sti
c Int
erpret ation
Empiri
cal Sciencei sbasedondi rectobser v at
ion
Syst
emat i
c Thepr ocedur esusedbysci entistsareorganized,methodological,
andpubl icandr ecogni zedbyot herscientist
s.
Searchforcauses Sci entistassumest hatt hereisor derintheuniverse,thatthereare
sustainabl ereasonsf oroccur renceofal leventsandt hatscience
canbeusedt odiscov ert heorder l
yoft hewor ld
Scienceis Scientifi
cconcl usionar eal waysaccept edast entat
iveandsubj ect
provisi
onal toquest i
onandpossi bler efut
at i
on.
Sciencestri
vesfor Scientistsav oidattempt sofhav i
ngt hei
rownper sonal bi
asesand
objecti
vit
y val
uesi nfluencethei rscient i
fi
cconcl usi
ons

These ar
ethe char
act
eri
sti
cs t
hatshoul
d gov
erny
ou as y
ou under
take st
udy
ing
cogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Thi
shast
hei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatal
lmet
hodsusedi
nst
udy
ingshoul
dbe
under
pinnedbyt
hesesci
ent
if
icpr
inci
ples.

Descr
ipt
iver
esear
ch
Descr
ipt
iver
esear
chast
henamesuggest
sai
msatdescr
ibi
ng t
hesetofphenomenon
underi
nvest
igat
ion.Descr
ipt
ivest
udi
esar
emai
nlyunder
takeni
nthenat
ural
set
ti
ngwi
th
mi
nimalcont
rol
s.Theyi
ncl
udedesi
gnssuchasnat
ural
i
sti
cobser
vat
ions,
casest
udi
es,
sur
vey
sandsel
frepor
ts.Thi
smet
hods canhel
pyoudescr
ibe t
arget
edbehav
iourt
hat
i
srel
atedt
ocogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Ev
ent
hought
heyar
eli
mit
edi
nexpl
aini
ngwhybehav
iour
occur
s,t
heyr
emai
nimpor
tanti
ncogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogybecauset
heyser
veasspr
ing
boar
dforexper
iment
alr
esear
ch.

Nat
ural
i
sti
cobser
vat
ions

Nat
ural
i
sti
cinv
olv
esobser
vat
ionofbehav
iori
nit
snat
uralset
ti
nguni
nfl
uencedbyt
he
r
esear
cher
.Theyar
edescr
ipt
ivei
nnat
ureandt
her
efor
edonotal
l
ow i
nfer
ences.Thi
s

16
met
hodpr
ovi
desmeansofst
udy
ingpsy
chol
ogi
calconst
ruct
sthatcannotbecont
rol
l
ed.
Forexampl
e,ar
esear
chermaywat
chchi
l
drenpl
ayi
ng amat
hemat
icalgame t
ofi
nd
outi
fpl
ayenhancesdev
elopmentofmat
hemat
icalski
l
ls.Nat
ural
i
sti
cobser
vat
ionsar
e
ext
remel
yimpor
tanti
nini
ti
alst
ages t
ogai
nideasaboutt
hepr
obl
em ofi
nter
est
.
Nat
ural
i
sti
cobser
vat
ioni
simpor
tanti
npsy
chol
ogybecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
 Theyar
eimpor
tantpar
tincol
l
ect
ingdat
ainpsy
chol
ogy
 Theypr
ovi
deamaj
orpar
tofdat
abaset
hatcanl
eadt
osubsequentmor
ehi
ghl
y
cont
rol
l
edr
esear
ch
 Hel
psdescr
ibet
het
hought
sandbehav
iorofor
gani
sm
 Obser
vingper
mit
sagener
ali
mpr
essi
onoft
hechar
act
eri
sti
csandt
her
angeof
behav
ior
Howev
er,
li
keanyot
herdescr
ipt
ivest
udi
es,
theyar
eli
mit
edi
nexpl
aint
hecausalf
act
ors
andhow di
ff
erentbehav
ioroccur
s.Theyar
epr
onet
oconf
oundi
ngbecauseofl
ackof
anycont
rol

Casest
udi
es
Casest
udi
esar
eint
ensi
vei
nvest
igat
ionofasi
ngl
ecaseorsmal
lnumberofcases of
somesoughtsuchasaneur
oti
cpat
ient
s,Aspi
ri
tualmedi
um,
Acl
ass aut
ist
icchi
l
dren.
Casest
udi
eshav
epl
ayedamaj
orr
olei
nbr
ainr
esear
ch.I
ndi
vi
dualwhohav
esuf
fer
ed
br
ain damagehav
ebeen st
udi
ed and t
hishaspr
ovi
ded i
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
ion on
di
ff
erentment
alpr
ocess.Amnesi
cpeopl
ewhohav
elostmuchoft
hei
rmemor
yduet
o
t
raumahav
epr
ovi
ded i
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
ion ont
hemechani
smsunder
lyi
ngmemor
y.
I
ngener
alcasest
udi
eshav
ethef
oll
owi
ngst
rengt
hs
Pr
ovi
desi
n-dept
hinf
ormat
ionaboutt
hecaseunderst
udy
Theycat
chuni
quef
eat
urest
hatmayot
her
wisebel
osti
nlar
gescal
edat
a
Theyar
est
rongonr
eal
i
ty
Pr
ovi
desi
nsi
ght
sint
oot
hersi
mil
arsi
tuat
ion
Theycanbeunder
takenbyasi
ngl
eresear
cher
Ther
esul
tsar
emor
eeasi
l
yunder
stood
Howev
er,
casest
udi
eshav
eal
soweakness.Thesei
ncl
ude
 Ther
esul
tsmaynotbegener
ali
zed

17
  Theyar
enoteasi
l
yopent
ocr
osschecki
ng
 Theyar
epr
onet
othepr
obl
emsofobser
verbi
as
 Thear
edescr
ipt
iveanddonotal
l
owi
nfer
ences

Sur
vey
s
Sur
vey
sar
e descr
ipt
iver
esear
cht
hat i
susedt
ost
udy condi
ti
onsorr
elat
ions t
hat
exi
st,pr
act
icest
hatpr
evai
l
,andgener
albel
i
efs,opi
nionsand pr
efer
ences.Sur
vey
s
ar
echar
act
eri
zedwi
thl
argesampl
eswhi
chmakest
hem at
tract
ivet
omanyr
esear
cher
s.
Cogni
ti
ver
esear
cher
scanconductsur
veyf
orexampl
etost
udyl
ear
ningcondi
ti
onsof
chi
l
drenl
ear
ningdi
ff
erentenv
ironment
sandcompar
ethei
rlear
ningout
comet
oenabl
e
t
hem descr
ibeenv
ironmentf
orl
ear
ning.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofsur
vey
.Thesear
e
l
ongi
tudi
nal
orcr
osssect
ional
sur
vey.

Longi
tudi
nalast
het
erm suggest
sisusedt
odescr
ibeav
ari
etyofst
udi
esconduct
ed
ov
erper
iodoft
ime.Thedesi
gn gat
her
sdat
aov
erext
endedper
iodoft
imemai
nly
dev
elopment
al.Shor
tter
minv
est
igat
ionmayt
akesev
eralweeksormont
hswhi
l
elong
t
erm goesov
ery
ear
s.Longi
tudi
nalsur
vey
sar
eimpor
tanti
nunder
standi
ng st
agesof
dev
elopment
.

Cr
osssect
ionalsur
vey
sar
edesi
gnedt
ost
udydi
ff
erentr
espondent
satt
hesamet
ime
oratdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsi
nti
meacr
ossdi
ff
erentgr
oups.Theycoul
dbeusedt
ost
udyf
or
exampl
edev
elopmenti
nchi
l
drenacr
osscul
tur
est
ounder
standt
hei
nfl
uenceofcul
tur
e
oncogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.Var
iantdev
elopmentofcogni
ti
vedev
elopmenti
nchi
l
dren
canbenef
itf
rom cr
osssect
ional
sur
vey
s.
Sur
veyst
udi
eshav
ebot
hst
rengt
hsandweakness.Thest
rengt
hsofsur
veyi
ncl
ude:
Gat
her
sdat
aononeshot
-basi
s,hencei
tsi
seconomi
cal
Gener
ati
onofnumer
ical
dat
a
Pr
ovi
desdescr
ipt
ivedat
a,
Gat
her
sst
andar
dizedi
nfor
mat
ion
Thef
indi
ngscoul
dbegener
ali
zedt
oal
argerpopul
ati
on
Pr
esent
sdat
athatcanbeusedt
odev
elophy
pot
hesi
sfort
est
ing

18
Theweaknessi
ncl
ude
Resul
tsar
edescr
ipt
ivei
nnat
uresocannotbeusedf
ori
nfer
ences
Cannotbeusedt
ost
udypsy
chol
ogi
cal
const
ruct
sincont
rol
l
edenv
ironment
Li
mit
edi
ncol
l
ect
ingi
n-dept
hinf
ormat
ion

Cor
rel
ati
onMet
hods

Thi
sa r
esear
ch met
hod t
hati
sused t
o det
ermi
nest
her
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween
v
ari
abl
es,e.
g.t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenl
ear
ningandchangeofbehav
ior
,di
ff
erent
emot
ionsandassoci
atedbehav
ior e.
t.
c.Cor
rel
ati
ons st
udi
es ar
eint
endedt
o
answert
hreebasi
cquest
ionsaboutt
wov
ari
abl
esunderst
udy
 I
sther
ear
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es

 Whati
sthedi
rect
ionoft
hisr
elat
ionshi
p?-i
sitnegat
ive,
posi
ti
veorcur
vil
i
near
I
nnegat
iver
elat
ionshi
ps:t
hei
ncr
easei
nonev
ari
abl
eisaccompani
edbydecr
ease
i
ntheot
her
.Forexampl
e,exampl
eincogni
ti
vepr
ocess,i
ncr
easei
nabi
l
itycoul
dbe
negat
ivel
ycor
rel
atedwi
thr
educt
ioni
nmaki
nger
ror
sinmat
hemat
icexer
cises.On
t
heot
herhandi
nPosi
ti
vecor
rel
ati
on:wher
ethet
wov
ari
abl
esf
luct
uat
eori
ncr
ease
i
nthesamedi
rect
ion.Forex
ampl
e,t
hei
ncr
easei
n agei
scoul
d beposi
ti
vel
y
cor
rel
atedwi
thi
ncr
easedment
aldev
elopment
.Ther
elat
ionshi
pint
het
wocasesi
s
l
i
near
.Howev
er,i
nsomecasest
her
elat
ionshi
pismani
fest
edi
ncur
vil
i
nearmodel
e.
g.-Li
tt
lest
ressi
ncr
easesper
for
manceandasst
ressi
ncr
easesi
t debi
l
itat
es
per
for
mance

Theot
herquest
iont
hati
sanswer
edi
ncor
rel
ati
onst
udi
esi
s.Whati
sthemagni
tude
oft
her
elat
ionshi
p?(
stat
ist
icalanal
ysi
sisappl
i
ed Pear
son’
spr
oduct moment
coef
fi
cientofcor
rel
ati
oni
sused-
1.0-+1.
0).Thecoef
fi
cienti
srepr
esent
edbyt
he
sy
mbol
(r)
St
rengt
hsofcor
rel
ati
onmet
hods
 Theyhel
pest
abl
i
shr
elat
ionsbet
weenv
ari
abl
esunderst
udy
.
 Al
l
owsst
udyofr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenv
ari
abl
es
 Theanal
ysi
sisdonei
nfor
m ofcor
rel
ati
oncoef
fi
cient
,ther
efor
einf
erencescan
19
 bemade
 Hel
psi
dent
if
ysomeoft
hef
act
orsl
eadi
ngt
obehav
ior
alchange
WeaknessofCor
rel
ati
onmet
hods
Cor
rect
ionsst
udi
esdonotal
l
owcont
rol
oft
hei
nter
veni
ngv
ari
abl
es
Ev
enhi
ghcor
rel
ati
onscanbeacci
dent
alandnotl
i
nkedt
ooneanot
her
Resear
cher
scannoti
nfercausalef
fectbecauseofconf
oundi
ngef
fect
sofot
her
v
ari
abl
es

Exper
iment
almet
hods
Exper
iment
alr
esear
chi
sacont
rol
l
edmet
hodofobser
vat
ioni
nwhi
cht
hev
alueofone
ormor
eindependentv
ari
abl
eischangedi
nor
dert
oassesst
hecausalef
fectononeor
mor
edependentv
ari
abl
e.Owi
ngt
othecont
rolaf
for
dedbyexper
iment
stheyar
ethe
sur
estmet
hodofobser
vingcausalr
elat
ionshi
psamongv
ari
abl
es.Thest
rengt
hof
exper
iment
sasar
esear
chdesi
gni
sthatt
heyar
edesi
gnedt
omakeusabl
etomake
i
nfer
ences.Hol
dingcondi
ti
onsconst
anti
sthet
echni
quer
esear
cher
suset
o av
oid
conf
oundi
ng.Thef
act
orshel
d const
antcannotco-
var
ywi
thi
ntended i
ndependent
v
ari
abl
e(i
tdoesnotchange)
.Ther
efor
eresear
cher
schooset
o cont
rolonl
ythose
f
act
orst
hatt
hey t
hinkmi
ghti
nfl
uencet
hebehav
iourt
heyar
est
udy
ing(
apl
ausi
ble
al
ter
nat
ivecause)
.
Logi
cofexper
iment
s

Experi
mental
I
ndependentvari
abl
es
contr
ol
Dependentvar
iabl
e
- gai
ned
thr
ough
manipul
ati
on
Vali
dity Confoundi
ng
I
nternalvalidity Whenalter
native
Cov ari
ation-relati
onshipbetweenIVandDV expl
anati
onofexists
Ti
me- orderr elati
onship i
nter
nalvali
dit
ylacks
El
iminationofpl ausi
blealt
ernat
ivecauses

Ther
ear
emanyexper
iment
aldesi
gnst
hatr
esear
cher
scanuse.Thesei
ncl
ude:
3.
5.1I
NDEPENDENTGROUPDESI
GNS

20
Ani
ndependentgr
oupdesi
gnal
soknownasbet
weensubj
ect
sdesi
gnr
efer
stodesi
gns
wher
ear
esear
cheri
stest
ing t
wo i
ndependentgr
oups.I
nthi
sdesi
gneachgr
oup
r
epr
esent
sdi
ff
erentcondi
ti
onsasdef
inedbyt
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
e.Thi
scoul
dbean
exper
iment
algr
oupandcont
rolgr
ouport
woormor
eexper
iment
algr
oupsandacont
rol
gr
oup.Ther
esul
tsf
rom t
het
wogr
oupsi
smeasur
edt
oascer
tai
nift
her
eisasi
gni
fant
di
ff
erence.

REPEATEDMEASURESDESIGN
Al
soknownaswit
hinsubj
ect
sdesi
gni
sanot
herexper
iment
aldesi
gnt
hatcoul
dbeused
i
nresear
ch.Ast
henamesuggest
s,i
nthi
sdesi
gn each subj
ect
stakepar
tin al
l
condi
ti
onsofexper
iment
.Unl
i
kei
ndependentgr
oupdesi
gnt
hathasacont
rolgr
oup,i
n
r
epeat
edmeasur
essubj
ect
sser
veast
hei
rowncont
rol
.

FACTORI
ALDESI
GNSCANALSOBEUSEDI NRESEARCH.
Thi
sisadesi
gnt
hatt
akei
ntoconsi
der
ati
onthatmanyf
act
orscani
nfl
uenceagi
ven
behav
iororphenomenon.Resear
cher
sther
efor
eof
tenconductst
udi
est
oinv
est
igat
e
mor
ethanonef
act
or.I
nfact
ori
aldesi
gneachpossi
blecombi
nat
ionoft
woi
ndependent
v
ari
abl
esconst
it
utesoneoft
heexper
iment
alcondi
ti
ons.Forexampl
e, i
ncogni
ti
ve
psy
chol
ogyexper
imenty
oumi
ghtwantt
ost
udyf
act
orst
hat enhancememor
y.Thi
s
coul
dber
ehear
sal
,ty
peofencodi
ng,r
epet
it
ion orl
ear
ningmet
hods.
.Al
lthi
scoul
d
donei
none st
udyt
oest
abl
i
shper
hapshoweachcont
ri
but
est
omemor
y.Theywi
l
lal
l
bet
est
edasi
ndependentv
ari
abl
eswhi
l
ememor
ywi
l
lbet
hedependentv
ari
abl
e.

QUASIEXPERIMENT
Quasiexper
iment
sar
ebestal
ter
nat
ivewhenat
rueexper
imenti
snotv
iabl
e.Thet
erm
quasir
efer
stohav
ingsomebutnotal
loft
hef
eat
uresofanexper
iment
.Thi
smeans
t
hati
tresembl
esanexper
imentbutdoesnothav
eal
lfeat
uresofanexper
iment
.For
i
nst
ancequasiexper
iment
slacksomedegr
eeofcont
rol
;i
tmaysomet
imesl
ackcont
rol
gr
oupsorcompar
isongr
oupsandi
ncer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancest
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
eis
notat
rul
ymani
pul
ated. I
ncogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
,youmaywantt
ost
udydi
ff
erent
appr
oachesi
npr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.I
sitnotpossi
blet
hatt
het
ocont
rolal
ltheunder
lyi
ng
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng? Ar
eyouabl
etomani
pul
atet
hement
alpr
ocessi
nvol
ved?Ther
efor
e
exper
iment
ingwi
thdi
ff
erentondi
ff
erentmet
hodsofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngmaybe possi
ble

21
butl
i
mit
edi
ncont
roli
ssues.Justl
i
ket
rueexper
iment
sther
ear
eal
sodi
ff
erentt
ypesof
quasi
exper
iment
aldesi
gns.Thi
sincl
ude

SINGLEGROUPPOST-TESTONLYDESI
GN
I
trefer
stosi
ngl
egrouptowhichsometr
eat
menti
sgi
ven.Forexampl
ear
esear
cher
maywi
sht
otestt
heef
fect
ivenessofat
eachi
ngmet
hodononmemor
y..Thegr
oup
coul
dbeexposedt
othet
eachi
ng met
hod.Thegr
oupi
sthenassessedon dependent
v
ari
abl
ewhi
chcoul
dber
emember
ing.
Test
ingont
heef
fect
ivenessoft
eachi
ngmet
hod
i
nthi
scasemaynotr
equi
reacompar
isongr
ou

SI
NGLEGROUPPRETEST/
POSTTESTDESI
GN

Thi
sisani
mpr
ovementov
erpost
-t
estonl
ydesi
gn.Thedependentv
ari
abl
eismeasur
ed
bef
oret
reat
mentandaf
tert
reat
ment
.Thet
womeasur
esar
ethencompar
ed

SINGLEGROUPTIMESERI
ESDESI GN
I
tinvol
vessi
ngl
egroupofpar
ti
cipant
staki
ngmul
ti
plemeasur
es ov
ert
imebef
ore
i
ntr
oduci
ngat
reat
mentandt
hencont
inui
ngt
otakesev
eralmeasur
esaf
tert
reat
ment
.
Mul
ti
plemeasur
esal
l
owt
her
esear
chert
oseei
fthebehav
iori
sst
abl
ebef
oret
reat
ment
andhowori
fitchangesatt
hemul
ti
plepoi
ntsi
nti
mewhenmeasur
esar
etakenaf
ter
t
reat
ment

STRENGTHSOFEXPERIMENTALDESI
GNS:
 Experi
ment
sal
lowresear
cher
stoi
nfercausal
fact
ors

 I
tisal
sot
hebestmet
hodt
ost
udyassoci
ati
onsbet
weenv
ari
abl
es.

 Leadst
oev
idencebasedsol
uti
ons

Li
mit
ations:
 Thecont rolmeasur
esappl
i
ed pr
esentunnat
uralenv
ironmentt
husaf
fect
ing
behavi
our

22
Et
hicali
ssuesi
ncogni
ti
ver
esear
ch
Agr
eedet
hicsandaccept
abl
est
andar
dsar
eimpor
tantf
oranycr
edi
blewor
kiny
our
r
esear
ch.Et
hicssaf
eguar
dbot
hpar
ti
cipant
sandt
her
esear
cher
s.Youwi
l
lrecal
lthat
cogni
ti
on has t
o do wi
tht
he ment
alpr
ocess whi
ch ar
e ent
renched i
n br
ain.
Resear
cher
sther
efor
eneedt
obecar
efulnott
ocauseanyhar
mtot
hepar
ti
cipant
s.I
n
addi
ti
ont
heyneedt
orespectt
hepar
ti
cipant
sandal
l
owv
olunt
arypar
ti
cipat
ion.Ont
he
ot
herhandt
heyr
esear
cher
sneedt
oconductt
hemsel
veswi
thi
ntegr
it
ycar
ryi
ngont
hei
r
r
esear
ch wor
k wi
th honest
y and obj
ect
ivi
ty.Bel
ow ar
e some of t
he et
hical
consi
der
ati
onst
hatwi
l
lpr
otecty
ourpar
ti
cipant
sandy
ouasar
esear
cher
.

Aut
hor
it
y
Resear
cher
sneedt
oseekper
missi
onf
rom r
elev
antaut
hor
it
ies.I
neachcount
ryt
her
e
ar
e bodi
es t
hatr
egul
ater
esear
ch and t
her
efor
eresear
cher
s shoul
d seek f
ormal
aut
hor
it
ytobegi
venper
missi
ont
oconductr
esear
ch.Accor
dingt
oCohenetal(
2000)
,
r
esear
cher
sshoul
dcl
earof
fi
cialchannel
sbyf
ormal
l
yrequest
ingper
missi
ont
ocar
ry
out r
esear
ch. These may i
ncl
ude nat
ional r
esear
ch bodi
es and
i
nst
it
uti
ons/
organi
zat
ionsofi
nter
est
.Forexampl
eyoumaygetaper
mitatt
henat
ional
l
evelbuty
oumayal
sor
equi
rear
esear
chper
mitf
rom aheal
thet
hicalboar
dify
ouar
e
conduct
ingr
esear
chonheal
thi
ssues.

I
nKeny
aNat
ionalcommi
ssi
onf
orsci
encet
echnol
ogyandI
nnov
ati
on(
NACOSTI
)is
cur
rent
lyi
nchar
geofr
esear
chatanat
ionall
evel
.Fr
om nat
ionall
evely
oushoul
dal
so
seekaut
hor
it
yfr
om r
elev
anti
nst
it
uti
ons
I
nfor
medconsent
Et
hicalcodesi
nresear
chhol
dthatpar
ti
cipant
sar
eaut
onomoust
her
efor
eresear
cher
s
shoul
dinf
ormed consent
.An i
nfor
med consenti
s aut
onomous wi
l
li
ngness ofan
i
ndi
vi
dualt
otakepar
tinr
esear
ch.Thi
smeanst
haty
oushoul
dpr
act
iceandencour
age
v
olunt
arypar
ti
cipat
ioni
nresear
ch

Respectf
orpr
ivacy

23
I
tref
erst
otheabi
l
ityt
ocont
rolwhenandunderwhatcondi
ti
onsot
her
swi
l
lhav
eaccess
t
oyourbel
i
efs,
val
uesorbehav
ior
s.Par
ti
cipant
sincl
udi
ngi
nst
it
uti
onsi
nwhi
chr
esear
ch
wi
l
lbeconduct
edhav
eri
ght
sandpr
ivacyoft
hei
rli
feexper
iences.Theyt
her
efor
ehav
e
f
reedom t
odeci
def
ort
hemsel
veswhenandwher
e,i
nwhatci
rcumst
ancesandt
owhat
ext
entt
hei
rper
sonal
/i
nst
it
uti
onalmat
ter
sar
etobecommuni
cat
edorwi
thhel
dfr
om
ot
her
s.Col
l
ect
ing dat
ainr
esear
ch r
aisesi
ssuesofpr
ivacy
.Ther
efor
e,r
esear
cher
s
shoul
densur
econf
ident
ial
i
tyoft
hei
rresear
chr
espondent
s

Debr
ief
ing
Debr
ief
ingcanbedescr
ibedasacr
it
icali
nci
dentorst
ressr
educt
iont
echni
quet
hat
i
ncl
udesst
ruct
uredst
agesofgr
oupdi
scussi
on.The‘
debr
ief
’inr
esear
chr
efer
stoa
commonf
orm ofr
etr
ospect
iveanal
ysi
sofr
esear
chpr
ocess.Cogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogi
cal
r
esear
chcanbeemot
ionalev
oki
ng.Debr
ief
ingshoul
dbedone t
ohel
ppar
ti
cipant
s
obt
ainappr
opr
iat
einf
ormat
ionaboutt
henat
ure,andpossi
bler
esul
ts,andconcl
usi
ons
oft
he r
esear
ch t
o di
spelanxi
etyassoci
ated wi
tht
he r
esear
ch pr
ocessand t
hei
r
par
ti
cipat
ion.

Decept
ioni
nresear
ch
Decept
ioni
nresear
choccur
swhenr
esear
cher
swi
thhol
dori
ntent
ional
l
ymi
sinf
ormt
he
par
ti
cipant
s.Thi
s v
iol
atest
heet
hicalconsi
der
ati
onofi
nfor
medconsent
.Youshoul
d
al
way
stel
lthet
rut
habouty
ourr
esear
ch

I
nvest
igat
ingt
hemi
ndandBr
ain:Cogni
ti
veNeur
osci
ence

St
udy
ingt
hebr
ain
Ot
hert
hant
het
radi
ti
onalmet
hodsofst
udy
ingpsy
chol
ogy
, cogni
ti
veneur
osci
ence

24
of
fer
s met
hodst
hathel
pinunder
standi
ng cogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Cogni
ti
veneur
osci
ence
maybedescr
ibedasacoal
escenceofbi
ologyandpsy
chol
ogy
.Iti
saboutt
heanat
omy
oft
heneur
onst
ruct
ures and t
hepsy
chol
ogi
calr
olest
heypl
ayi
nourl
i
ves.Cogni
ti
ve
neur
osci
encebegant
oemer
gei
nthe1970soutofneedt
ounder
standmor
ecompl
ex
i
ssuesaboutcogni
ti
one.
g.how t
hev
isualcel
l
spr
ocessandi
nfor
mat
ioncombi
net
o
f
orm per
cept
s.As neur
osci
ent
ist
s adv
anced bey
ond si
mpl
e appr
oaches so di
d
psy
chol
ogi
sts. The i
nter
est of cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogi
sts t
urned t
owar
ds br
ain
r
epr
esent
ati
onandt
heuni
onoft
het
woappr
oacheswasi
nev
itabl
e.

Anov
erv
iewoft
heNer
vousSy
stem

Thener
voussy
stem i
sthemaj
orcont
rol
li
ng,
regul
ator
y,andcommuni
cat
ingsy
stem i
n
t
hebody
.It
sact
ivi
ti
escanbegr
oupedt
oget
herast
hreegener
al,
over
lappi
ngf
unct
ions:

o Sensor
y
o I
ntegr
ati
ve
o Mot
or

Mi
l
li
onsofsensor
yrecept
orsdet
ectchanges,cal
l
edst
imul
i
,whi
choccuri
nsi
deand
out
side t
he body
.Sensor
yinputi
s conv
ert
ed i
nto el
ect
ri
calsi
gnal
s cal
l
ed ner
ve
i
mpul
sest
hatar
etr
ansmi
tt
edt
othebr
ain.Ther
ethesi
gnal
sar
ebr
oughtt
oget
hert
o
cr
eat
esensat
ions,
topr
oducet
hought
s,ort
oaddt
omemor
y.Deci
sionsar
emadeeach
momentbasedont
hesensor
yinput
.Thi
sisi
ntegr
ati
on.

Basedont
hesensor
yinputandi
ntegr
ati
on,t
hener
voussy
stem r
espondsbysendi
ng
si
gnal
stomuscl
es,causi
ngt
hem t
ocont
ract
,ort
ogl
ands,causi
ngt
hem t
opr
oduce
secr
eti
ons.
Muscl
esandgl
andsar
ecal
l
edef
fect
orsbecauset
heycauseanef
fecti
n
r
esponset
odi
rect
ionsf
rom t
hener
voussy
stem.Thi
sist
hemot
orout
putormot
or
f
unct
ion.

25
Ov
erv
iewoft
heNer
vousSy
stem

Thener
voussy
stem i
sthebodi
essy
stem f
orpr
ocessi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionandt
heneur
on,
or
ner
vecel
li
sthebasi
cuni
t.

Thest
ruct
ureoft
heNeur
on:

Thedi
agr
am showst
hebasi
cpar
tsoft
heneur
ons.Neur
onsar
eel
ect
rochemi
cal
i
nfor
mat
ion pr
ocessor
sthat car
ryoutt
he f
unct
ions oft
he ner
vous sy
stem by
conduct
ingner
vei
mpul
ses.
Iti
sest
imat
edt
hatt
her
ear
eabout100bi
l
li
onneur
ons
t
hroughoutt
hener
voussy
stem.Manyoft
hesear
elocat
edi
nthei
nthebr
ainscer
ebr
al
cor
tex,
theseatoft
hecompl
ext
hought
.
Ther
ear
emanydi
ff
erentt
ypesofneur
onswi
thdi
ff
erentshapes,si
zesandf
unct
ions.
Forexampl
e,t
hesensor
yneur
onsorbi
pol
arcar
rysi
gnal
sfr
om t
hesensor
yner
ve
r
ecept
orst
otheCNS;Mot
o-neur
onsormul
ti
pol
arneur
onscar
rysi
gnal
sfr
om t
heCNS
muscl
esandgl
ands.Theseneur
onshav
emanypr
ocessesor
igi
nat
ingf
rom t
hecel
l
body
. Thedendr
it
esbr
anchoutf
rom t
hecel
lbodyt
orecei
vesi
gnal
sfr
om ot
her
neur
onsandt
heAxonort
hener
vef
ibr
etoot
herneur
ons.Theneur
onshav
erecei
vi
ng
andt
ransmi
tt
ingends.

26
The neur
on t
ransmi
tt
ersr
eleased i
nto sy
napses i
nter
actwi
th dendr
it
es ofmany
r
ecei
vi
ngneur
onsl
eadi
ngt
othei
rexci
tat
ionori
nhi
bit
ion.Thi
ssy
stem ofexci
tat
oryand
i
nhi
bit
oryconnect
ionsbet
weent
hesebasi
cuni
tsoft
hener
voussy
stem under
li
esal
l
t
hinki
ngandbehav
ior
.Accor
dingt
oHebb(
1948) when Axon ofcel
lAf
orexampl
eis
nearenought
oexci
te AxonBandi
toccur
srepeat
edl
y,ef
fi
ciency ofoneoft
hecel
l
s
exci
ti
ngBi
ncr
eases.I
not
herwor
dst
heassoci
ati
onbet
weenneur
onscanbest
ronger
wi
thexper
ience.Thi
svi
ew hasbeensuppor
tedbyt
heconnect
ioni
stappr
oachof
ment
alpr
ocesswhi
chat
tempt
sto expl
aint
hinki
ngi
nter
msofst
rengt
heni
ngand
weakeni
ngi
nassoci
ati
onamongsi
mpl
euni
ts.

Cogni
ti
veneur
osci
encehasnotadv
ancedt
othepoi
ntofexpl
aini
ngwhatasi
ngl
eand
neur
onnet
wor
ksi
nthei
rseemi
ngl
ycompl
exf
unct
ions,buthav
ecomel
ongwayi
n
model
i
nghowcogni
ti
onmi
ghtwor
k.Hencet
heymaynotbeabl
etoexpl
aint
hecogni
ti
ve
pr
ocessest
hatoccur
stor
esul
ttoapar
ti
cul
aract
ion,
butt
heyar
eabl
etof
air
lyst
atet
he
par
toft
hebr
ainwher
etheact
ivi
tyi
staki
ngpl
aceandhow someoft
hecomponent
pr
ocessmaypl
ayouti
nthesy
stem.

TheBr
ain

27
TheBr
ain
Thebr
ainser
vesast
hepr
imar
yfocusf
orcogni
ti
veneur
osci
encebecausei
tist
he
cent
re ofi
nfor
mat
ion pr
ocessi
ng.The seatofcogni
ti
vef
unct
ioni
ng i
sthe br
ain.
Ther
efor
eiti
simpor
tantf
ory
out
olear
nsomemaj
orar
easoft
hebr
ainandsomeoft
he
f
unct
ionst
heypl
ayi
ncogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Theneur
osci
ent
ist
sdi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
hree
maj
orar
easi
nthebr
ain.Thesei
ncl
ude:

28
  Thehi
ndbr
ainl
ocat
edatt
hebaseoft
hebr
ain,j
ustabov
ethespi
nalcode.I
ts
pr
imar
yfunct
ioni
stomoni
tormai
ntai
nandcont
rolbasi
cli
fef
unct
ionssuchas
br
eat
hingandhear
tbeat
.
 Abov
ethehi
ndbr
aini
sar
elat
ivel
ysmal
lar
eat
hemi
dbr
ain.I
tinv
olv
est
hear
ea
t
hatar
einv
olv
edi
nsomesensor
yref
lexesandhel
pst
oregul
atebr
ainar
ousal
 Thef
orebr
aincompr
isesmostoft
hebr
aint
hati
ncl
udescer
ebr
alcor
texwi
th
bi
l
li
onsofneur
ons.Thecer
ebr
alcor
texi
sthepr
imar
yneur
alsubst
rat
eofwhat
mi
ghtbet
ermedhi
ghercogni
ti
vef
unct
ioni
ng-r
emember
ing;pl
anni
ng;deci
ding
communi
cat
inge.
t.
c.
 Beneat
hthecor
texl
i
esanar
rayofi
mpor
tantst
ruct
urest
hatt
hatar
einv
olv
edi
n
basi
cpr
ocessessuchast
her
egul
ati
onofmemor
yandemot
ions.

Thesear
eimpor
tantpr
ocessi
ncogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
,ther
efor
eabr
iefov
erv
iew of
cer
ebr
alcor
texi
simpor
tantf
ory
out
ounder
standt
her
oleoft
hebr
aini
ncogni
ti
ve
f
unct
ioni
ng.
Thecer
ebr
alCor
tex
I
t consi
sts of t
wo nonsy
mmet
ri
cal hemi
spher
es wi
th t
remendous compl
ex
i
nter
connect
ionsandnet
wor
ks.Eachhemi
spher
ecanbesubdi
vi
dedi
ntof
ourmaj
or
ar
easorl
obes. Thesear
e; f
ront
all
obe,par
iet
all
obe,occi
pit
all
obeandt
empor
al
l
obe.
Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
hemaj
orar
easoft
hecer
ebr
alcor
tex

Maj
orl
obesofl
efthemi
spher
eofhumancor
tex

29
Theneur
osci
ent
ist
shav
econduct
edr
esear
cht
ounder
standwhatbr
ainar
easar
eact
ive
dur
ingdi
ff
erentpr
ocesses.Thr
ought
hest
udi
esr
esear
cher
shav
ebeenabl
etomapt
he
br
ainsubst
rat
esofcogni
ti
on. Somear
easwi
thi
neachoft
hel
obesspeci
ali
zef
or
par
ti
cul
arf
unct
ions.Themaj
orar
easofcer
ebr
alcor
texandt
hespeci
ali
zedcogni
ti
ve
f
unct
ionsar
edescr
ibedbel
ow:

30
  Thef
ront
all
obei
stheant
eri
orpor
ti
onl
ocat
edi
mmedi
atel
ybehi
ndy
our
f
orehead,r
unni
ngbackt
hemi
ddl
eoft
het
opofy
ourhead.Thepost
eri
or
ar
eaoft
hef
ront
all
obei
sthemot
orcor
tex.I
tpl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
n
car
ryi
ngoutv
olunt
arymov
ement
s
 Ar
easi
ntheant
eri
orr
egi
onoft
hef
ront
all
obe (
Pref
ront
alcor
tex)ar
e
i
mpor
tanti
n hi
gheraspect
s ofmot
orcont
rolsuch as pl
anni
ng and
execut
ingcompl
exbehav
ior
s.
 Thef
ront
all
obeal
soi
ncl
udesBr
oca’
sar
eaandi
mpor
tantar
ear
elat
edt
o
phy
sical
product
ionofspeech
 Behi
ndt
hef
ront
all
obel
i
espar
iet
all
obecent
eredmor
eorl
essundert
hecr
own
oft
heskul
l
.
 I
ntheant
eri
orpor
ti
onoft
hepar
iet
all
ober
esi
dest
hesomat
osensor
ycor
tex
whi
ch cont
rol
sthe ex
per
ience of bodi
l
y sensat
ions such as t
ouch
t
emper
atur
eandpai
n.
 I
nter
msofcogni
ti
vepr
ocessi
ngt
hepar
iet
all
obehousesar
easi
mpor
tanti
n
r
egul
ati
ngamongot
her
sthepr
ocessofat
tent
ionandwor
kingmemor
y
 Beneat
hthepar
iet
all
obei
sthepost
eri
orpor
ti
onoft
hecor
texi
stheocci
pit
al
l
obewhi
chcont
ainst
hepr
imar
yvi
sualcor
tex andt
heabi
l
ityt
orecogni
zev
isual
pat
ter
ns(ey
esi
nthebackoft
hehead)
 Fi
nal
l
ythet
empor
all
obei
sappr
opr
iat
elyl
ocat
edbehi
ndt
heear
s.
 I
tcont
ainst
heaudi
tor
ycor
text
hebr
ainspr
imar
ysensor
yar
eaf
oraudi
ti
on.
 I
tal
soi
ncl
udeswer
nicke’
sar
eawhi
chi
sinv
olv
edi
nspeechcompr
ehensi
on

Manyot
herar
easar
enotspeci
fi
cal
l
ydev
otedt
osensor
yormot
orf
unct
ionandhav
e
beendubbedassoci
ati
onar
ea.Associ
ati
onar
easoft
hecor
texar
ebel
i
evedt
oint
egr
ate
t
hepr
ocessofot
herbr
ainar
easser
vingast
hebasi
sofhi
gherment
alpr
ocessest
hat
r
equi
rei
ntegr
ati
on such as l
anguage pr
ocessi
ng,pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng,cr
eat
ivi
ty and
deci
sionmaki
ng.

Thecer
ebr
alcor
texi
smadeupoft
wohemi
spher
est
her
ightandl
eft
.Thehemi
spher
es
appearmor
esy
mmet
ri
cal
int
hei
rappear
ancebuteachhasdi
ff
erentf
eat
ures.

31
Br
ainHemi
spher
e

32
The oper
ati
on oft
he hemi
spher
es i
slat
eral
ized:t
he l
efthemi
spher
erecei
ves
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom andcont
rol
sther
ightsi
deoft
hebody
;ther
ighthemi
spher
erecei
ves
i
nfor
mat
ionandcont
rol
s t
hel
eftsi
deoft
hebody
.Howev
er,t
het
wohemi
spher
es
communi
cat
epr
imar
il
ybymeansofcor
puscal
losum;aner
vebundl
elocat
edi
nthe
cent
reoft
hebr
ainabov
ethel
i
mbi
csy
stem.Themai
ndi
sti
nct
ioni
nthehemi
spher
es
r
elat
est
othev
erbalabi
l
ity
.Inmostpeopl
ethel
efthemi
spher
eisspeci
ali
zedf
orv
erbal
pr
ocessi
ngwhi
l
ether
ighthemi
spher
eisr
elat
ivel
ynon-
ver
bal
.Howev
er,
thehemi
spher
ic
v
iewoft
hebr
aint
hisshoul
dnotbeov
ergener
ali
zedont
hebr
ainf
unct
ionsast
het
wo
hemi
spher
esf
orm andel
egant
lyi
ntegr
atedsy
stem t
hati
nvol
vescl
osei
nter
act
ions.

Someoft
hef
unct
ionalar
easoft
hecer
ebr
alcor
texar
eshowni
nthedi
agr
am bel
ow.

33
Funct
ional
areaoft
hecor
tex,
Adapt
edf
rom St
ernber
getal
,2012

34
Subcor
ti
calst
ruct
ures
Beneat
hthecer
ebr
alcor
texl
i
esacompl
exsy
stem ofst
ruct
urest
hatpl
ayani
mpor
tant
r
olei
nav
ari
etyofcogni
ti
vepr
ocesses.
Mostoft
hest
ruct
uresar
egr
oupedt
oget
herand
t
ermedt
hel
i
mbi
csy
stem.
Thel
i
mbi
csy
stem i
sint
egr
alt
olear
ningandr
emember
ing
newi
nfor
mat
ionaswel
laspr
ocessi
ngofemot
ions.I
mpor
tantst
ruct
uresi
nthel
i
mbi
c
sy
stem i
ncl
ude
 Hi
ppocampuswhi
chi
svi
tal
forencodi
ngnewi
nfor
mat
iont
omemor
y

 The amy
gdal
e whi
ch pl
ays a key i
nregul
ati
ng emot
ions and i
nfor
ming
emot
ional
memor
ies.
 Thet
hal
amusser
vesasar
elaypoi
ntt
hatr
out
esi
ncomi
ngsensor
yinf
ormat
ion
t
oappr
opr
iat
ear
easoft
hebr
aine.
g.v
isualt
ovi
sualcor
tex,audi
ti
ont
oaudi
tor
y
cor
texe.
t.
c.andal
soi
tseemst
opl
ayar
olei
nat
tent
ion
 Thehy
pot
hal
amuswhi
chcont
rol
stheendocr
inesy
stem (t
hebody
’ssy
stem of
hor
mones)andpl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nemot
ionsaswel
lasmai
ntenanceof
i
mpor
tantandbasi
csur
viv
alpr
ocessessuchas,t
emper
atur
eregul
ati
onand
f
oodi
ntake.Toget
her
,thehy
pot
hal
amusandt
hal
amusar
eter
meddi
ecephal
on
 Thebasalgangl
i
apl
ayacr
it
icalr
olei
ncont
rol
l
ing mov
ementandar
eimpor
tant
f
ormot
orbasedmemor
iessuchaspr
ocedur
esi
nri
dingabi
cycl
e
Al
thoughdi
ff
erentar
easoft
hebr
ainmaybespeci
ali
zedf
orspeci
fi
cfunct
ionsi
tis
i
mpor
tantt
oremembert
hatt
hebr
aini
sani
ntegr
atedsy
stem andnof
unct
iont
akes
pl
acei
nasi
ngl
ebr
ainst
ruct
ure.Whi
l
esomesubcomponent
sofcogni
ti
vepr
ocess
maybel
ocal
i
zed,compl
excogni
ti
oni
nvol
vesani
ntr
icat
eint
erpl
aybet
weent
he
br
ainar
easandbr
ainst
ruct
uresdi
str
ibut
edt
hroughoutt
hebr
ain.
St
ruct
ureoft
hebr
ain

35
Adapt
edf
rom St
ernber
get
,al
2012

HOW NEUROSCI
ENTI
STSTUDYCOGNI
TION

36
Cogni
ti
veneur
osci
encer
elayonanumberofi
nvest
igat
ivet
echni
quest
odi
scov
ert
he
neur
alunder
pinni
ngs ofcogni
ti
on.As st
ated ear
li
erment
alpr
ocess ar
e mai
nly
unobser
vabl
e,andbecauseofet
hicalandheal
thi
ssuest
heneur
osci
ent
ist
shad t
orel
y
onst
udy
ingonpeopl
ewhohad br
aindamage bef
oret
hedev
elopmentoft
echnol
ogy
.
Thesei
ncl
ude

 Br
ainTr
auma

Pat
ient
swi
thbr
aint
raumapr
ovi
dedav
italoppor
tuni
tyf
orcogni
ti
veneur
osci
ent
ist
sto
gai
nknowl
edgeaboutt
hebr
ainar
east
hatunder
li
ecogni
ti
vef
unct
ioni
ng.Accor
dingt
o
Ri
egl
erand Ri
egl
er(
2004)much ofknowl
edgeaboutt
hebr
ain pat
ient
swho had
suf
fer
edsomesoughtoft
raumat
othebr
aint
hroughi
njur
yordi
seasewer
est
udi
edt
o
under
stand cogni
ti
vef
unct
ioni
ng.
Apr
omi
nentr
elev
ancet
othef
iel
dofpsy
chol
ogyf
or
exampl
eist
hewor
kofPaulBr
ocaaneur
osci
encepi
oneeri
nthemi
d1850.Br
ocahad
apat
ientnamed Tanbecauset
his wast
heonl
ywor
dhecoul
dut
ter(
Riegl
er&Ri
rgl
er
(
2004)
.I
n spi
te ofhi
sinabi
l
ityt
o speak hi
s abi
l
ityt
o under
stand was r
elat
ivel
y
uni
mpai
red.
Brocadi
scov
eredt
hathi
spat
ienthaddamagedl
eftf
ront
all
obe.Thi
smade
Bar
oca concl
ude t
hatphy
sicalspeech was associ
ated wi
thl
eftf
ront
all
obe.The
condi
ti
onofhi
spat
ientbecameknownasBr
oca’
saphasi
a

Lat
eri
n1870sWer
nickehadapat
ientwhocoul
dspeakbutwhathecoul
dsaywas
gi
bber
ish.Hewasal
sounabl
etounder
standwr
it
tenorspokenl
anguage.Hedi
scov
ered
t
hathi
spat
ienthad damagel
eftf
ront
all
obe.Ther
e condi
ti
on became known as
Wer
nicke’
saphasi
a.I
nthedi
agr
am ont
hef
unct
ionalar
eaoft
hecor
tex,
youwi
l
lnot
ice
t
her
egi
onsoft
hebr
ainl
abel
edasBr
oca’
s andWer
nicke’
sar
ea.Thel
abel
i
ngi
sbased
ont
hedi
scov
eri
esoft
het
woneur
osci
ent
ist
s.Ri
egl
er&Ri
egl
erobser
vet
hatbasedon
t
hesef
indi
ngsandot
herpat
ient
swi
thl
anguagei
mpai
rment
sresear
cher
swer
eabl
eto
cl
ear
lydescr
ibet
her
oleofl
efthemi
spher
eincogni
ti
vepr
ocesses.

37
Howev
er,aset
backi
nusi
ngsucht
echni
quei
sthatt
heyal
l
ow absol
utel
ynocont
rol
.
Resear
cher
scan’
tmap outhumanbr
ainbysy
stemat
ical
l
ydamagi
ngar
easoft
hebr
ain
associ
ated def
ici
ts. . St
udi
es of br
ain t
rauma al
so suf
fer l
i
mit
ati
ons i
n
gener
ali
zabi
l
ity
.Fi
nal
l
ytheev
idencey
iel
dedi
spur
elydescr
ipt
ive.

Si
ngl
eanddoubl
eassoci
ati
ons;
Si
ngl
eanddoubl
eassoci
ati
oni
sanot
herappr
oacht
hatt
heneur
osci
ent
ist
sused
bef
oret
he adv
entoft
echnol
ogy
. I
nthi
s appr
oach t
he sci
ent
ist
s compar
e
per
for
mance ont
wot
askst
hatdi
ff
eri
ntheuseofonepr
oposedment
aloper
ati
one.
g.
apat
ientwi
thbr
aindamagei
nregi
onxwhocannotcompr
ehendwr
it
tenl
anguagebut
hasnopr
obl
em wi
thspokenl
anguage.Thi
sissi
ngl
edi
ssoci
ati
on(
per
for
mancedef
ici
t
i
nonet
askandnoper
for
mancedef
ici
tint
heot
her
.Theat
tempti
stodr
awaconcl
usi
on
t
hatar
eaXi
sresponsi
blef
orwr
it
tenl
anguage.

Li
mit
ati
on:I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttobecer
tai
noft
heconcl
usi
ons.Ar
eaXcoul
dber
esponsi
blef
or
bot
htasksbutt
hedamage maynotbesev
ereorspokenl
anguagedependsonot
her
ar
eas

I
nDoubl
eassoci
ati
ont
her
esear
cher
scoul
dcompar
epat
ient
swi
thdi
ff
erentar
easof
br
aindamage e.
g.compar
ingpat
ientwi
thdamagedar
eaXwhocannotcompr
ehend
wr
it
ten l
anguage and anot
herpat
ientwi
th damaged ar
ea Y who hasdef
ici
tin
under
standi
ngspokenl
anguage.Thi
spat
ter
nist
ermeddoubl
eassoci
ati
on.Doubl
e
associ
ati
onpr
ovi
desst
rongerev
idencet
hansi
ngl
eassoci
ati
on.
Al
though doubl
e associ
ati
on may be qui
tei
nfor
mat
ive as f
aras i
nfor
ming t
he
r
esear
chert
hatt
het
wot
asksar
eoper
atedf
rom di
ff
erentr
egi
onsoft
hebr
ain,t
heyst
il
l
donotpr
ovi
deconcl
usi
veanswer
s.
Howev
er, doubl
e associ
ati
on r
emai
ns v
aluabl
e i
n r
esear
ch bey
ond cogni
ti
ve
neur
osci
ence.Fi
ndoutdi
ff
erentway
sinwhi
chy
oucanappl
ydoubl
eassoci
ati
oni
n
st
udi
es.

Theadv
ancementi
ntechnol
ogyl
edt
o bet
terway
sofst
udy
ing cogni
ti
vepr
ocess.

38
Al
thoughi
tisst
il
ldi
ff
icul
ttof
indoutt
heexactpar
toft
hebr
aint
hati
sresponsi
blef
or
di
ff
erentcogni
ti
vepr
ocess,soci
eti
eshav
ebeenabl
etost
udyt
hebr
ainandl
ocal
i
ze
di
ff
erentbr
ain ar
eas f
orspeci
fi
c cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess usi
ng t
echnol
ogi
calai
ded
t
echni
ques.Thesei
ncl
ude;
El
ect
roencephal
ogr
aph:
To under
stand t
he f
unct
ions oft
he br
aini
n cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess,r
esear
cher
s use
t
echni
quest
hati
nvol
ver
ecodi
ngel
ect
roact
ivi
tyoft
hebr
ainandr
elat
ingi
ttocogni
ti
ve
f
unct
ioni
ng.El
ect
roencephal
ogr
aph(
EEG)i
sonesuchmet
hodt
hat usesel
ect
rodes
pl
acedont
hescal
ptopi
ckupt
heel
ect
rocur
rentbei
ngconduct
edt
hrought
heskul
l
f
rom t
heact
ivi
tyofneur
onsunder
neat
h.EEG measur
etheel
ect
ro act
ivi
tyt
hati
s
pr
oducedbyneur
ons asr
ecor
dedbyel
ect
rodes pl
acedal
ongt
hescal
pessent
ial
l
y
pr
ovi
ding t
hegl
obalr
ecor
ding oft
heact
ionpot
ent
ialoccur
ri
ngi
nthebr
ain(see
Gol
dst
ein2008)Thedi
agr
am bel
ow shows apar
ti
cipanti
nabr
ainwav
est
udyusi
ng
EEGTechni
que

El
ect
roencephal
ogr
aph

39
 The br
ain el
ect
ro act
ivi
tyi
s pi
cked by t
he
el
ect
rodesat
tachedont
hepar
ti
cipant
sscal
p
andampl
i
fied ont
heeggmachi
net
obev
iewed
asbr
ainwav
es

Thi
smet
hodhasbeensuccessf
uli
nter
msofmappi
ngpr
eci
sioni
nspeci
fyi
ngt
ime
causeofev
ent
s.Resear
cher
scanobser
veEGGov
ert
imeandl
ookf
orchangesi
nthe
br
ainel
ect
roact
ivi
tyatcer
tai
ncr
it
icalpoi
ntse.
g.whenapar
ti
cipanti
sunder
taki
ng
someact
ivi
ty.Thechanges t
hatar
e obser
vedcal
l
edev
entr
elat
edpot
ent
ial
s(ERP)
becauset
heyr
epr
esentsomepot
ent
ialact
ionst
hatoccuri
nrel
ati
ont
osomeev
ent
.
Thesepot
ent
ial
sal
l
ow r
esear
cht
opl
otoutwhen asbr
ainact
ivi
tyi
soccur
ri
ng.Thi
s
met
hodi
sef
fect
ivei
nlocal
i
zingcogni
ti
vepr
ocessi
nthebr
ain

40
Howev
er,al
thoughi
tispossi
blef
orr
esear
cher
suset
hismet
hodt
olocal
i
zebr
ain
act
ivi
ty,i
tisl
i
mit
edi
nisol
ati
ngspeci
fi
car
ear
esponsi
blef
ort
heact
ivi
ty ascogni
ti
ve
pr
ocessunderi
nvest
igat
ion.Thi
sisbecause t
heel
ect
roencephal
ogr
aphr
ecor
dsa
combi
nat
ionofact
ivi
tyofmi
l
li
onsofneur
onsmaki
ngi
thadt
oisol
atet
he act
ivi
tyof
i
nter
est
.Al
sobecauset
heneur
onsi
mpul
sest
rav
elov
ert
hebr
ainandt
hrought
heskul
l
t
her
eissomedi
stor
ti
oni
nrecor
dedsi
gnal
sfur
thercompoundi
ngl
ocal
i
zat
ionoft
he
br
ainar
ewher
ethepr
ocessi
soccur
ri
ng

Funct
ionalI
magingTechni
ques:PETandFunct
ionalMagnet
icResonance
I
magingf MRIscans
Thegr
eat
estst
ri
dei
ncogni
ti
veneur
osci
encehasbeenhasbeenmadeusi
ngf
unct
ional
i
magi
ngt
echni
ques.Thei
magi
ngt
echni
queshav
epr
ovedmor
esuccessf
ult
hanEEGi
n
pr
eci
sel
ylocal
i
zing t
he br
ain ar
eas associ
ated wi
thv
ari
es cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess.
The
I
magi
ngt
echni
quesdonoti
nvol
vedi
rectmeasur
eofneur
onact
ivi
tyr
athert
hechanges
i
nthef
low ofbl
oodi
stakenasi
ndi
cesofwher
ethebr
ainact
ivi
tyi
soccur
ri
ngdur
ing
v
ari
ouscogni
ti
vepr
ocesses especi
all
ypr
ovi
ding t
hemap oft
hebr
ain act
ivi
ty.I
t
i
nvol
vescompar
isonbet
weenact
iveand r
elat
ivel
yinact
ivepar
tsoft
hebr
aindur
ing
speci
fi
ctask.Tot
ellwhi
chpar
tsar
eact
ivedur
ingcogni
ti
vepr
ocesssuchasr
etr
iev
ing
wor
dfr
om cogni
ti
vedi
cti
onar
yther
esear
cher
smustf
ir
stobt
aint
hei
mageoft
hebr
ain
wheni
tisatr
est(
basel
i
neorcont
rolscan)andwhent
het
esti
sonBycompar
ingt
he
t
woscanst
her
esear
chcanbeabl
etoext
ractar
east
hatseem consi
stent
lyassoci
ated
wi
tht
het
aski
nquest
ion
Posi
tr
onemi
ssi
ont
omogr
aphyPET
I
tusesr
adi
oact
ivesubst
ancei
ngest
ed(
har
mlessamount
s)bywi
l
li
ngpar
ti
cipant
sto
t
racebr
ainact
ivi
ty.Thet
echni
quei
sbasedonf
eat
uresofbr
ainmet
abol
i
sm:act
ive
ar
easar
eassoci
atedwi
thi
ncr
easedbl
oodf
lowanddecay
ingr
adi
oact
ivesubst
ancecan
ser
veasagaugewher
ethi
sbl
oodf
low i
soccur
ri
ng.
Det
ect
orspi
ckupt
hisbl
oodf
low
andconv
erti
tint
ovi
sual
image.Thei
magei
samapoft
hebr
aini
nwhi
chhotcol
orsl
i
ke
r
edandy
ell
owi
ndi
cat
eincr
easedact
ivi
tywhi
l
ecoolcol
orseg.Bl
ueandgr
eeni
ndi
cat
e

41
l
essact
ivi
ty

Funct
ionalMagnet
icResonanceI
magi
ng(
fMRI
)
I
tissi
mil
art
oPETi
nthati
tref
lect
sbr
ainact
ivi
tyt
hroughchangesi
nbl
oodf
low,buti
t
pi
ckst
hatact
ivi
tywi
thmagnet
icdet
ect
orst
hatar
esensi
ti
vet
ohemogl
obi
nlev
els.The
magnet
icscannerpi
cksuphemogl
obi
n(oxy
genat
edbl
ood)ornonoxy
genat
edbl
ood.I
t
hassomeadv
ant
agesov
erPET

 I
tisnoni
nvasi
ve(
Nof
orei
gnbodyi
singest
ed)
 I
tischeaperasequi
pmenti
nmanyhospi
tal
scanbemodi
fi
edt
odoi
t

42
 wher
easPETscanni
ngmachi
nei
sexot
ic
 f
MRIi
sal
i
ttl
emor
esubt
leandr
elat
est
ohow t
hebr
ainscansar
e
col
l
ect
edov
ert
ime.I
nPETy
ouneedt
oal
l
owt
imef
ort
her
adi
oact
ive
subst
ancesi
ngest
edt
odi
ssi
pat
etoal
l
ow f
ort
henextscanwhi
ch
meansonl
yaf
ew scanscanbet
aken.I
nfMRIt
her
eisnodecay
ing
r
adi
oact
ivet
racersot
het
estcont
rolscanscanbei
nter
sper
sed wi
th
muchgr
eat
erf
requencywhi
chmeansmany
 cont
rol
scanscanbet
aken

Li
mit
ati
onsofi
magi
ngt
echni
ques
 The t
echni
ques hav
e been ef
fi
cienti
nlocal
i
zing t
he br
ain ar
ea ofspeci
fi
c
cogni
ti
vepr
ocessesbutt
heyar
eli
mit
edi
npr
ovi
dingt
imebasedanal
ysi
sof
cogni
ti
on

43
  Mostcogni
ti
veact
ivi
ti
esoccuront
heor
deroff
ract
ionsofsecondsandt
he
t
empor
al(
ti
me)r
esol
uti
oni
snowher
enearsot
heyonl
ygi
vegl
obalpi
ctur
eof
br
ainf
unct
ioni
ng

 I
tal
sopr
ovi
desonl
ydescr
ipt
ivei
nfor
mat
ionaboutwher
ethebr
ainact
ivi
tyt
hat
accompani
est
hement
alact
ivi
tyt
aki
ngpl
acebutsay
snot
hingabouti
ndi
vi
dual
neur
onsand how t
hei
rcompl
exi
nter
playi
srel
ated i
srel
ated t
o cogni
ti
ve
pr
ocess

Howev
er,i
thasal
l
owedr
esear
cher
stoi
sol
atesubsy
stemsofbr
ainwher
eneur
onsdo
t
hei
rwor
k

Basi
cper
cept
ualpr
ocess

Per
cept
ioni
simpor
tanti
nourl
i
ves.Wi
thoutper
cei
vi
ngwecannotmakesenseoft
he
env
ironment
sinwhi
chwel
i
vei
n.

Cogni
ti
onandper
cept
ion

Themai
nfunct
ionofcogni
ti
oni
sinf
ormat
ionpr
ocessi
nghencecogni
ti
onst
art
ssoon
ast
hei
nfor
mat
ionent
erst
hecogni
ti
vesy
stem.Thi
smeanst
hatt
ounder
standt
he
cogni
ti
vesy
stem wemustst
artf
rom howi
nfor
mat
ioni
sregi
ster
edi
nthebasi
csensor
y
andper
cept
ualpr
ocess.Cogni
ti
oni
sunder
pinnedbyt
wobasi
cpr
ocess.Thesear
e
per
cept
ionandsensat
ion.Sensat
ionhast
odowi
tht
hephy
siol
ogi
calpr
ocesst
hat
under
li
einf
ormat
ioni
ntakewhi
chi
sthewayoursensor
yor
ganst
akei
ninf
ormat
ion.For
exampl
e,ourv
isual
sensor
ytakesi
nimager
yinf
ormat
ionf
rom ourenv
ironment
.Wear
e
abl
etoseepeopl
e,ani
mal
sandpl
ant
sandar
chi
tect
uralandar
ti
sti
cimagesf
rom t
he
wor
ld.Ont
heot
herhand per
cept
ioni
spsy
chol
ogi
calper
spect
ive associ
atedwi
tht
he
i
mmedi
ateor
gani
zat
ionandi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hosesensat
ions.Forexampl
e,i
fwesee

44
anani
mal
wemayi
nter
preti
tasaf
ri
endl
yoradanger
ousani
mal
Thepr
ocessofper
cept
ion r
esul
tsf
rom;
 Bot
tom uppr
ocessi
ng:
Thi
sref
erst
ofl
owofi
nfor
mat
iont
hatpr
oceeds
f
rom t
hest
imul
ust
otheneur
onact
ivi
tydr
ivenbyt
hest
imul
ust
oit
s
ev
ent
ual
ident
if
icat
ion.I
tissomet
imest
ermedast
hedat
adr
iven
pr
ocessi
ngbecausei
tist
hedat
athatl
eadst
osensi
bleper
cept
ion.
 Topdownpr
ocessi
ngwhi
chr
efer
stot
hepr
ocesswher
ewebr
ingpr
evi
ous
knowl
edget
obeari
ndet
ermi
ningwhatweseeorhear
.Becausei
tto
appl
i
cat
ionofconcept
stop-
downpr
ocessi
ngi
ssomet
imesl
abel
ed
concept
ual
l
ydr
ivenpr
ocessi
ng

Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenphy
sical
proper
ti
esoft
hest
imul
usandhowi
tisper
cei
ved,
is
al
sodet
ermi
nedbyhowmuchi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hest
imul
usi
srecei
ved.Forexampl
e,
y
oumaynotbeabl
etoper
cei
vewhaty
ourr
oommat
eissay
ingunl
esshe/
shei
sloud
enoughf
ory
out
ohearwhatt
heyar
esay
ing.Si
mil
arl
yitmaybedi
ff
icul
tfory
out
o
cl
ear
lyi
dent
if
yanobj
ectt
hati
scov
eredt
hreequar
terway
.Ri
egl
erandRi
egl
er(
2004)
obser
vet
hatweneed atl
eastt
hreshol
d50%oft
heamountst
imul
usener
gyt
o
per
cei
vest
imul
uswi
thsomeaccur
acy
.Thet
hreshol
dwi
l
lchangewi
thdi
ff
erent
i
ntensi
tyofst
imul
i
.Inaddi
ti
on,
thedet
ect
ionoft
hest
imul
iaswel
last
hechangei
nthe
i
ntensi
tydependsonhowsensi
ti
vet
heobser
veri
s
Vi
sionandaudi
ti
onsensor
yor
gans
Mostoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionwepr
ocessandr
espondt
oar
etakeni
nthr
oughoursensesof
v
isi
on(ey
es)andaudi
ti
on(ear
s).Assuchv
isi
onandaudi
ti
onsensor
ymodal
i
tiesar
e
i
mpor
tanti
ncogni
ti
vest
udi
es
Vi
sual
per
cept
ion
Thi
sist
heuseofourv
isualsense(
eyes)t
ogeti
nfor
mat
ionwepr
ocessandr
espondt
o
i
t.Ourv
isualper
cept
ioni
sbasedonbot
h bot
tom upandt
opdownpr
ocess.Fr
om t
he
bot
tom uppr
ocess,t
hel
i
ghtf
rom t
hest
imul
iint
heenv
ironmentcr
eat
esanobj
ecti
n
ourr
eti
nat
oref
lectt
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
heobj
ectt
hatweseee.
g.amov
ingcar
,abar
king
dog orahouse.Thet
opdownpr
ocessi
swhenweuseourknowl
edgef
rom pr
evi
ous
exper
iencet
oint
erpr
etwhatweseee.
g.t
hecari
smov
ingatahi
ghspeedwhi
chcoul
d

45
bedanger
ousort
hebar
kingdogcoul
dbi
tet
hest
ranger
.Accor
dingt
oSt
ernber
getal
(
2012)wedonotper
cei
vet
hewor
ldasweseei
tthr
oughourv
isi
on.I
nst
eadourbr
ains
wor
koni
ttogi
vei
tmeani
ngandi
nter
pret
ati
on.

Per
cept
ionofdept
h
Ani
mpor
tantaspectofper
cept
ualpr
ocessi
ngi
stol
ocat
eobj
ect
sinspace.Per
cept
ual
dept
href
erst
omaki
ngj
udgmentaboutt
hedi
stanceofobj
ect
sfr
om ourv
iewi
ngpoi
nts
t
o wher
etheobj
ect
sar
e. Knowi
ngdi
stancebet
weeny
ouandt
het
hingsi
nyour
env
ironmenti
scr
it
icalt
oinf
ormat
ionencodi
ngasi
tenabl
esust
omaker
easonabl
e
deci
sions.Vi
sualcuest
odept
har
eaconsequenceofphy
siol
ogi
calpr
ocessofv
isual
sy
stem.Thesei
ncl
ude
 Accommodat
ionwhi
chr
efer
stochangei
ntheshapeofey
e’sbal
llens
wi
th changi
ng di
stance f
rom v
isualst
imul
us.Thi
s change pr
ovi
des
i
nfor
mat
ionaboutdept
h.
 Thesecondcuei
sconv
ergence:t
hedegr
eest
owhi
cht
woey
est
urn
i
nwar
deachot
herwhenbr
oughtt
ofi
xat
ion.Whenl
ooki
ngatst
imul
ust
hat
i
scl
oseourey
est
urni
nwar
dqui
teal
otbutt
oal
esserext
endwhen
obj
ect
sar
enotcl
ose.I
ncombi
nat
ionwi
thaccommodat
ionconv
ergence
gi
vesr
easonabl
yaccur
atei
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hedept
hofr
elat
ivel
ycl
ose
obj
ect
s
 At
hir
dcuei
sret
inaldi
spar
it
y;whi
chr
efer
stot
hedi
ff
eri
ngv
iewsoft
he
sceneof
fer
edbyeachr
eti
na;f
usi
onoft
hisi
magesl
eadst
ost
ereopsi
sor
3-
dimensi
onal
div
isi
on
 Not
abl
yhowev
er,
notal
ldept
hper
cept
ionsr
elyonal
lcues.
Monocul
arcuesf
orexampl
eref
erst
oenv
ironment
aldept
hcuest
hatr
equi
reuseof
oneey
e;Thi
sincl
ude
 I
nter
posi
ti
on:
over
lappi
ngobj
ect
s
 Rel
ati
vesi
ze(
twoobj
ect
swi
thoneappear
ingsmal
l
er,t
hesmal
l
er
obj
ecti
sper
cei
vedt
obef
urt
her
.
 We al
so hav
e a numberofenv
ironment
alcues t
hatf
allunder
per
spect
ive cues t
o dept
h ort
hose t
hatar
ise f
rom changes of
i
nfor
mat
ionr
ecei
vede.
g.l
inearper
spect
ivei
nwhi
cht
wopar
all
ell
i
nes
46
 seemi
ngl
yconv
erge;t
ext
ure gr
adi
entwhi
ch r
efer
stov
ari
ati
on i
n
per
cei
vedt
ext
uret
hatoccuraswemov
ecl
oserandf
urt
her
;aer
ial
per
spect
ive;whi
chr
efer
stot
hewayl
i
ghtscat
ter
smaki
ngobj
ect
s
appearhazy anduncl
ear
-andshadi
ngcueswhi
chenabl
esast
o
per
cei
vedept
h.Twodi
mensi
onal
obj
ect
sdonotcastshadows)
 Env
ironment
alcuei
suni
quei
nthati
tonl
ypr
ovi
desdept
hwhenwe
ar
einmot
ion,
asy
oupasst
hem orast
heypassy
ou.

Vi
sualper
cept
ion
Ourv
isualper
cept
ion can be sai
dto be const
ruct
ed ori
nter
pret
ed.Const
ruct
ed
per
cept
ionent
ail
s ouract
ivei
nvol
vementi
nwhatf
all
sonourr
eti
na. Weusebot
h
bot
tom up(
sensor
yinf
ormat
ionwer
ecei
vef
rom env
ironment) andt
opdownpr
ocess
whi
chi
saboutourpastexper
ience.Thi
svi
ewemphasi
zest
her
oleoft
opdownf
act
ors
(
expect
ati
on,
knowl
edgeandcont
ext
)inper
cept
ion.
Per
cept
ioncanal
sobedi
rect
 Accor
dingt
othi
svi
ewwhatweper
cei
veaboutourv
isualenv
ironmenti
spi
cked
updi
rect
lyf
rom t
heenv
ironmentandi
snotal
way
sint
erpr
eted.Thi
sisr
efer
red
t
oasdi
rectper
cept
ion.Accor
dingl
ythesensor
yinf
ormat
ioni
ssuf
fi
cientt
o
accur
atel
yper
cei
veandmov
eabouti
ntheenv
ironment
 Thi
sisdescr
ibedasecol
ogi
calappr
oacht
oper
cept
ionbecausei
temphasi
zes
per
cept
ionasi
toccur
sinr
eal
l
ywor
ldr
athert
hancont
ri
vedper
cept
ual
displ
ays

Sensor
ymemor
y
 Oursensor
ymemor
ypl
aysacr
uci
alr
olei
nourv
isualper
cept
ion.Accor
dingt
o
At
kinson&Shaf
fri
n,(
1968)i
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
sbr
ief
lyhel
d andpr
ocessedby
sensor
yst
oreorsensor
ymemor
y.
 Fr
om t
her
ethesensor
ymemor
y,i
nfor
mat
ioni
spassedont
oshor
tter
m memor
yan
i
nfor
mat
ionbuf
feri
nwhi
chi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
sident
if
iedandhel
dforf
urt
her
pr
ocessi
ng

47
 Fr
om t
heshor
tter
m memor
yinf
ormat
ionmov
est
olongt
erm memor
y whi
chi
s
madeupofev
ery
thi
ngweknowaboutourl
i
ves

Ret
ri
vi
al

Rehear
sal

Sensor
y Shor
tter
m Longter
m
Ext
ernal
wor
ld st
ore st
ore stor
e

Vi
sualsensor
ymemor
y
 Thepr
ocessi
ngbuf
feri
nwhi
chwei
nit
ial
l
ytakei
nandbr
ief
lyst
orei
nfor
mat
ion has
beent
ermedasv
isual
sensor
ymemor
y,ori
coni
cmemor
y
 Ani
coni
sav
isual
imageorsy
mbol
 I
coni
cmemor
yisaf
leet
ingi
mageoft
hest
imul
ust
hatwasj
ustpr
esent
edbuti
sno
l
ongerpr
esent
 I
coni
cmemor
yisi
mpor
tanti
nint
egr
ati
ngwhatoneseesf
rom oneey
efi
xat
iont
othe
subsequentone
 Thei
coni
cmemor
yhol
dsi
nfor
mat
ionf
orabr
ieft
imeanddecay
swi
tht
ime

SoundLocal
izat
ion
 Ourabi
l
ityt
olocal
i
zesoundi
sani
mpor
tantaspectofaudi
tor
yper
cept
ionandmi
ght
beconsi
der
edanal
ogt
odept
hofper
cept
ion.

48
 Weneedt
oknowt
hedi
rect
ionwher
ethesoundi
scomi
ngf
rom t
obeabl
etomake
t
her
ightdeci
sion
 Unl
i
ket
hev
isi
on,t
her
eisnoi
nfor
mat
ioni
nher
enti
nthest
imul
ust
hati
tsel
fthat
al
l
owsust
oputi
nsoundi
nspace
 Sound l
ocal
i
zat
ioncr
it
ical
l
ydependsont
hef
actt
hatwehav
etwo ear
swhi
ch
f
unct
ionsoni
nter
-aur
alt
imedi
ff
erence(
ITD)t
hedi
scr
epancyoft
imeofar
ri
valof
soundateachear
.Thegr
eat
ert
hedi
scr
epancyt
heeasi
eri
tist
olocal
i
zet
hesound
 Asecondsour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ioni
sthei
nter
-aur
ali
ntensi
tydi
ff
erences(
II
D)t
hatear
.)
t
hedi
ff
erenceofsoundi
ntensi
tyasi
tent
erseachear
.Gr
eat
eri
ntensi
tyi
noneear
i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hesoundi
scl
osert
o
 Forl
owf
requencysoundsl
ocal
i
zat
iondependsonI
DT whi
l
eforhi
gherf
requency
soundsl
ocal
i
zat
iondependsonI
ID
 Mostsoundsi
nvol
veami
xtur
eoff
requenci
eshencebot
hcuesar
eimpor
tanti
njust
aboutev
erysi
tuat
ion.

Audi
tor
ysensor
ymemor
y
 Thi
sisapr
ocessi
ngbuf
feri
nwhi
chwei
nit
ial
l
ytakei
nandbr
ief
lyst
ore
audi
tor
yinf
ormat
ionhasbeent
ermedaudi
tor
ysensor
ymemor
yorechoi
c
memor
y
 Thei
mpor
tanceofechoi
cbecauset
henat
ureofspeechi
str
ansi
ent
,hence
echoseemsneededi
fwear
etohangont
hest
imul
us

Ot
hersensesusedi
nper
cept
ion
Toget
herwi
tht
hev
isual
andaudi
tor
ysenseswehav
ethesenseoft
ouch(
Somet
hesi
s),
t
ast
e(gust
ati
on)andsmel
l(ol
fact
ion)

Somest
hesi
s
Somest
hesi
sorTouchi
sanot
heri
mpor
tantaspectofcogni
ti
on.Wel
ear
nal
otabout
ourwor
ldt
hrought
ouch.Ast
udybyFal
dowski
,RaoandYoung(
1993)r
eveal
edt
hat
t
hat t
her
e ar
ethr
ee f
undament
aldi
mensi
ons of t
ouch per
cept
ion.These ar
e
r
oughness/
smoot
hness;
har
dness/
sof
tnessandspongi
ness

49
Touchcanal
sobeact
iveorpassi
ve.Apassi
vet
ouch/somest
hesi
smayoccuroutof
ourconsci
ous.I
tisnotdel
i
ber
ateandmostoft
het
imet
her
eisnof
urt
herexpl
orat
ion.
Thr
oughpassi
vet
ouchwegat
herbasi
cinf
ormat
ionaboutst
imul
usi
mpi
ngi
ngonour
ski
nrecept
ors.Thef
act
orst
hataf
fectourabi
l
ityt
osenset
hroughpassi
vet
ouch(
tact
il
e
acqui
ty)i
ncl
udecor
ti
lear
eadev
otedt
osomest
hesi
sindi
ff
erentr
egi
onsoft
hebody
.
Somepar
tsofourbodyar
emor
esensi
ti
vehencei
ntouchi
sdet
ect
ede.
g.t
hef
acei
s
v
erysensi
ti
ve whi
l
eyourupperar
m i
sless sensi
ti
ve. Ther
efor
eift
her
eis any
somet
hesi
sonourf
acewewi
l
lqui
ckl
ynot
ice

Ont
heot
herhandanact
ivet
ouch i
nvol
vesi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom ki
nest
het
icsense(
the
abi
l
ityt
osenseposi
ti
onandmov
ement
sofone’
sbodypar
ts)t
oinf
ormat
iongat
her
ed
f
rom passi
vet
ouch.Theacui
ty(
ourkeenness)ofsomest
hei
sisal
soaf
fect
edbyt
he
act
ivi
tyr
elat
edt
otouch.Mor
einf
ormat
ioni
spi
ckedf
rom act
ivet
ouch.Ther
elat
ivel
y
si
mpl
einf
ormat
iongat
her
edf
rom ski
nsenseswi
thi
nfor
mat
iongai
nedt
hroughhand
posi
ti
onandmov
ementi
ster
medhapt
ics.
Justl
i
kei
nthev
isualandaudi
tor
y per
cept
ionaboutt
ouchi
sinf
ormedbywhatwe
r
ecei
vef
rom sensesandpastexper
ience.Thesenseoft
ouchi
simpor
tanti
nourl
i
ves.
Howev
ergi
venouri
ncr
edi
blepr
ofi
ciencyasv
isualper
cei
ver
s wef
ailt
onot
icehow
much i
nfor
mat
ion i
sav
ail
abl
ethr
ough t
ouch.Forexampl
e,t
hrough somet
hesi
s,
hepat
ic sensi
ng pr
ovi
des usef
ul di
sti
nct i
nfor
mat
ion e.
g. t
hrough expl
orat
ory
pr
ocedur
es(
EPs)mot
orpat
ter
ns per
for
medbyhandsi
nhapt
icgl
ancepr
ovi
desusef
ul
i
nfor
mat
ion f
orourper
cept
ion.Kl
atzky
,Leder
man &Met
zger(
1985)i
dent
if
ied si
x
expl
orat
orypr
ocedur
es.Thesei
ncl
ude
 St
ati
ccont
act;
usedt
oascer
tai
ntemper
atur
einanobj
ect
 Unsuppor
tedl
i
fti
ng;
usedt
oascer
tai
ninf
ormat
iononwei
ght
 Lat
eral
mot
ion;
inf
ormat
ionaboutt
ext
ure
 Pr
essur
e;ext
racti
nfor
mat
ionabouthar
dness
 Cont
ourf
oll
owi
ng;
ext
racti
nfor
mat
ionaboutshape
 Encl
osur
e;i
nfor
mat
ionaboutsi
zeoft
heobj
ect

50
Chemosenses
Cogni
ti
ve cor
rel
atesofgest
ati
on(t
ast
e)ol
fact
ion(smel
l
),somet
imes col
l
ect
ivel
y
r
efer
redt
oaschemosenses.Chemosensesar
e i
mpor
tanti
nourdai
l
yinf
ormat
ion
pr
ocesssi
ng
Gust
ati
on
Tast
eisani
mpor
tantaspectofourl
i
fe.Wear
eabl
etoper
cei
ve di
ff
erentf
lav
our
s
t
hrought
est
s.Tast
einv
olv
esacompl
exi
nter
act
ionamongt
hebasi
ccat
egor
iesThe
basi
ctast
escombi
ne wi
thanumberofot
herf
act
orst
opr
oduceper
cept
ion f
lav
or.
Fl
avouri
ncl
udest
hecombi
nat
ionoff
ourbasi
ctast
eswhi
chi
ncl
ude;sal
ty,sweet
,bi
tt
er
andsourandsav
ory
.Thesebasi
cfl
avoral
ongwi
thot
herf
act
orssuchassmel
l,t
ext
ure
andt
emper
atur
etoi
nfor
m ourper
cept
ion
Ol
fact
ion
Ther
eist
remendousv
ari
ati
oni
npeopl
e’
ssensi
ti
vi
tyt
osmel
land t
her
eabi
l
ityt
o
di
scr
imi
nat
edi
ff
erentsmel
l
saswel
last
her
eabi
l
ityt
orecogni
ze andl
abelagi
ven
smel
l(Lawl
ess,
1997)
.Somepeopl
ear
emor
esensi
ti
vet
osmel
lthanot
her
s.Howev
er,
f
orr
easonsnotknowny
etwomenar
ebet
teratl
abel
i
ngsmel
l
s.Asenseofsmel
lis
i
mpor
tanti
nourl
i
vesaswear
eabl
etomakei
mpor
tantdeci
sionsi
nourl
i
ves

I
nter
act
iveEf
fect
sinper
cept
ion
Ther
eisahi
ghdegr
eeofi
nter
rel
atednessamongcogni
ti
vepr
ocesses,f
orex
ampl
e
whatweseeaf
fect
swhatwehear
.Inaddi
ti
ont
hesamesensor
yst
imul
icanbe
exper
iencedi
nmor
ethanonemodal
i
tyl
eadi
ngt
osy
snest
hesi
a(di
ff
erentexper
iences
f
rom onesensor
ymodal
i
ty)
.Forexampl
e,i
nVi
sionandaudi
ti
ona gr
eatdealof
i
nfor
mat
ioni
nvol
vest
hej
ointi
ntakebet
weenv
isualandaudi
tor
yst
imul
i
.Thati
stosay
t
hatwhatweseemayi
nfl
uencehowwei
nter
pretwhatwehear
.Si
mil
arl
y,v
isi
onand
t
ouchal
l
owust
ogat
herr
ichl
yel
abor
atedi
nfor
mat
ionaboutobj
ect
sint
heenv
ironment
.
Howev
er,
visi
onexer
tsunduei
nfl
uenceatt
imescausi
ngconf
li
ct.Sy
net
hesi
aist
het
erm
usedt
odescr
ibeanexper
iencei
nwhi
chi
nputf
rom onesensor
ysy
stem pr
oducesan
exper
iencenotonl
yint
hatmodal
i
tybuti
nanot
heraswel
l
.Forexampl
e,whaty
ousee

51
mayi
nfl
uencewhaty
ouhear
.

I
nter
act
ionwi
thexper
iencesandcont
ext
Asweexper
ienceanddescr
ibeourper
cept
ionswebui
l
d ourabst
ractnet
wor
kof
concept
sthatappl
i
est
otheseexper
iencesandwi
thf
urt
herexper
iencessomeoft
his
concept
sbecomehi
ghl
yassoci
ated.Towar
dst
hisend ,somet
imest
het
op-
down
pr
ocessi
ngl
eadst
ospeedandef
fi
ciencybutatt
imest
hisi
satt
hecostofper
cept
ual
accur
acy
.Forexampl
ewhenwehav
eexper
iencei
nacer
tai
nar
ea,
wef
ailt
obecr
it
ical
aboutt
hei
nfor
mat
ionwer
ecei
vef
rom oursensesl
eadi
ngt
o poorper
cept
ion.I
tis
commont
ofi
ndst
udent
swhoar
egoodi
nasubj
ectar
eat
oper
for
m poor
lybecause
t
heydi
dnotr
eadt
hei
nst
ruct
ionswel
lbecauset
heyassumedt
hatt
heyknow.

Per
cept
ualgr
oupi
ngandper
cei
vi
ngf
orm
Av
italchar
act
eri
sti
cofper
cept
ionpr
ocessi
stendencyt
osegr
egat
eandgr
oupt
hings
t
ocr
eat
e or
der
lypat
ter
n.Gest
altpsy
chol
ogi
stpi
oneer
edi
nthewor
kofhowwegr
oup
el
ement
sofourenv
ironment
.Theysoughtt
oexpl
aint
hepr
ocessunder
lyi
ngper
cept
ual
andment
alor
gani
zat
ion.Theycameupwi
thpr
inci
plest
hatunder
li
eper
cept
ual
process.
Thesepr
inci
plesaccountf
ormostoft
heor
derweseei
nourv
isualenv
ironment
..
These pr
inci
ples ar
e bel
i
eved t
o be t
he cor
ner
stone of per
cept
ion.
The most
f
undament
alpr
inci
plei
sthef
igur
e–gr
oundwhi
chr
efer
stoourt
endencyt
osegr
egat
e
v
isualscenesi
ntobackgr
oundandaf
igur
ethatappear
stobesuper
imposedagai
nsti
t.
Sev
eralcuesal
l
owast
opar
sef
igur
efr
om t
hegr
ound.Regi
onspi
ckedupf
rom t
hef
ore
t
endt
obesmal
l
erandhav
emor
esy
mmet
ri
cal
thanr
egi
onsdesi
gnat
edasbackgr
ound.
Ot
herpr
inci
plesi
ncl
ude:

 Thepr
inci
plei
spr
oxi
mit
y;whi
chr
efer
stot
endencyf
orobj
ect
sthatar
enearone
anot
her

 Thepr
inci
pleofsi
mil
ari
tyi
stheot
herone

 Thepr
inci
pleofgoodcont
inuat
ionwhi
chr
efer
stot
endencyt
oper
cei
vel
i
nesas
f
lowi
ngnat
ural
l
yinsi
ngl
edi
rect
ion

52
  Pr
inci
ple ofcl
osur
e whi
ch r
efer
stot
he t
endencyt
o cl
ose t
he i
ncompl
ete
per
cept
ual
l
yconnect
ingcont
our
sthatar
eal
mostbutnotqui
teconnect
ed

 Thepr
inci
pleofcommon f
atewhi
ch r
efer
stot
endencyt
o gr
oup el
ement
s
t
oget
heri
ftheyar
emov
ingi
nthesamedi
rect
ion

 Thepr
inci
pleofuni
for
m connect
ednesswhi
chr
efer
sthet
endencyt
ogr
oup
el
ement
sthatar
econnect
edi
nsomeway
.

 Commonr
egi
onwhi
chr
efer
stogr
oupi
ngel
ement
sthatseem t
oacommon
desi
gnat
edar
ea

Al
thoughgest
altpr
inci
plesar
edemonst
rat
edwi
thv
isualexampl
es,t
heyst
il
lpl
ayan
i
mpor
tantpar
tinaudi
tor
yper
cept
ions.Accor
dingt
oBr
egman(
1990)gest
altpr
inci
ples
pl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nanal
yzi
ngaudi
tor
yscenese.
g.wear
eabl
etogr
oupsoundi
n
musi
caccor
dingt
oinst
rument
s,pi
tchort
imbr
e,gr
oupt
ast
easei
thersweet sour
,
bi
tt
ere.
t.
candweal
sogr
oupsur
facest
osmoot
horr
ough.
Gast
altpr
inci
plesexpl
aint
heor
der
li
nesst
hatweof
tenseei
nourenv
ironmentandar
e
usedbyi
ndi
vi
dual
s,gr
oupsandor
gani
zat
ionf
ordi
ff
erentf
unct
ions.Forexampl
ethe
pr
inci
pleofuni
for
mit
yisusedbymanyor
gani
zat
ionsf
ori
dent
if
icat
ionwhi
chf
aci
l
itat
es
cont
roloft
hegr
oup.Forexampl
easchooluni
for
m hel
psi
nident
if
icat
ionofst
udent
s
andal
soser
vesasaneasywayofmoni
tor
ingst
udent
s.Foot
bal
lpl
ayer
swearuni
for
m
t
hathel
psi
nident
it
ywhi
chmakesi
teasyf
ort
hem t
opl
ayal
ongt
hei
rteam anddef
eat
t
heopponent
.Thepr
inci
plesofsi
mil
ari
tyenabl
ebusi
nesscommuni
ti
est
ogr
oupi
tems
i
ntheshopmaki
ngi
tlookneator
der
lyandeasyf
orcust
omer
stopi
ckwhatt
heywi
sht
o
buy
.Si
mil
arl
yinorki
tchenswegr
oupi
temsaccor
dingt
osi
mil
ari
ty.Thepr
inci
pleof
goodcont
inuat
ioni
sappl
i
edbysecur
it
yor
gani
zat
ions,andschool
s i
npar
ades.I
n
gener
alt
hegest
altpr
inci
plesofgr
oupi
ngappl
yinal
lspher
esofl
i
fe.

Gl
obalpr
ocedur
es
Whenwel
ookati
temsi
nourenv
ironmente.
gapai
nti
ng,
wet
endt
obl
endel
ement
sint
o
ani
ntegr
atedwhol
e.Thegest
altcr
edot
hatwhol
eisgr
eat
ert
hant
hesum ofi
tspar
t

53
v
iew per
cept
ion (and t
hinki
ng i
n gener
al)as a pr
ocess ofappr
ehendi
ng whol
e
conf
igur
ati
onorr
elat
ionshi
psandt
hisappr
ehensi
oni
smor
ethanj
ustt
hesum of a
gr
oupofi
ndependentsensat
ionsandt
hought
s..Accor
dingl
yinourper
cept
ionwef
ir
st
per
cei
vet
hewhol
eit
em bef
orewest
artanal
yzi
ngi
tspar
t.Forexampl
e,wheny
ouwor
k
i
nashopt
obuyadr
ess,orakeyboar
d,y
ouwi
l
lbeat
tract
edt
otheov
eral
llookbef
ore
y
oust
artanal
yzi
ngt
hei
ndi
vi
dualdet
ail
sofi
tsf
eat
ures.Gest
altv
iew appr
ehendi
ng
whol
esasanat
uralt
endencyofourper
cept
ualsy
stem andassuchi
sdonef
air
lyeasi
l
y
and aut
omat
ical
l
y.Thegl
obalf
eat
uresar
eregi
ster
ed f
ir
stf
oll
owed bysy
stemat
ic
anal
ysi
soft
hel
ocalf
eat
ures.Thegl
obalf
eat
uresr
epr
esentt
hev
isualpr
imi
ti
vei
nthat
t
heyar
eregi
ster
edaut
omat
ical
l
ywi
thouthi
gherl
eveli
nter
pret
ati
onoranal
ysi
s.To
anal
yze,anobj
ectf
oraccur
ateper
cept
ionweneedmor
einf
ormat
ion.Thi
shast
he
i
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatwear
eli
kel
ytomakei
naccur
ateper
cept
ioni
fwej
ustper
cei
vet
hingsi
n
ourenv
ironmentbasedonagl
obalv
iew.Weshoul
dal
way
sendeav
or t
orecei
veas
muchi
nfor
mat
ionaspossi
blef
oraccur
ateper
cept
ion

At
tendi
ngt
oinf
ormat
ion
At
tent
ioni
soneoft
hepr
ocessest
hatmakeupt
hewhol
epr
ocessofper
cept
ion.
At
tent
ioncant
husbeseenast
hegat
ewayt
hatal
l
owsi
nfor
mat
iont
obepr
ocessedf
or
act
ion.At
tent
ionmi
ghtal
sobeseenas ar
eser
voi
rofment
alr
esour
cest
hatwecan
dr
aw ont
oaccompl
i
shourdai
l
ythi
nki
ngt
asks.I
nfor
mat
iononwhi
chwechooset
o
f
ocusonourat
tent
ioni
sfur
theranal
yzedbyourwor
kingmemor
ytoenabl
eusr
espond
appr
opr
iat
ely
.

At
tent
ionhast
wonot
abl
efeat
ures.Onef
eat
urei
sthatat
tent
ioni
svol
unt
arycont
rolof
how wedealwi
thi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Thi
sfeat
urei
sbasi
sforconcept
ual
i
zat
ionof
at
tent
ionasgat
ewayi
ntowor
kingmemor
y.Wecanchoosewhatwewantt
oat
tendt
o
t
husl
eadi
ngt
ofur
theranal
ysi
sforcompr
ehensi
onofi
nfor
mat
ionwer
ecei
ve.The
secondf
eat
urei
sthatt
heat
tent
ioni
sli
mit
edi
ncapaci
ty.Wecannotmoni
toral
lev
ent
s
i
ntheenv
ironment
;nei
thercanwepayat
tent
ionf
orev
er.Ther
eisal
i
mitonev
ent
sor
t
hingswecanpayat
tent
iont
oinourenv
ironmentandt
her
eisal
soal
i
mitonhowl
ong
wecanr
emai
nat
tent
ive.
Thenot
ion ofl
i
mit
ed capaci
tyser
vest
hebasi
sofconcept
ual
i
zing at
tent
ion asa

54
r
eser
voi
rofment
alpr
ocess.Ther
eisal
i
mitt
oat
tent
ionr
esour
ceswehav
etodev
otet
o
per
for
mingt
asks.Whendeal
i
ngwi
thmul
ti
plest
reamsofi
nfor
mat
ionwehav
etwo
choi
ces;
wecanengagei
nsel
ect
iveat
tent
ionorengagei
ndi
vi
dedat
tent
ion
Theor
iesofat
tent
ion
Theor
ies ofat
tent
ion at
temptt
o expl
ain how cogni
ti
ve sy
stems oper
ate under
condi
ti
onsofpot
ent
ialsensor
yov
erl
oad.Oneoft
heor
ythathasbeenpr
oposedi
sone
t
hatv
iewsat
tent
ionasagat
ewayorf
il
ter
ingmechani
sm t
hatal
l
owssomei
nfor
mat
ion
t
ocomei
ntoconsci
ousawar
enesswhi
l
ekeepi
ngot
heri
nfor
mat
ionout
Oneoft
hef
ir
stt
heor
iesv
iewat
tent
ionasagat
ewayofi
nfor
mat
ioni
stheear
lysel
ect
ion
t
heor
y
Accor
dingl
y,mul
ti
plest
reamsofi
nfor
mat
ionmaket
hei
rwayt
ooursensor
ymemor
y.
Thei
nit
ialpr
ocessi
ngencodeseachsour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nter
msofi
tsphy
sical
char
act
eri
sti
cs.Att
hispoi
ntsour
cesar
efi
l
ter
edbasedont
hisi
nfor
mat
ionandonl
yone
sour
cei
ssel
ect
edf
orf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ng(
ident
if
icat
ionandmani
pul
ati
onofwor
king
memor
y.Forexampl
e,whent
her
eismusi
candatt
hesamet
imey
ouar
etal
ki
ngt
oa
f
ri
end,
youmaysel
ectt
oli
stent
owhataf
ri
end i
ssay
ingr
athert
hanr
endi
ti
onf
rom t
he
musi
c.Si
mil
arl
y,i
fyoudonotwantt
oli
stent
o whaty
ourf
ri
endi
ssay
ingy
oucoul
d
chooset
oli
stent
other
endi
ti
oni
nthemusi
c.I
tisr
efer
redt
oasear
lysel
ect
ionbecause
sel
ect
ionpr
ocesswher
ewher
ebywedesi
gnat
edi
nfor
mat
ionf
orf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ngi
s
sel
ect
edear
ly.
Howev
erear
lysel
ect
iont
heor
yispr
obl
emat
ici
nthesenset
hatpeopl
ecanat
tendt
o
mor
ethanonesour
ce.

At
tenuat
ionTheor
y
Theat
tenuat
iont
heor
ywaspr
oposed byTr
eisman(
1960)
.At
tenuat
iont
heor
yis
essent
ial
l
yasl
i
ghtmodi
fi
cat
ionofear
lysel
ect
iont
heor
ies.Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y
unat
tendedi
nfor
mat
ioni
snotcompl
etel
ybl
ockedf
rom f
urt
heranal
ysi
sbey
ondsensor
y
memor
yrat
heri
tisat
tenuat
edort
urneddown.Thust
heear
lyf
il
ter
ingofi
nfor
mat
ioni
s
notcompl
ete,i
tispar
ti
al,hencewemayst
il
lgett
opr
ocesssomeunat
tendedt
o
i
nfor
mat
ion.Unat
tended i
nfor
mat
ion al
though weakcan make i
tswayt
o wor
king
memor
y.Ri
esmanasci
tedbyRi
egl
er&Ri
egl
er,
(2004)pr
oposedt
hatsomewor
dsi
n
ourment
aldi
cti
onar
yar
eper
manent
lymor
eav
ail
abl
ethanot
her
sbecauseoft
hei
r
55
per
sonali
mpor
tance.Si
mil
arl
ysomewor
dsar
etempor
ari
l
ymor
eav
ail
abl
eduet
oa
cur
rentci
rcumst
ances

Lat
esel
ect
iont
heor
ies
Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
yal
lincomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion(
att
endedandunat
tendedmakesi
t
pastt
hesensor
yandent
erswor
kingmemor
yfori
dent
if
icat
ion.Af
teri
dent
if
icat
iononl
y
sel
ect
edpi
eceenj
oysf
urt
hercogni
ti
ve pr
ocessi
ng.Nonsel
ect
edi
nfor
mat
ioni
squi
ckl
y
f
orgot
tenduet
oli
mit
edcapaci
tyofwor
kingmemor
y.Thel
atesel
ect
ioneasi
l
yaccount
s
f
ori
dent
if
icat
ionofunat
tendedmessage.
Att
ent
ionaccor
dingt
olat
esel
ect
iont
heor
yis
l
i
mit
ed and t
hisl
i
mit
ati
on oper
atesata l
ate st
age.Hence al
though al
lincomi
ng
i
nfor
mat
ioni
sident
if
ied wecannotr
easonaboutt
her
espondt
oorr
ememberal
lofi
t.
Not
abl
y,at
tenuat
ionandl
atesel
ect
iont
heor
yshar
esi
mil
ari
ti
esbecausebot
htheor
ies
makepr
edi
cti
on aboutal
l
owi
ngf
ori
dent
if
icat
ionofunat
tendedi
nfor
mat
ion.Howev
er,
i
ntheAt
tenuat
iont
heor
y,i
dent
if
icat
ionofunat
tendedi
nfor
mat
ioni
sthe except
ion
r
athert
hant
her
ule.Thi
smeanst
hatnotal
ltheunat
tendedt
oinf
ormat
ioni
sfur
ther
pr
ocessed.Whet
heri
nfor
mat
ioni
sident
if
ieddependsont
hecont
extoft
heexactnat
ure
oft
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Ont
heot
herhandl
atesel
ect
iont
heor
yar
guest
hatt
hei
dent
if
icat
ion
ofmeani
ngsi
sther
uler
athert
hanexcept
ion.Thatmeansev
eni
fwear
enotpay
ing
at
tent
ionwest
il
lmakemeani
ngoutoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionwer
ecei
ve.

At
tent
ionascapaci
ty
Accor
dingt
ocapaci
tyt
heor
yat
tent
ion i
sli
mit
ed andmustbeal
l
ocat
ed accor
dingt
o
t
hepar
ti
cul
ardemandsofasi
tuat
ion.Somet
asksr
equi
remor
eofat
tent
ionalbudget
l
eav
ingl
essat
tent
ionf
ort
heper
for
manceofot
her
s.Forexampl
e,i
fyouar
ewor
kingout
amat
hemat
icalpr
obl
em,y
oumayneedt
opaymor
eat
tent
iont
othecal
cul
ati
onst
han
l
i
stent
othesweetst
oryf
rom y
ourf
ri
end.
Accor
dingt
oKahnemann(
1973)
,acogni
ti
vemechani
sm i
nvol
vedi
nat
tent
ioni
nvol
ves
cent
ralpr
ocessorwhi
chal
l
ocat
esourment
alr
esour
ces.Ther
esour
cesar
eal
l
ocat
ed
accor
dingt
othedemandputoncogni
ti
on.Howev
er,underl
i
mit
edr
esour
cesal
l
ocat
ion
pol
i
cyt
odi
str
ibut
eresour
cesi
sempl
oyed.Thi
sdependsont
hreef
act
orsi
.e.
 t
hecapaci
tyav
ail
abl
einr
elat
iont
othement
alt
asksunderconsi
der
ati
on

56
  endur
ing di
sposi
ti
on such as per
sonal
i
tyhabi
torl
ong t
erm goal
s and
moment
aryi
ntent
ionst
hati
simmedi
ater
elev
anceoft
hest
imul
i

 ourmoods,

Thet
hreef
act
orscombi
net
odet
ermi
newhatt
hecent
ral
processorwi
l
lnot
ices

I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantt
onott
hati
tiseasi
erpayat
tent
ionf
rom t
wodi
ff
erentmodal
i
ties
t
hanat
tendi
ngt
otwot
asksf
rom samesensor
ymodal
i
tye.
g.dr
ivi
ngasy
ouspeak.
Dr
ivi
ngr
equi
resmor
eofv
isualper
cept
ion whi
l
espeaki
ngorl
i
steni
ngt
omusi
cismor
e
audi
tor
y.Pay
ingat
tent
iont
odi
ff
erentt
asksi
nthesamemodal
i
tyi
sdi
ff
icul
te.
g.dr
ivi
ng
andr
eadi
ngwher
evi
sualper
cept
ioni
srequi
red.Accor
dingl
ytasksi
nter
fer
etoadegr
ee
t
hatmakesi
thar
dtot
api
ntot
hesamepoolr
esour
ces(
ment
ali
mageathand)
.Wi
th
di
ff
erentt
asksusi
ngdi
ff
erentsensor
ypr
ocessi
ngwecoul
dat
tendt
obot
hty
pesof
i
nfor
mat
ion.Anot
herf
act
ort
hatdet
ermi
neswhet
herwear
eabl
etoat
tendt
omor
ethan
onet
aski
showdi
ff
icul
tthet
aski
s

Mul
ti
modet
heor
yofat
tent
ion(
div
idedat
tent
ion)
Mul
ti
modalt
heor
ysuggest
sthatpeopl
ecanbeabl
etopayat
tent
iont
osev
eralt
asks.
Thi
smadepossi
blebecauseoff
lexi
bil
i
tyi
nthatpeopl
ecanshi
ftf
rom ear
lymodesof
at
tent
ion(pr
ocessi
ngonl
ythephy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
cst
olat
emodespr
ocessi
ngwhi
ch
i
nvol
vesmeani
ngoft
hei
ncomi
ngst
imul
i
.Gi
vent
hatwehav
evol
unt
arycont
rol
overhow
wedealwi
thi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionwear
ecapabl
eofdet
ermi
ningt
hebasi
sonwhi
ch
wesel
ecti
nfor
mat
ionf
orf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ng

Howev
erat
tendi
ngi
nthesemodeshassomecost
.Mor
ement
alcapaci
tyi
srequi
redf
or
i
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngmor
e.I
naddi
ti
on,di
vi
dedat
tent
ioncoul
dleadt
osomel
apses
l
eadi
ngt
oinaccur
atei
nfor
mat
ion

Ef
fect
sofpr
act
ice
Ther
eisev
idencet
hatwear
eabl
etoext
endt
heupperl
i
mitofourat
tent
ioncapaci
ty

57
wi
thsomepr
act
ice.Wi
thpr
act
icepeopl
egetbet
terand pr
act
icei
mpr
ovespeopl
e’
s
abi
l
ityt
oper
for
m mor
ethanonet
askbecauset
heski
l
ls ofoneoft
het
askbecomesn
aut
omat
ed-t
heybecomesowel
ll
ear
nedt
hatt
heyar
eper
for
medaut
omat
ical
l
ywi
thout
r
equi
ri
ngconsci
ousat
tent
ion.Wecanat
tendt
omor
ethanonet
aski
foneoft
hem
becomeshabi
tual
Aut
omat
ici
ty
Dev
elopsasar
esul
tofext
ensi
vepr
act
ice.Af
tery
ear
sofr
epeat
edl
yengagi
ngi
n aset
ofpr
ocess suchasdr
ivi
ng,t
hepr
ocessoccur
swi
thl
i
ttl
ement
al ef
for
t.Posner&
Sy
nder(
1975)not
ethr
eef
eat
uresofaut
omat
ici
tywhi
char
e
 Theyoccurwi
thouti
ntent
ion;
theyseem t
obeobl
i
gat
ory
 Aut
omat
icpr
ocessar
enotopent
o consci
ous awar
eness(
youdon’
t
r
efl
ectonaut
omat
icpr
ocess
 Aut
omat
icpr
ocessconsumesv
eryl
i
ttl
einwayofment
alr
esour
ces.
Logan(
1988)obser
vedt
hatpr
act
ice r
esul
tsi
ndi
ff
erentski
l
lsi
nvol
vedi
nper
for
ming
t
asksbei
ngwel
ded t
oget
heri
nto asi
ngl
euni
t(t
hemor
ewepr
act
icet
hemor
e
el
ement
soft
het
askar
echunkedt
oget
heri
ntol
argeruni
ts.
Cheng(
1985)ar
guedt
hat
pr
act
icepr
oducesaut
omat
izat
ion.Aut
omat
izat
ionenabl
esust
o
 wor
kmor
equi
ckl
yandef
fi
cient
lyand
 makesusabl
etoshar
eat
tent
ionbet
weent
asks
Aut
omat
izat
ional
sohasdi
sadv
ant
ages,i
tleadst
oact
ionsl
i
psi
.e.maki
ngmi
stakesi
n
whatwedo,
 Act
ionsl
i
psoccuri
ntheabsenceofat
tent
ion(
absent
mindedness)
 Thi
s coul
dleadt
oact
ivat
ioner
ror
(goi
ngt
odosomet
hingandy
ouf
orgetwhati
t
wasy
ouwant
edt
odo)
 I
tcoul
dal
sol
eadt
odescr
ipt
ioner
a(i
ncompl
etedescr
ipt
ionofwhaty
ouwantt
o
do
 Dat
adr
ivener
aist
heot
herbl
undert
hatcanoccur
,asar
esul
tofaut
omat
ion
(ext
ernal
eventcausei
nappr
opr
iat
eact
ivat
ionl
eadi
ngt
ounwant
edbehav
iour
 I
tcanal
sol
eadt
ocapt
ureer
ror
(anev
entt
hatshar
esomesi
mil
ari
tywi
tht
he
ot
herl
eadi
ngt
owr
ongact
ion.
 Aut
omat
edact
ionsar
econt
rol
l
edbymemor
yst
ruct
urescal
l
edschemas(
an

58
 or
gani
zed bodyofknowl
edget
hatgui
desmot
oract
ivi
ti
es.Each schema i
s
assumedt
ocov
eronl
yal
i
mit
edr
angeofknowl
edge

Memor
y

Memor
yist
hef
acul
tyofcogni
ti
onbywhi
chweencode,
stor
eandr
etr
iev
einf
ormat
ion.
Memor
yisani
mpor
tantaspecti
nourl
i
fe asi
tenabl
esust
ocar
ryoutourdai
l
y
act
ivi
ti
esandnav
igat
eourenv
ironment
.Wi
thoutmemor
yitwoul
dbedi
ff
icul
t t
o
oper
ate.Youwoul
drequi
real
otofment
alr
esour
cest
ofunct
ioni
nthewor
ld.I
nfacti
f
y
oudonothav
ememor
y,y
oucannotl
ear
n,wecoul
dnotl
ear
nordev
elopl
anguage,
r
elat
ionshi
ps,
norper
sonal
ident
it
y.

Memor
yisani
nfor
mat
ionalpr
ocessi
ngsy
stem wi
thexpl
i
citandi
mpl
i
citf
unct
ioni
ng.
Expl
i
citmemor
yisi
ntent
ionaland i
tisaboutpur
posef
uli
ntent
ionofst
orageand
r
etr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat
ion.Underexpl
i
citmemor
yist
hesemant
icandepi
sodi
cmemor
y.I
t
i
stheconsci
ousst
orageofi
nfor
mat
ion.Thei
mpl
i
citmemor
yisuni
ntent
ionalandi
t
r
efer
sto unconsci
ous st
orage of i
nfor
mat
ion.An exampl
e woul
d be l
ear
ning
unconsci
ousl
yorpr
ocedur
almemor
y.

Thememor
ypr
ocessorhast
hreedi
ff
erentcomponent
s.Thesear
e

 Sensoryprocessor
 Shortt
erm orworkingmemor
y
 Longterm memor y

Sensor
yMemor
y

Oursensear
eresponsi
blef
orr
ecei
vi
ng andst
ori
ngi
nfor
mat
ionj
ustl
ongenought
o
al
l
owt
hei
nfor
mat
iont
omov
etot
heshor
tter
m memor
y.Wehav
efi
vesensest
hatt
hat
al
l
ow i
ndi
vi
dual
sto r
etai
ninf
ormat
ionaf
tert
hest
imul
ithatwehav
eint
eract
edwi
th
di
sappear
.Thesei
ncl
ude;

 Senseofsi
ght
-iconi
cmemor
y
 Senseofhear
ing–echoi
cmemor
y

59
  Senseoft
ouch-hapt
icMemor
y
 Senseofsmel
l–ol
fact
orymemor
y
 Senseoft
ast
e-Gust
ator
ymemor
y

Accor
ding t
o At
kinson & Shaf
fri
n,(
1968)i
ncomi
ng i
nfor
mat
ion i
sbr
ief
lyhel
d and
pr
ocessedbysensor
yst
oreorsensor
ymemor
y.Fr
om t
her
ethei
nfor
mat
ioni
spaston
t
oshor
tter
m memor
yani
nfor
mat
ionbuf
feri
nwhi
chi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
sident
if
ied
andhel
dforf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ng

Shor
tter
m memor
y

Cowan(
2008)def
inesshor
tter
m memor
yfacul
ti
esoft
hehumanmi
ndt
hatcanhol
da
l
i
mit
edamountofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nav
eryaccessi
blest
atet
empor
ari
l
y.Ri
egl
erandRi
egl
er
(
2004)ont
heot
herhand descr
ibesShor
tter
m memor
yast
hesetofpr
ocesst
hatwe
uset
ohol
dandr
ehear
sei
nfor
mat
iont
hatoccupi
esourcur
rentawar
eness.Theshor
t
t
erm memor
yhasal
sobeendescr
ibedast
hewor
kingmemor
y.Thr
oughr
ehear
sal
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
heshor
tter
m memor
yist
ransf
err
edt
othel
ongt
erm memor
y

Char
act
eri
sti
csofshor
tter
m memor
y

 Shor
tter
m memor
yhasl
i
mit
eddur
ati
on.Thatmeanst
hatt
hei
nfor
mat
ionr
ecei
ved
f
rom oursensor
ylast
sforav
eryshor
tti
mebasi
cal
l
yforseconds.
 I
tal
sohav
eli
mit
edcapaci
tyandt
hisi
stest
edt
hroughmemor
yspan.STM canonl
y
keeponl
ysomuchofi
nfor
mat
ioni
.e.7+/
-2i
tems
Basedont
hechar
act
eri
sti
csshor
tter
m memor
ycanbev
eryl
i
mit
ing.Howev
er,wecan
i
ncr
easet
hecapaci
tyofshor
tter
m memor
ythr
oughchunki
ng

Chunki
ngi
nSTM
Al
thoughSTM i
sli
mit
ed,wecani
ncr
easet
hecapaci
tybycombi
ningi
nfor
mat
ioni
nto
l
argercomponent
sthr
ought
hepr
ocessofchunki
ngorr
ecodi
ng(
transl
atei
nfor
mat
ion
i
ntwomor
emanageabl
efor
ms.Forexampl
e,t
orememberal
ong at
elephonenumber
e.
g 00254723444222 whi
chhas mor
ethan9number
swecoul
dchunkt
henumber
s
as 00254 723444222.Wecoul
dal
sot
ransl
atei
nfor
mat
ioni
namanageabl
e e.
guse

60
ofacr
ony
mse.
gAcqui
redI
mmuneDef
ici
encySy
ndr
omeasAI
DS

Ourabi
l
ityt
ochunkorr
ecodei
nfor
mat
ioni
saf
fect
edbyanumberofv
ari
abl
es.I
fther
e
ar
emanyv
ari
abl
eswemaynotaccur
atel
yremember
.Inaddi
ti
onbecauseSTM hasbr
ief
dur
ati
on,
ther
ateofpr
esent
ati
oncanbeal
i
mit
ingf
act
ori
nchunki
ng
 Recodi
ngi
sal
soaf
fect
edbyknowl
edgebase
 Exper
ti
sei
nagi
vendomai
n
Ef
fect
sofwor
dlengt
h
 Shor
tter
m memor
yseemsnotonl
ytobel
i
mit
edbyt
hei
temsbutbyt
he
dur
ati
oni
ttakest
orecodet
hesetofi
tems
 Thel
ongeronet
akest
orecodei
nfor
mat
ione.
g.wor
dlengt
hs.Thel
ongert
he
wor
dst
hemor
edi
ff
icul
ttheyar
etober
emember
ed
Encodi
ngi
nshor
tter
m memor
y
Encodi
ngr
efer
stot
hepr
ocessofacqui
sit
ionofmat
eri
alt
othememor
y.Usi
ngour
senses,weencodei
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
heout
sidewor
ldAudi
tor
ychanneli
sdomi
nant
f
orm ofencodi
ngi
nSTM.Thi
shast
hei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hati
sweheari
nfor
mat
ionasi
tis
bei
ng r
ehear
sed i
n ouri
nnerv
oices. Resear
cher
s hav
e used exper
imenton
phonol
ogi
calsi
mil
ari
tyt
o demonst
rat
ethatmor
einf
ormat
ion i
s encoded t
hrough
echoi
csenses.Accor
dingl
y,si
mil
arsoundi
ngi
temsar
emor
edi
ff
icul
ttor
emembert
han
al
i
stof di
ff
erentsoundi
ngwor
ds(seeRi
egl
er& Ri
egl
er,2004)
. Ther
efor
eSTM
dependsont
hechar
act
eri
sti
cofpr
onunci
ati
on.

Not
abl
yhowev
er,t
hecodi
ngi
nSTM i
snotl
i
mit
edt
oaudi
tor
ycodi
ng,t
her
eisev
idence
t
hatv
isualcodi
ngal
sot
akespl
acei
nSTM.Vi
sualcodi
ngi
sani
mpor
tantf
orm of
r
epr
esent
ati
on and pr
ocessi
ng i
n STM.He pr
ocessi
ng mat
eri
ali
n ourconsci
ous
awar
enessal
soal
l
owf
orv
isualcodi
ng.I
magi
net
haty
ouar
etaki
ngat
ri
ptot
hemar
ket
,
doy
oual
way
srehear
set
henameoft
hemar
ketort
hev
isual
i
zat
ionoft
he oft
he
di
rect
ion oft
he mar
ket
?Lor
i-
Mei
er& Hal
pen (
1999)obser
vest
hatt
he abi
l
ityf
or
si
mul
taneousl
ymai
ntai
nrepr
esent
ati
onofVi
sual
/spat
iali
nfor
mat
ionaswel
laswel
las
whatobj
ect
swoul
dlookl
i
kewhen v
iewed f
rom anot
herper
spect
ivei
scr
it
icali
n
many
fiel
ds.Forexampl
e,i
nar
tanddesi
gn,t
hear
ti
stsmustv
isual
i
zet
hedesi
gnt
hey

61
wantt
omake,t
heydonotr
ehear
sev
erbal
l
y.Equal
l
yfor
archi
tect
uresi
tisper
hapst
he
v
isuali
magest
hatar
eatpl
ayi
nthei
rwor
kingmemor
yot
hert
hant
hesoundsoft
he
pr
ocessesoft
hepr
ocedur
est
hatt
heyuse.Pr
ocessi
ngi
nSTM canbeconcept
ual
i
zed
i
nfourcomponent
s
 Thi
sincl
ude;
 I
magegener
ati
onbr
ingi
ngani
magef
rom LTM t
oSTM
 I
magemai
ntai
ning(
hol
dingI
magef
orsomet
ime
 I
magescanni
ng-sear
chi
ngt
hei
magebei
nghel
dinSTM
 I
maget
ransf
ormat
ion
Thesecomponent
sal
l
owsust
ohol
dvi
sual
imagesi
nourshor
tter
m memor
y

FORGETTI
NGI
NSTM
Asdi
scussedSTM i
sli
mit
edi
ncapaci
tyanddur
ati
on,asar
esul
t oneoft
hemost
obv
iouschar
act
eri
sti
cofSTM i
squi
ckl
ossofi
nfor
mat
ion.Thi
sisat
tri
but
edt
osev
eral
f
act
orswhi
chi
ncl
ude

 Decay
Thi
sref
erst
olossofi
nfor
mat
ionduet
oti
mepassage.
 I
nter
fer
ence;
t
hisr
efer
stopr
esent
ati
onofnewmat
eri
alwhi
l
est
il
lpr
ocessi
ngt
heol
dermat
eri
als.
I
nter
fer
encecanoccuri
noneort
wobasi
cpat
ter
ns. Whenear
li
eri
nfor
mat
ion
i
nter
fer
es wi
thabi
l
ityt
oret
aini
nfor
mat
iont
hatcomesl
ateri
tiscal
l
edpr
oact
ive
i
nter
fer
ence.
Wher
elat
eri
nfor
mat
ioni
nter
fer
eswi
tht
heabi
l
ityt
oret
aint
hei
nfor
mat
iont
hat
occur
redear
li
er,i
tist
ermedr
etr
oact
ive.I
nter
fer
encemayhav
edamagi
ngef
fect
becausei
tmakest
hest
orageofi
nfor
mat
ion di
ff
icul
tthr
ough di
spl
acementor
ov
erwr
it
ing.I
nter
fer
ence as a r
esul
tofov
erwr
it
ing i
s mor
eli
kel
y when t
he
i
nfor
mat
ionbei
ngpr
esent
edhassomesi
mil
ari
ti
es.Thi
scausesconf
usi
on.The
i
nter
fer
encemayal
somaker
etr
iev
alexer
cisedi
ff
icul
t

62
Amodul
arappr
oacht
oSTM
Ther
esear
chi
nSTM hasr
eveal
edsev
eralmodel
sinSTM.Themostpopul
ari
sthe
wor
kingmemor
y
Wor
kingmemor
yisanumberofcl
osel
yint
eract
ingsubsy
stemst
hatcombi
net
osub
ser
veahostofhi
gherl
evelment
alpr
ocessi
ngi
ncl
udi
ng l
anguagecompr
ehensi
on
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngandr
easoni
ngamongot
her
s. Twooft
hesubsy
stemsi
ncor
por
ate
not
ionsofaudi
tor
y(ar
ti
cul
ator
yloop)andv
isual(
visuospat
ialsket
chpad)codi
ngi
n
STM.Thet
hir
dcomponentser
ves(
thecent
ralexecut
ive)ser
vesast
hebossi
nSTM
super
visi
ngt
heoper
ati
onoft
heot
hersubsy
stemsandcar
ryi
ngouti
mpor
tantdut
iesof
i
tsown.

Centr
alexecuti
ve
Comprehension
Reasoni
ng
Probl
em solvi
ng

Art
iculat
oryloop Visualspatial
Sub-vocalr
ehearsal sketchpad
Imager y
Phonol
ogi
calst
orage Spatialreasoni
ng

Thear
ti
cul
ator
yLoop
I
nfor
mat
ioni
ntheshor
tter
m memor
ycanbehel
dtempor
ari
l
yin act
ivef
orm basedon
audi
ti
on.Thi
sisaccompl
i
shedbyar
ti
cul
ator
yloop.Ar
ti
cul
ator
yloopi
smadeupoft
wo
subcomponent
s,phonol
ogi
calst
oret
hathol
dsi
nfor
mat
iont
empor
ari
l
yandar
ti
cul
ator
y
pr
ocessr
efer
redt
oas t
hev
ocalr
ehear
salmechani
sm usedt
orehear
sei
nfor
mat
ion.
Thephonol
ogi
call
oopdeal
swi
thsoundorphonol
ogi
cali
nfor
mat
ion. Phonol
ogi
cal

63
t
racesar
epr
onet
orapi
ddecay
.Acoust
icr
ehear
salal
soknownasar
ti
cul
ator
yrehear
sal
componenthel
psr
evi
vet
hememor
ytr
aces.
Art
icul
ati
onr
equi
rest
hecoor
dinat
ionof
v
ari
ousmot
ormov
ementt
opr
oducet
hebasi
cuni
tsofcommuni
cat
ionsy
stem wher
e
t
hoseuni
tsar
esoundorhandmov
ement
sasi
n si
gnl
anguage.Thi
smeanst
hat
al
thoughaudi
ti
oni
sdomi
nanti
nSTM ot
herf
ormsofar
ti
cul
ati
onal
soexi
stsi
nwor
king
memor
y

Ther
ear
efi
vef
eat
urest
hatsuppor
tar
ti
cul
ator
yloop.Thesear
e
 Theef
fect
sofphonol
ogyonr
emember
ing.Wor
dswi
thphonol
ogi
calsi
mil
ari
ty
ar
edi
ff
icul
ttor
emember
 Ar
ti
cul
ator
ysuppr
essi
on:Memor
yforv
erbalmat
eri
ali
simpai
red when
peopl
ear
easkedt
osaysomet
hingi
rr
elev
ant
.Thi
sisassoci
atedwi
thdi
ff
icul
t
i
nrehear
sal
.Peopl
ear
enotabl
etor
ehear
sei
rr
elev
antmat
eri
al

 Tr
ansf
erofi
nfor
mat
ion:I
nfor
mat
ionpr
esent
edi
nvi
suali
str
ansf
err
edt
oan
audi
tor
ycodet
oal
l
owsub-
vocal
rehear
sal
 Neur
opsy
chol
ogi
cal
evi
dence:
Adef
ect
ivephonol
ogi
cal
stor
eexpl
ainst
he
behav
iorofpat
ient
swi
thaspeci
fi
cdef
ici
tinphonol
ogi
cal
shor
t-
ter
m memor
y.
Forexampl
eAphasi
cpat
ient
swi
thdev
elopment
alv
erbaldy
spr
axi
aar
e
unabl
etosetupt
hespeechmot
orcodesnecessar
yforar
ti
cul
ati
oncaused
byadef
ici
encyoft
hear
ti
cul
ator
yrehear
sal
process.
 Ont
heot
herhand,pat
ient
swi
th dy
sar
tri
awhosespeechpr
obl
emsar
e
secondar
y

Vi
suo-spat
ialsket
chpad
Vi
sualaccor
ding al
so t
akespl
acei
n wor
king memor
y. Baddl
ey(
1986)pr
oposed
cor
respondi
ngsy
stem wi
thi
ntheshor
tter
m memor
y.Het
ermedi
tvi
suo-
sket
chpad.
Thi
s componentofWor
kingMemor
yisr
esponsi
blef
orst
orageandmani
pul
ati
onof
v
isualandspat
iali
nfor
mat
ion.Thev
isuosket
chpadseemst
ooper
atei
ndependent
lyof

64
ot
hersy
stem suchasar
ti
cul
ator
yloop.
In ot
herwor
dst
hev
isuosket
chpadencodi
ng
andar
ti
cul
ator
ycodi
ngdonoti
nter
fer
ewi
thoneanot
her

Thecent
ral
execut
ive
Thi
sist
het
hir
dcomponentofWor
kingMemor
y.Thecent
ralexecut
ivei
sthecapaci
ty
al
l
ocat
or f
or at
tent
ionalsy
stems. When a par
ti
cul
ar t
ask demands ext
ensi
ve
i
nvol
vementcent
ralexecut
ivedepl
oysnecessar
y.Thecent
ralexecut
ivei
sal
sot
hought
t
obei
nvol
vedi
nhi
gherl
eveloft
houghtpr
ocesssuchas r
easoni
ngandl
anguage
compr
ehensi
on.
Becauset
he capaci
tyofat
tent
ional i
sli
mit
ed,t
heexecut
iveonl
yhas
somuch.I
fthet
aski
ssodemandi
ngt
hecent
ralexecut
ivewi
l
lbedr
ainedandcompl
ex
t
hinki
ngwi
l
lsuf
fer
Summar
yofwor
kingmemor
y
Wor
kingMemor
yischar
act
eri
zedbyl
i
mit
edcapaci
ty.Chunki
ngi
sthemet
hodt
hatcan
hel
pincr
easet
hecapaci
tyofshor
tter
m/wor
kingmemor
y.Themai
nmodeofcodi
ng
phonol
ogi
calandi
spr
onet
orapi
ddecay
.Acoust
icr
ehear
salhel
ps r
evi
vet
hememor
y
t
race TheWM r
epr
esent
sthei
mmedi
ate asdy
nami
csetofpr
ocessnotonl
yfor
st
oragebutal
sof
ormani
pul
ati
onandconsi
der
ati
on.Wor
kingMemor
yisext
remel
y
i
mpor
tantand ser
ves asassor
toff
oundat
ion f
ormor
e compl
ext
askssuch as
l
anguageandr
easoni
ng

Longt
erm Memor
y

Encodi
ngandRet
ri
evalpr
ocessi
nlongt
erm Memor
y
Aswehi
ghl
i
ght
edmemor
yser
vesast
hecor
ner
stoneofcogni
ti
on,i
nfor
mingand
assi
sti
ngev
erypr
ocessi
nourcogni
ti
on.Wor
kingmemor
yiscr
it
icalf
orpr
ocessi
ngof
i
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionespeci
all
ywhencar
ryi
ngoutt
asks,
butasar
gued,
iti
sver
yli
mit
ed
i
ncapaci
tyanddur
ati
on.Thi
smeanst
hati
tisi
mpossi
blet
ouset
heshor
tter
m memor
y
al
onef
orourcogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Longt
erm memor
yist
heot
hercomponentofmemor
y
t
hati
scr
uci
alf
orourcogni
ti
vepr
ocesses.Longt
erm memor
yhasahugecapaci
tyt
o
st
orei
nfor
mat
ionandcanst
orei
nfor
mat
ionf
oral
ongt
ime.

65
Longt
erm memor
yfor
mst
hedat
abasef
orpat
ter
nrecogni
ti
on,l
anguage,pr
obl
em
sol
vi
ng,r
easoni
ng,cr
eat
ivet
hinki
nganddeci
sionmaki
ng.Thi
sisi
mpor
tantcogni
ti
ve
t
asksi
nourdai
l
yli
ves. Forexampl
e,f
orust
osol
vepr
obl
emsweneedpr
evi
ous
i
nfor
mat
iont
hati
srel
evantt
ocombi
newi
tht
hecur
renti
nfor
mat
iont
oef
fect
ivel
ysol
ve
pr
obl
ems.Pr
ocedur
esusedi
naddr
essi
ngv
ari
ouspr
obl
emsneedt
obui
l
donpr
evi
ous
exper
ience.Si
mil
arl
y,r
ecogni
ti
onofpat
ter
ns,
thi
ngsi
nourenv
ironmentandev
enpeopl
e
i
sbased on memor
y.Ther
efor
ewi
thoutl
ong t
erm memor
yli
fewoul
d comet
oa
st
andst
il
l.
Long t
erm memor
yisal
so i
mpor
tantf
rom a per
sonalst
and poi
nt,i
thousesour
aut
obi
ogr
aphi
es,t
heper
sonalhi
stor
iest
hatgi
veusasenseofi
dent
it
yandpl
acei
nthe
wor
ld.

COMPONENTSOFLONGTERM MEMORY
Longt
erm memor
yismadeupofdi
ff
erentsect
ionst
hatst
orei
nfor
mat
ion.Ther
ear
e
di
ff
erentsubsect
ionsoft
hel
ongt
erm memor
ythatar
eresponsi
blef
ordi
ff
erentt
ypes
ofmemor
y. Howev
er,f
rom abr
oaderper
spect
ivet
her
ear
etwot
ypesofmemor
y.
Thesear
eexpl
i
citandi
mpl
i
citmemor
y
Expl
ici
tmemor
y(decl
arat
ivememor
y)
Thi
sref
erst
omemor
iest
hatar
econsci
ousl
yav
ail
abl
esuchasi
nfor
mat
iony
ouusei
n
exami
nat
ion,r
emember
ing ev
ent
sata par
ty,meani
ng ofwor
dsorknowl
edgeon
ani
mal
swi
thi
ntheenv
ironmente.
t.
c.Expl
i
citmemor
yisdel
i
ber
ateandwedr
awoni
tto
car
ryoutmanyact
ivi
ti
esi
nourdai
l
yli
ves.Expl
i
citmemor
yhast
hreemaj
orsubdi
vi
sions.
Thesear
e;
 Epi
sodi
cmemor
y
 Semant
icmemor
y
 Aut
obi
ogr
aphi
cal
memor
y

Epi
sodi
cmemor
y:
Epi
sodi
cmemor
yref
erst
omemor
yforper
sonal
l
yexper
iencedev
ent
sint
imeaswel
las
suppor
ti
ng t
hei
rinf
ormat
ion and r
etr
iev
al.An exampl
e ofepi
sodi
c memor
yis

66
r
emember
ingaboutapar
tyy
ouat
tended,aspor
tsev
ent
siny
ourcampusoranat
tack
bygangst
ers.Epi
sodi
cmemor
yist
ypi
cal
l
yassoci
atedwi
thar
ecol
l
ect
ionofst
rong
f
eel
i
ngs.Epi
sodi
cmemor
iesof
teni
ncl
udeanaf
fect
ive(
emot
ional
)component(
Tul
vi
ng
1983)
.Thi
shasbeenf
oundt
oaf
fectencodi
ng.Forexampl
e,i
fyouf
indy
our
sel
fina
v
eryf
ear
fulev
entsuchasanat
tackf
rom gangst
ers,
youmaynotencodeal
laspect
sof
t
heev
entduet
ofear
.Si
mil
arl
ywheny
ouar
etoohappyy
oumayov
erl
ookcer
tai
n
i
nfor
mat
ionandf
ocusonl
yont
hei
nfor
mat
iont
haty
ouenj
oy.Epi
sodi
cmemor
yhas
beenf
oundt
obev
ulner
abl
etof
orget
ti
ng.

Semant
icmemor
y

Semant
icmemor
yref
erst
oknowl
edgeofi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hewor
ldsuchasmeani
ng
ofwor
ds andi
temsi
nthewor
ld.Unl
i
keepi
sodi
cmemor
y,semant
icmemor
yisnot
char
act
eri
zed wi
th st
rong r
ecol
l
ect
ivenes. Semant
ic memor
yis al
so r
esi
stantt
o
f
orget
ti
ng.Youcanr
emembernamesofpeopl
eorpl
acesy
oul
ear
ntl
ongt
imeago.You
al
socanr
emembermeani
ngsofmanywor
ds,
ort
hingsy
oul
ear
nti
npr
imar
yschool
s

Aut
obi
ogr
aphi
calmemor
y

Thi
sismemor
y aboutev
ent
sandper
sonalexper
iences f
rom ani
ndi
vi
dual
sownl
i
fe.
Themaj
ordi
ff
erencebet
weenepi
sodi
candaut
obi
ogr
aphi
cali
sthatt
hel
ateri
shi
ghl
y
sel
fref
erenced.Towar
dst
hisend,aut
obi
ogr
aphi
calmemor
iesar
easv
ari
edaspeopl
e
whomaket
hem. Manyf
act
orsaf
fectt
hef
orm andqual
i
tyofaut
obi
ogr
aphy
.Thi
s
i
ncl
ude:;i
ncl
ude emot
ions,dev
elopment
alst
ages and t
he gender of cul
tur
al
backgr
oundoft
her
emember
er.Resear
cher
sonaut
obi
ogr
aphi
calmemor
yident
if
ythr
ee
mai
npat
ter
ns

 Ther
ear
efewmemor
iesf
rom ear
li
erl
i
feal
mostnone bef
oret
heageof
t
hree(
3yr
s)aphenomenont
ypi
cal
l
yter
medchi
l
dhoodamnesi
a
 Ther
eisgr
eat
ernumberofmemor
iesf
rom age10-30aphenomenon
t
ermedr
emi
niscencebump
 Ther
eisast
andar
dfor
get
ti
ngcur
vef
ori
nfor
mat
iont
hatoccur
sint
hel
ast
20y
ear
s.Mostoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionr
ecal
l
edbyel
der
sisf
or ev
ent
sthat

67
 hav
ehappenedr
ecent
ly.
Functi
onsofautobi
ographi
cmemor i
es
 Communi cati
vefuncti
on
A signi
fi
cantpartofconv er
sati
on we hav
e wi
th ot
her
sis about ourper
sonal
st
ori
esr
emi
niscencebump.Aut
obi
ogr
aphi
cmemor
yar
epower
ful
int
hisr
egar
d.Rel
ati
ng
det
ail
edaut
obi
ogr
aphyal
soal
l
owsust
oconnectemot
ional
l
ywi
thot
her
sinani
nti
mat
e
andi
mmedi
ateway
Emoti
onalf
unct
ion
Accor
dingt
oPal
mer(1998)aut
obi
ogr
aphi
cmemor
yser
vesani
mpor
tantf
unct
ioni
n
t
hati
thel
psust
oor
gani
ze,
ref
lectonandt
hinkt
hroughi
mpor
tantl
i
feev
ent
s.Most
appr
oachesi
npsy
chot
her
apyemphasi
zeonconnect
ionbet
weenonesper
sonal
memor
iesandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
funct
ioni
ng.Thei
nabi
l
ityofmanydepr
essi
vest
orecal
l
t
hespeci
fi
csofmemor
iesdet
erst
hei
rabi
l
ityt
osol
vecur
rentpr
obl
emsandt
oimagi
nea
bet
terf
utur
e.Accor
dingt
oHer
man,
(1992)r
ecount
ingonesper
sonalmemor
iesof
t
raumai
ndet
ail
siscr
it
ical
forr
ecov
ery
Dir
ect
iveFunct
ion
Accor
dingtoPalmer(
1998)
,di
rect
ivef
unct
ionofaut
obi
ogr
aphi
cmemor
ycanhel
p
di
rectf
utur
ebehav
iour
s.Lessonsl
ear
ntf
rom pr
evi
ousexper
iencear
ecr
uci
ali
nthe
f
utur
eev
ent
sev
eni
fwhenal
ldet
ail
sar
enotr
emember
ed

I
mpl
ici
tmemor
y

I
mpl
i
citmemor
yal
sor
efer
redt
oaspr
ocedur
almemor
yist
hememor
yabout
t
heuseofobj
ect
s orbodypar
tst
o car
ryouta t
ask.Thi
smemor
yis
consi
der
ednondecl
arat
ionbecausei
toccur
soutofourconsci
ous.I
mpl
i
cit
memor
yisr
emember
ingi
nfor
mat
ionwi
thoutconsci
ousawar
eness.Schect
er(
1996)
andot
herr
esear
cher
ssuggestt
hati
mpl
i
citmemor
ymayuseofi
nfor
mat
ionbasedon
pr
evi
ousexper
iencebutwi
thoutr
eal
i
zingt
haty
ouhadi
nter
act
edwi
tht
hei
nfor
mat
ion
bef
ore.Forexampl
eyoumi
ghtbedescr
ibi
ngsomet
hingt
oaf
ri
endwi
that
houghtt
hati
t
i
sanewi
deabef
orey
oul
ear
nthati
twasnotanewi
dea.Bar
ri
os(
1995)ont
heot
her
handv
iewsi
mpl
i
citmemor
ytobeunder
stoodi
nter
msofcues.Accor
dingl
y,hear
gues
t
hati
ncodi
ngspeci
fi
cit
ypr
inci
ple,
somepi
ecesofmemor
ygetact
ivat
edbyacuebut
t
heent
ir
ememor
yisnotr
etr
iev
ed.I
nst
eadonei
sisl
eftwi
thaf
eel
i
ngoff
ami
l
iar
it
ythat

68
cannotber
eadi
l
yexpl
ained.I
mpl
i
citmemor
yist
ypi
calmeasur
edi
nter
msofpr
imi
ngor
benef
iti
nper
for
mancef
rom pr
evi
ousexposur
etot
hewor
d

Encodi
ng,
stor
ageandr
etr
iev
ali
ntheLongt
erm memor
y
Thepr
ocessofr
emember
ingandappl
i
cat
ionofi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hel
ongt
erm memor
y
canbev
iewedasadescr
ipt
ivef
ramewor
khatencompassest
hreeaspect
swhi
char
e:
encodi
ng ,st
orage and r
etr
iev
al.Mel
ton (
1963)suggest
ed t
hatt
he pr
ocess of
r
emember
ingcanbechar
act
eri
zedi
nter
msoft
het
hreest
ages:
encodi
ng,
stor
ageand
r
etr
iev
al
Encodi
ng
Youwi
l
lrecal
lthatourf
ivesenses ar
ethegat
est
hroughwhi
chwer
ecei
vef
rom t
he
st
imul
iinourwor
ld.Thei
nfor
mat
ioni
str
ansmi
tt
edchemi
cal
l
ytoabr
ainsandv
iat
he
shor
tter
m memor
yandf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
scodedi
nthel
ongt
erm
memor
y.Themai
nmodeofencodi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
nthel
ongt
erm memor
y semant
ic
(
Meani
ng)codi
ng. Wet
ryt
omakemeani
ngoft
hewor
ds,t
hei
mages,soundsand
smel
l
se.
t.
ctoenabl
eusr
ememberf
oral
ongt
ime.Howev
er,
othert
hanmeani
ng,
visual
,
acoust
icaswel
lasot
hermodee.
g.f
eel
i
ngsmel
landt
ast
e

St
oragei
nthel
ongt
erm memor
y
St
orageofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nvol
vesf
ormat
ionofsomet
ypesofmemor
yrepr
esent
ati
onor
memor
ytr
aces.I
twi
l
lber
ecal
l
edt
hatt
her
ear
edi
ff
erentsubdi
vi
sionsr
esponsi
blef
or
st
ori
ngdi
ff
erentt
ypesofmemor
ies.Towar
dst
hisend,pr
ocessi
ngi
nthel
ongt
erm
memor
yent
ail
ssor
ti
ngt
oal
l
owst
orageofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nappr
opr
iat
esect
ions.

Ret
ri
eval
Ret
ri
evalr
efer
stoy
ourabi
l
ityt
ogetsomet
hingoutoft
hememor
yoncei
thasbeen
encodedandst
ored.I
tist
heabi
l
ityt
orecal
li
nfor
mat
ionst
oredi
nmemor
y.
Remember
ingi
ntheLongt
erm Memor
y
Thet
hreeaspect
sofmemor
y,wor
ktoget
hert
oenabl
eremember
ingofi
nfor
mat
ion.
Remember
ingdependscr
it
ical
l
yoni
nter
act
ionbet
weenencodi
ng,andr
etr
iev
al;
thati
s
t
osuggestt
hatencodi
ngf
act
orsi
nfl
uencememor
y.Ourabi
l
ityt
orememberdepends
on whatwedo t
othei
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Ther
ear
esev
eralencodi
ngf
act
orst
hat

69
mi
ghtaf
fectourabi
l
ityt
oremember
.Thesei
ncl
ude
At
tent
ion;
At
tent
ionist
hegat
ewayofconsci
ouspr
ocessi
ng.Youar
eli
kel
ytocal
lsomet
hingt
o
whi
chy
oupai
dat
tent
ionAt
tent
ionl
eadst
olongerl
ast
ingandmor
eret
ri
evalmemor
y
t
race.Focusedat
tent
ioni
snecessar
yforexpl
i
citandr
ecol
l
ect
ionofev
ent
s

Repet
iti
on;
Mater
ialthati
spr
esent
edmor
ethanoncei
seasi
ert
oremember
.Howev
er,
themodeof
r
epet
it
ionwi
l
lal
soaf
fectr
emember
ing.Asst
udent
swecant
ryt
orepeati
nfor
mat
ion
l
ear
nti
ncl
asst
hroughmassedpr
act
iceordi
str
ibut
edpr
act
ice.Massedr
epet
it
ionr
efer
s
t
orepeat
edr
epr
esent
ati
ont
hatoccurcl
osel
ytoget
heri
nti
me.
Anexampl
eofmassed
pr
act
icei
swhenwai
tunt
ilt
hel
astweekoft
hesemest
erandst
artr
evi
singi
nal
luni
ts
l
ear
nt.Di
str
ibut
edr
epet
it
ionr
efer
stopr
esent
ati
onsspr
eadov
ert
ime.Forexampl
eas
st
udenty
oumaypr
ogr
ammey
our
sel
ftor
evi
seev
eryweekt
hroughoutt
hesemest
er.

Thedi
str
ibut
edr
epl
eti
onhasadv
ant
agesov
ermassedr
epet
it
ionasar
esul
tofspaci
ng
ef
fect
s.Massed r
epet
it
ion suf
fer
sfr
om def
ici
ent pr
ocessi
ng v
iew (
in second
r
epr
esent
ati
on one does notpay at
tent
ion r
equi
red.Si
mil
arl
yfr
om t
he encodi
ng
v
ari
abi
l
ityv
iew ,undermassed condi
ti
on t
her
eisl
i
ttl
e amountoft
ime bet
ween
pr
esent
ati
onshencet
hecor
respondi
ngmemor
yrepr
esent
ati
onwi
l
lbesi
mil
ar and
r
elat
ivel
yindi
scr
imi
nabl
e.
Rehear
sal;
Rehear
sali
scl
osel
yli
nkedt
o r
epet
it
ionbutt
heyar
edi
ff
erent
.Repet
it
ionr
efer
stot
he
f
actt
hatani
tem i
spr
esent
edmor
ethanonce,
whi
l
erehear
salr
efer
stohowt
hati
tem i
s
t
houghtabouti
nter
nal
l
y.I
tref
erst
oappl
yi
ngal
abel
toanyact
ivepr
ocessi
ngt
hatkeeps
i
nfor
mat
ionav
ail
abl
einconsci
ousnesssucht
hatt
hei
nfor
mat
ioncan i
mmedi
atel
yand
accur
atel
y be r
ecal
l
ed .I
tref
erst
o deeper pr
ocessi
ng t
hatenabl
es accur
ate
mai
ntenanceofi
nfor
mat
ion.Rehear
sal i
snecessar
yforr
emember
ingasi
tleadst
o
i
mpr
ovedabi
l
ityt
orecogni
zei
nfor
mat
ion.Howev
ersuccessf
ulr
ecogni
ti
ondependson
t
hedegr
eet
owhi
chy
ouhav
ethor
oughl
ypr
ocessedi
ndi
vi
dual
item whi
l
erecal
ldepends
mor
eonmar
kingassoci
ati
onst
hewoul
dber
emember
edi
tems.
Abet
teral
ter
nat
ivet
o
mai
ntai
ningr
ehear
sali
sel
abor
ati
ver
ehear
sal
.Thi
sinv
olv
est
hinki
ngaboutt
hemeani
ng

70
oft
hei
nfor
mat
iont
hati
stober
emember
edaswel
lasmaki
ngassoci
ati
onf
rom t
hat
i
nfor
mat
iont
othei
nfor
mat
ional
readyst
oredi
nyourmemor
y

Lev
elsofpr
ocessi
ng
Thenoti
onofmemorydependsonhowi
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocessedatencodi
ng.Cr
aik&
Lockhar
tci
tedbyRi
egl
er&Ri
egl
er,
(2004)
obser
vedt
hatt
hel
evel
ofpr
ocessi
ng
i
sa cr
it
icaldet
ermi
nantofwhet
heri
nfor
mat
ion wi
l
lbe r
emember
ed.Accor
dingl
y,
anal
ysi
sofi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionpr
oceedsf
rom shal
l
ow and super
fi
cialanal
ysi
s of
t
hest
ruct
uralf
eat
ures t
omor
edeepand t
hor
oughanal
ysi
sofmeani
ng.I
nfor
mat
ion
pr
ocessedt
oadeepl
evelwi
l
lbeeasi
l
yremember
edt
hant
hatt
hatwhi
chi
sshal
l
ow
(
Riegl
er&Ri
egl
er,
2004)
.
Or
gani
zat
ion
Memor
yalsodependsont
hedegr
eet
owhi
chev
ent
sar
eor
gani
zedorst
ruct
ured.
Thedegr
eet
owhi
chi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
sst
ruct
uredexer
tspower
fulef
fect
son
memor
y.St
rat
egi
cor
gani
zat
ionf
orexampl
ewhi
chr
efer
sto,del
i
ber
atel
yimposi
ng
st
ruct
urei
nincomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioncanbeapower
fuldet
ermi
nantofef
fect
iveencodi
ng.
Thi
scoul
dinv
olv
echunki
ngbygr
oupi
ngi
temswi
thsi
mil
armeani
ngt
oai
dourmemor
y.
Forexampl
ewecoul
dgr
ouppl
ant
sasmonocot
yledonsorf
rui
tsf
oreasyr
emember
ing

Di
sti
nct
iveencodi
ng
Di
sti
nct
ivenessr
efer
stot
hedegr
eet
owhi
chanev
entcont
rast
swi
thot
herev
ent
sin
t
hesur
roundi
ng.Thecl
assi
ctheef
fectofdi
sti
nct
ivenessonmemor
ytheVonRest
orf
f
phenomenon demonst
rat
es t
hati
sol
ated i
tem i
s wel
lremember
ed.I
nlear
ning
i
nst
it
uti
onsl
ear
ner
scoul
dusedi
ff
erentcol
orf
ort
hekeywor
dst
heywi
sht
oremember
i
nal
esson

Vi
sualencodi
ng
Vi
sualcodi
ngisanot
herf
act
ort
hathaspower
fulef
fectonmemor
y.I
nfor
mat
iont
hati
s
codedi
npi
ctor
ialf
orm ori
magi
ngt
endst
ober
emember
edwel
l
.Thepi
ctur
esuper
ior
it
y
ef
fecti
sthoughtt
obenef
itf
rom t
hedual
codet
heor
y.Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
yther
ear
e
t
wosy
stemsofencodi
ngt
hati
sver
balwhi
chi
ncl
udessy
mbol
i
ccodesandi
magi
nabl
e

71
andi
ncl
udessy
mbol
i
ccodest
hatcor
respondst
otheact
ualphy
sicalobj
ect
s.Concr
ete
concept
sandconcept
spr
esent
edi
nthepi
ctur
ear
eencodedi
ntobot
hsy
stemswhi
l
e
abst
racti
nfor
mat
ioni
sencodedi
nasi
ngl
emode.
Ret
ri
evalpr
ocessf
rom LTM

Successf
ulencodi
ng and st
orage ofi
nfor
mat
ion i
s necessar
y butnotsuf
fi
cient
guar
ant
eel
atermemor
y.Remember
ingal
soi
nvol
vesr
etr
iev
alwher
ebywegai
naccess
t
o encoded mat
eri
al.The ef
fect
iveness ofr
etr
iev
aldepends on ef
fect
iveness of
encodi
ngandst
orage.
Inf
ormat
ionencodedi
nourmemor
ymaybeav
ail
abl
eyetwear
e
unabl
etor
ecal
l
.Accessi
bil
i
tyt
oinf
ormat
ion av
ail
abl
ein ourmemor
ydepends on
appr
opr
iat
eremi
nder
s.The r
emi
nder
sorr
athercuesai
d ust
o getmat
eri
alf
rom
memor
y.I
nessence,
remember
ingdependsont
heamountofov
erl
apbet
weenwhati
s
happeni
ngatr
etr
iev
alandwhathappenedatencodi
ng.Encodi
ngspeci
fi
tyi
simpor
tant
f
orr
emember
ing.The i
mpl
i
cat
ion i
sthatt
he appr
opr
iat
eret
ri
evalcues t
hatar
e
det
ermi
nedbywhathappenedatencodi
ngar
eimpor
tantf
orr
etr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat
ion
f
rom t
hel
ongt
erm memor
y
Ret
ri
eval
:Aneffecti
veEncodi
ngst
rategy
Ret
ri
eval
isnecessaryt
odemonstr
atethati
nfor
mat
ionhasbeenef
fect
ivel
yencoded
Howev
er,r
etr
iev
alcanbeut
il
izedt
oenhancey
ourabi
l
ityt
oret
ri
evei
nfor
mat
ionata
l
aterpoi
nti
nti
me.Thatmeanst
hatwhi
l
eyouar
est
udy
ingt
hemat
eri
aly
ouneedt
o
r
ememberi
tisi
mpor
tantt
oper
iodi
cal
l
yat
temptt
oret
ri
evet
hei
nfor
mat
iony
ouar
e
t
ryi
ngencode.I
not
herwor
dst
esty
ourabi
l
ityt
orecal
linf
ormat
ionasy
oupr
act
ice.
Test
ingef
fecti
ndi
cat
est
heper
iodi
calr
etr
iev
aloft
ober
emember
edi
nfor
mat
iondur
ing
acqui
sit
ioni
smor
ebenef
ici
alf
orl
aterr
etent
ion

Memor
yImprov
ement
 I
mprov
ingmemoryishar
dment
alt
asksandr
equi
resappl
i
cat
ionofbasi
cpr
inci
ples
suchasat
tent
ion,or
gani
zat
ion,el
abor
ati
onandi
mager
y.Anot
herwayofi
mpr
ovi
ng
memor
yist
hroughmemor
yai
ds.Thi
scoul
dbei
nter
nalmemor
yai
dsorext
ernal
memor
yai
ds
 I
nter
nalmemor
yai
dsr
efer
stoi
nter
nalencodi
ngst
rat
egi
esweempl
oyt
omake
i
nfor
mat
ion mor
ememor
abl
eand i
nvol
vet
hepr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ion ofencodi
ng

72
 f
act
ors.Forexampl
e,wemaywantt
oremembercogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogyt
hrough
encodi
ng t
hepr
ocessest
hatf
allundercogni
ti
on.
;wecoul
dremembera pl
ace
basedont
heexper
iencesweencount
eredatt
hepl
ace,orwecoul
dremember
someonebasedonourper
sonalr
elat
ionshi
pswi
tht
hem.Wecoul
dal
somemor
izes
si
gnst
hathel
pusr
ememberpl
acese.
t.
c.
 Peopl
eal
souseext
ernalmemor
yai
dswhi
char
ephy
sicalr
emi
nder
swecr
eat
eand
i
ntheext
ernalenv
ironment
.Thi
smayi
ncl
udenot
es,di
ari
es orcombi
ningf
eat
ures
ofext
ernal
andi
nter
nal
memor
yai
ds.
Memorydi
stor
ti
on
Somet
imesourmemor
yisdi
stor
ted and wecannotr
ememberi
nfor
mat
ionwhenwe
needi
t.Thi
scoul
dbei
nanexami
nat
ionr
oom,ori
nthehousewhenl
ooki
ngf
or
somet
hingy
ouwantt
ouse.Memor
ydi
stor
ti
oni
sfr
ust
rat
ingbecausewemaynot
ef
fect
ivel
yaccompl
i
shwhatwewantt
odobecausewehav
efor
got
tensomeort
he
ent
ir
einf
ormat
ion. Ther
ear
esev
eralf
act
orst
hatl
eadt
odi
stor
ti
onofi
nfor
mat
ion.
Thesei
ncl
ude

 Tr
ansi
encewhi
chr
efer
sthel
ossofi
nfor
mat
ionwi
thpassageoft
ime.
 Absent
mindedness whi
ch r
efer
sto t
he pr
obl
em oft
he i
nter
face bet
ween
at
tent
ionandt
hel
ongt
erm memor
y
 Bl
ocki
ngwhi
chi
saf
ail
urei
nret
ri
evalofi
nfor
mat
ionst
oredi
ntheLTM
 Tr
ansi
ence,absentmi
ndednessandbl
ocki
ngar
e asar
esul
tofofomi
ssi
on
becausewemi
ssoutonsomei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthepr
ocessofr
etr
iev
al

 Somedi
stor
ti
onar
ear
esul
tof t
he pr
esenceofunwant
edi
nfor
mat
ionor
i
naccur
atememor
ies
 Thesei
ncl
udesmi
sat
tri
but
ionwhi
chr
efer
stomemor
yascr
ibedt
owr
ongsour
ces
 Suggestibi
l
itywhi chreferstoonei
sledtoaf al
serecol
lect
ionperhapsthr
ough
l
eadingquest ions
 Biasnessref erst
oinfluenceofhowwear e-ourbel
ief
s,expectat
ionsanddesi
res
ofwhatwer emember
 Persist
encer efer
stocont i
nuedunwantedautomati
cretri
evalofthemater
ial
swe
couldjustsoonf orgotten

73
Act
ivi
ty;
Expl
ainhowbi
asnessandbl
ocki
ngcanl
eadt
omemor
ydi
stor
ti
on

Ey
eWi
tnessMemor
y

Theaccur
acyofmemor
yiscr
it
icali
ncour
troom.Just
icel
i
esonr
eli
abi
l
ityoft
est
imony
f
rom ey
ewi
tness.I
fthet
est
imonyi
snotr
eli
abl
e,t
hei
nnocentwi
l
lbei
mpr
isoned.The
gui
l
tywi
l
lgof
ree.Sev
eral
fact
orsaf
fectey
ewi
tnessr
ecol
l
ect
ionThesei
ncl
ude:
 Per
cept
ualf
act
orst
heser
efer
stot
hequal
i
tyofv
iewi
ng condi
ti
onse.
g.l
i
ght
l
evel
s.angl
eofv
iew,
dist
ance f
rom t
heev
ent
s
 Emot
ionalst
ress:Ourencodi
ngoft
heev
enti
sal
soi
nfl
uencedbyemot
ional
ar
ousalandst
resst
hatar
eof
tenapower
fulcomponentofwi
tnessedev
ent
s.
E.
g. Weapon f
ocuscan make onet
ofocusnar
rowl
yresul
ti
ng i
nlackof
per
ipher
aldet
ail
sint
hememor
yrepr
esent
ati
on.Chr
ist
iansen(
1992)ar
ri
vesata
concl
usi
ont
hatemot
ionalst
ressnar
rowsat
tent
ionsucht
hatcent
raldet
ail
sar
e
pr
ocessedi
ndet
ail
satt
heexpenseofper
ipher
aldet
ail
s.
 Cr
ossRaci
ali
dent
if
icat
iont
hisi
sbet
weent
her
aceoft
heobser
verandt
he
obser
ved,
peopl
ear
ebet
teratr
ecogni
zi
ngf
acesoft
hei
rownr
ace
 Unconsci
ousTr
ansf
erence;Pr
evi
ousex
posur
etosomeoneei
thert
hrougha
phot
oar
rayi
npol
i
cest
ati
ons
 Mi
sinf
ormat
ion ef
fect
s:t
hisr
efer
sto mi
sleadi
ng i
nfor
mat
ion pr
esent
ed
bet
ween encodi
ng ofan ev
entand t
he subsequentr
ecal
l
.The memor
y
i
mpai
rmentv
iew cont
endst
hatt
heor
igi
nalmemor
yisi
nal
ter
abl
yaf
fect
edwi
th
t
hepr
esent
ati
onofmi
sleadi
ngpostev
enti
nfor
mat
ion

LANGUAGE

Languagei
s ani
mpor
tantaspecti
nourdai
l
yli
ves.Languaget
hei
ntr
icat
emast
erpi
ece
ofr
epr
esent
ati
onandpr
ocesst
hatal
l
owst
ocommuni
cat
eourt
hought
stoot
her
s.
Languagei
sinmanyway
scul
minat
ionofal
lourcogni
ti
vepr
ocess.I
tisal
soameans
t
hroughwhi
chcogni
ti
vepr
ocessar
erev
eal
ed.Psy
chol
ogi
stsar
eint
erest
edi
nlanguage
and a cogni
ti
ve pr
ocess.Psy
chol
ogi
st who speci
ali
ze i
nlanguage ar
e cal
l
ed

74
Psy
chol
i
ngui
sts.
Li
nguist
icsandpsychol
inguist
ic
Psycholingui
sti
cis si
mi l
artol i
ngui
sti
csbutdi
ff
eri
nthesenset
hatt
hef
ormeri
s
i
nter
est
edi
nsoci
aldy
nami
csofl
anguagee.
g.mi
sper
cept
ionorper
cept
ionswhi
l
ethe
l
ateri
sint
erest
edj
usti
nther
ulesoft
hel
anguage.Cogni
ti
onr
esear
cher
sinv
est
igat
e
whatcoul
dbet
ermedaspsy
chol
i
ngui
sti
cs,
thepsy
chol
ogi
calpr
ocessi
nvol
vedi
nusi
ng
l
anguageasr
efl
ect
edi
nthev
ari
edpr
ocess suchasspeechper
cept
iont
oconv
ersi
ng
pol
i
tel
y.Psy
chol
i
ngui
sti
csar
eal
soi
nter
est
edi
nhow weexecut
elanguageabi
l
iti
esor
l
i
ngui
sti
cper
for
mance
Accor
dingt
oGol
denst
ein(
2011)psy
chol
i
ngui
sti
csar
eint
erest
edi
n;
 Compr
ehensi
on:
Howpeopl
eunder
standspokenandwr
it
tenl
anguage

 Speech pr
oduct
ion:How peopl
epr
oduce l
anguagewhi
ch i
ncl
udesphy
sical
pr
oduct
ionofspeechandt
hement
alpr
ocesst
hatoccuri
nthepr
ocessof
cr
eat
ingspeech

 Repr
esent
ati
on:How l
anguage i
srepr
esent
ed i
nthe mi
nd and br
ain whi
ch
i
ncl
udesgr
oupi
ngofwor
ds i
nphr
asest
omakemeani
ngandt
hei
ract
ivat
iont
o
t
hebr
ain

 Acqui
sit
ionwhi
chi
sabouthowpeopl
elear
nlanguage

Thescopeofpsy
chol
i
ngui
stsi
swi
desowewi
l
lonl
ycov
ersomeaspect
soft
hisf
iel
d.

PhonemesandMor
phemes:t
hebasi
cEl
ement
sofspokenl
anguage
Phonol
ogyr
efer
stot
heanal
ysi
soft
hebasi
cspeechsounds.Wheny
ousayawor
dyou
pr
oduce soundscal
l
ed phoneme e.
gthe wor
d MAMA hasphonemesofMA and
Mi
sunder
standi
ngl
anguagei
sanexer
cisei
naudi
tor
yper
cept
ionpat
ter
nrecogni
ti
on.
Fi
rstsoundmustber
egi
ster
edi
naudi
tor
ysy
stem ;andt
hesoundsmustbeact
ive
r
epr
esent
ati
onofcor
respondi
ngconcept
sinsemant
icmemor
y

Mor
phemesar
ethe smal
l
estuni
tsofl
anguage t
hathav
e def
inabl
e meani
ng.For
exampl
ethewor
d “book”cont
ains t
hephonemesb-
oo-
kbutonl
yonemor
pheme
becausenon-oft
hephonemest
hatcr
eat
ethemeani
ng,
butal
lcombi
ned.Thesy
ll
abl
es
75
al
onehav
enomeani
ng.Mor
phemesar
ecompl
etewor
ds.Somewor
dshav
emor
ethan
one mor
pheme.Forexampl
e a wor
d bedr
oom has t
ow mor
phemes;bed and
r
oom.
Resear
chi
ndi
cat
est
hatbot
hbot
tom upandt
opdownpr
ocessi
ngar
einv
olv
ed i
n
per
cei
vi
ng wor
dsandphonemes.Under
standi
ngspeech r
eli
esoni
dent
if
icat
ionof
pat
ter
nbasedoncomponent
sofdat
aandext
ensi
vet
opdownpr
ocessi
ng

Per
cei
vi
ngspokenphonemesandwor
ds

Languagecanbedef
inedasasetofsy
mbol
sandpr
inci
plesf
orcombi
nat
ionoft
his
sy
mbol
sthatal
l
owsf
orcommuni
cat
ionandcompr
ehensi
on.Theabi
l
ityt
oreadand
under
stand i
sbasedonourknowl
edgeoft
hewor
dswer
eadandunder
standi
ngr
ules
t
hatdi
ctat
ehow t
heycanbecombi
ned.Wi
thoutf
oll
owi
ngr
ulesofcombi
nat
ion,i
tis
di
ff
icul
ttocompr
ehendl
anguage Forexampl
e‘y
ourmot
heri
scomi
ng’ar
eunder
stood
becausey
ouhav
efol
l
owedt
heor
derofcombi
nat
ion.Thesamewor
d‘comi
ngmot
her
i
s’maynotmakesense

Onechar
act
eri
sti
cofl
anguagei
sthatev
ery
thi
ngt
owhi
chwer
eferi
ssy
mbol
i
zedby
wor
ds.Al
lthewor
dsaper
sonknowscompr
iseofment
all
exi
con orment
aldi
cti
onar
y.
Our ment
all
exi
con i
s par
t of our semant
ic memor
y,t
he gener
alknowl
edge
st
ore.
.pr
esent
ati
onofwor
dsi
snotj
ustt
hemeani
ngbutal
sot
hesound,
itswr
it
tenf
orm
andt
her
olesi
tcant
akei
nasent
ence.
\

Languagehasmanyf
eat
urest
hatenabl
eust
omakeuseoft
hem.Thesei
ncl
ude
f
eat
uressuchas
 Vocal
audi
tor
ychannelAudi
tor
yrecept
ionofv
oicemessage

 Rapi
dfadi
ng:Di
sappear
ingofmessageov
ert
ime

 Br
oadcast
ingt
ransmi
ssi
on:Hear
ingofmessagebyany
onewhoi
snear
byand
car
est
oli
sten

 I
nter
changeabi
l
ity
:repr
oduct
ionofl
i
ngui
sti
cmessagebyt
her
ecei
ver

76
  Semant
ici
ty;
Speci
fi
cmeani
ngofl
anguagewor
ds

 Pr
oduct
ivi
ty:
Under
standi
ngbyt
hel
i
steneruni
quei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthemassage

 Ref
lect
iveness:
Thi
nki
ngaboutwhati
scommuni
cat
edi
nwor
ds

 Ar
bit
rar
iness:Li
tt
leornoconnect
ionbet
weenl
i
ngui
sti
csy
mbol
swi
thwhatt
hey
mean

 Per
suasi
on:
Decept
iveuseofl
anguageamongot
her
.

Language i
sther
efor
e not j
ust sy
mbol
s.Many f
eat
ures must be t
aken i
nto
consi
der
ati
on.Al
lfeat
uresoft
hel
anguagear
emadepossi
blebecauseofourcogni
ti
ve
abi
l
ity
.Forexampl
ewemustt
akei
ntoconsi
der
ati
ont
hemeani
ngsofsoundpr
oduced-
semant
ici
tyt
omakesenseofourwor
ld.Meani
ngmaki
ngi
sbasedont
heabi
l
ityofour
cogni
ti
ont
oint
egr
atet
hei
ncomi
ngsoundandt
hepr
evi
ousexper
iencesoft
hesy
mbol
i
c
wor
dtomakeappr
opr
iat
eint
erpr
etat
ion,Si
mil
arl
yforpr
oduct
ivi
tyoft
hel
anguage t
he
l
i
stenermustmakesenseoft
hesy
mbol
i
cwor
dsused.Thi
sdependsont
hei
rpr
evi
ous
exper
iencewi
tht
hewor
dsi
nrel
ati
ont
oincomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionwhi
chi
s acogni
ti
ve
pr
ocess.

Languageasacogni
ti
vepr
ocessi
simpor
tanti
nourl
i
ves.Useofl
anguagei
sper
vasi
ve
i
nal
lspher
esofl
i
fe.Usel
anguaget
ocommuni
cat
eourt
hought
s,emot
ionsbel
i
efs
e.
t.
c.Languageenabl
esust
o car
ryoutot
hercogni
ti
vet
askssuch asr
easoni
ng,
pr
obl
em sol
vi
nganddeci
sionmaki
ng.

Languagehast
hepowert
otr
anspor
tusbey
ondt
hepr
esentpl
aceandmoment
.Wecan
t
alkaboutt
hingsi
npr
esent
,pastandf
utur
e.Languageal
soal
l
owsf
ort
hedi
spl
acement
i
.e.t
hecr
eat
ionofal
ter
nat
iver
eal
i
tiest
hroughdecept
ion.Thef
lexi
bil
i
tyofl
anguagei
s
al
soev
identi
nthedesi
gnf
eat
ureofr
efl
ect
iveness.Wecanal
sousel
anguaget
oref
lect
onl
anguageaswel
l

77
Themosti
mpor
tantf
eat
ureofl
anguagei
spr
oduct
ivi
ty.Languagei
sameansof
communi
cat
ionandt
her
efor
eunder
standi
ngoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionl
oadedi
nthewor
dst
hat
ar
ecommuni
cat
edt
ousi
simpor
tant
.Iti
sthr
oughunder
standi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
iont
hat
we can be abl
eto actappr
opr
iat
ely
.Forexampl
ein an exami
nat
ion we must
under
standt
hemeani
ngoft
hekeywor
dsusedt
obeabl
etoansweraquest
ion.When
onei
ssendt
ocar
ryoutadut
y,t
heymustbeabl
e t
ounder
standt
hecommand.
Pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
sthe key aspect
sin cr
eat
ivet
hinki
ng.We use ourl
anguage t
o
communi
cat
eouri
deasofwhatwehav
ecomeupwi
thanewcr
eat
ion.I
nessencei
nal
l
spher
esofl
i
fepr
oduct
ivi
tyi
scr
uci
al

St
agesi
nlanguagepr
oduct
ion
Languagepr
oduct
ioni
nvol
ves sev
eralst
ages.Lev
el(
cit
edbyRi
egl
er&Ri
egl
er(
2004)
pr
ovi
desaf
ramewor
kofl
anguagepr
oduct
iont
hati
sbasedonf
ourov
erl
appi
ngst
ages.
Thi
sincl
ude
 Concept
ual
i
zing:Concept
ual
i
zingmeansf
ormi
ng anabst
racti
deaofwhaty
ouwant
t
osay
.Thi
shast
hei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatweal
way
sthi
nkanddev
elopi
deasofwhatwe
wantt
osaybef
orewesay

 Thenextst
age i
spl
anni
ng.I
nthi
sst
ageweengagei
nli
ngui
sti
cpl
anni
ng.Basi
cal
l
y
weor
gani
zeourt
hought
sint
ermsof t
hewor
dswewantt
ouset
opr
esentour
i
deas

 Thet
hir
dst
ep i
sar
ti
cul
ati
ngt
hel
i
ngui
sti
cpl
anwhi
chi
sbasi
cal
l
yexpr
essi
ngour
i
deas

 Thef
ort
hst
epi
ssel
fmoni
tor
ingwhi
chi
saboutkeepi
ngt
rackofwhatwear
esay
ing
andwhet
hert
hemessagehasbeencommuni
cat
edi
ncl
udi
ngt
het
oneweusei
n
communi
cat
ion

Thesef
ourst
epsar
econsi
der
edasbasi
cst
epsi
nlanguagecommuni
cat
ion.

Languageinsoci
alcont
ext
Languageinvolv
esuseofwor ds andr
ulesi
nspont
aneousi
nter
act
ionwi
thot
her
s.
Languagei
sper
hapst
hemostcogni
ti
vepr
ocess empl
oyedi
nthesoci
alwor
ld.I
na

78
soci
algat
her
ingf
orexampl
e,weusei
ntent
ionalwor
dsdependi
ngonouri
nter
est
.For
exampl
eify
ou ar
einv
ited t
o make a pr
esent
ati
on on par
ent
ing st
yles y
ou wi
l
l
i
ntent
ional
l
ysel
ecty
ourwor
dsbasedont
hist
opi
c.Accor
dingl
y,Ri
egl
er&andRi
egl
er
(
2004) ar
guet
hat l
anguagei
sa soci
alact
ivi
tyand i
tinv
olv
es i
ntent
ionaland
r
efer
ent
ial
communi
cat
ionbet
weenatl
eastt
wopeopl
e.

Languagef
rom i
tssoci
alcont
exti
sal
sowhati
susedi
nlear
ningcul
tur
alspeci
fi
c
i
nfor
mat
ion.Basedonl
anguagepeopl
ear
eabl
etobesoci
ali
zedi
nvar
iouscul
tur
e.I
n
conv
ersat
ion,
languagei
sthekeyt
hingt
hatst
ruct
urei
t.Basi
cal
l
yinal
lsoci
alact
ivi
ti
es
i
ncl
udi
ngl
ear
ningi
nschool
,languagei
sthekeyf
eat
ure.Si
gnl
anguagei
susedwher
e
peopl
ehav
elanguagei
mpai
rment
.hasal
sobeenusedt
odemonst
rat
ethi
saspectof
l
anguage.

Languagei
sal
socont
extr
elat
ed.Thi
smeanst
hatcont
extdi
ctat
est
heappr
opr
iat
eness
ofl
anguageused.
Languagemodul
ar
Chomsky
’scont
ent
iont
hathumanl
anguagei
suni
que,speci
es–speci
fi
cabi
l
ityr
elat
es
t
othephi
l
osophi
cali
ssuer
egar
dingt
henat
ureoft
hel
anguage.Somet
heor
isti
ncl
udi
ng
Chomsky(
1975)bel
i
evedt
hatl
anguaget
obemodul
ari
nfunct
ion.Modul
arv
iewhol
ds
t
hatl
anguagei
smadeupofuni
queset
sofabi
l
iti
esandcapaci
ti
est
hatcannotsepar
ate
f
rom ot
hercogni
ti
vepr
ocess.Towar
dst
hisendChomskyci
tedbyRi
egl
erandRi
egl
er,
(
2004)
arguet
hatl
anguagecannotber
educedt
obeexpl
ainedsol
elyi
nter
msofot
her
cogni
ti
vepr
ocesses.
.Languagei
sspeci
aland l
anguagei
sspeci
esspeci
fi
c(onl
y
humanpossest
hemodul
e)i
tisandi
nnat
e(modul
eispr
esentf
rom bi
rt
h)

Ont
heot
herhandt
henon-
modul
arv
iewcont
endst
hatl
anguageper
cept
ion,
product
ion
andcompr
ehensi
onar
ethej
ointpr
oductofcogni
ti
vepr
ocess.

Pr
ocessi
ngofWr
it
tenwor
d
Per
cei
vi
ngwr
it
tenwor
dsi
sal
soi
nfl
uencedbybot
tom upandt
opdownpr
ocessi
ng.To

79
under
standwr
it
tenwor
dswemustr
ead.Readi
ngi
s enabl
edt
hrough saccadeswhi
ch
r
efer
stoourey
edi
scr
etemov
ementt
hatourey
esmake whenr
eadi
ng.Theot
her
aspecti
sfi
xat
ion.Whenourey
esar
emov
ingweseem t
otakei
nli
tt
leornov
isual
i
nfor
mat
ion.Thi
sisr
efer
redt
osaccadi
csuppr
essi
on.Ourey
es mustcomet
ofi
xat
ion
t
oenabl
eust
otakei
ninf
ormat
ion.Thef
ixat
ionst
husoccuri
nbet
weensaccadest
o
enabl
eusper
cei
vewor
d.Thel
engt
hoff
ixat
iondependsont
her
eadi
ngt
ask.I
ndi
ff
icul
t
t
askswemayspentl
ongert
ime.Consecut
ivef
ixat
ioni
nthesamespoti
sref
err
edt
oas
gazes.

Wor
drecogni
ti
on i
s det
ermi
ned by or
thogr
aphy whi
ch i
s di
rectaccess v
iew t
o
semant
ics.Thi
shast
hei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatmemor
yrepr
esent
ati
onofhowwor
dsar
espel
t
hel
pusr
ecogni
zet
hewor
d.Ot
hert
handi
rectaccess,wor
dscanal
sober
ecogni
zed
t
hroughi
ndi
rectr
out
e.Phonol
ogi
calr
epr
esent
ati
on combi
nedwi
tht
opdownpr
ocess
canal
sof
aci
l
itat
erecogni
ti
onofwor
ds.Manyr
esear
cher
shol
dthev
iew t
hatmost
peopl
ecombi
nebot
hdi
rectandi
ndi
rectr
out
est
omakemeani
ngoft
hewor
dswer
ead.
Theev
idencef
ordualr
out
ecomesf
rom st
udi
esofdy
slexi
aacondi
ti
onchar
act
eri
zed
bypr
obl
emsi
nvi
sual
wor
drecogni
ti
on.

Dy
slexi
a
I
tisacondi
ti
ont
hati
nvol
vessev
erer
eadi
ngdi
ff
icul
ti
es(amongt
hem di
ff
icul
tinwor
d
r
ecogni
ti
on.Dy
slexi
c seems t
o hav
e di
ff
icul
tint
aki
ng a v
isual
l
ypr
esent
ed wor
d,
decodi
ng i
tand r
etr
iev
ing t
he cor
respondi
ng sound.
Thi
s pr
ocess i
ster
med as
phonol
ogi
calassembl
y.Peopl
esuf
fer
ingf
rom t
hiscondi
ti
onhav
eapr
obl
em pr
ocessi
ng
t
hecor
respondencebet
weenor
thogr
aphy(
lookofwor
ds)and phonol
ogy(
soundof
wor
ds)
.

Dy
slexi
ais of
ten cl
assi
fi
ed as acqui
red ordev
elopment
al.I
n acqui
red dy
slexi
a
l
anguagedi
ff
icul
ti
esar
einsomef
orm ofbr
aindamage.
Dev
elopment
aldy
slexi
aref
ers
t
olanguagedi
ff
icul
ti
es notassoci
atedwi
thanybr
aindamage..
Recentr
esear
chhas
shownsomeconnect
ionbet
weenLef
tHemi
spher
eanddy
slexi
ccondi
ti
on.Accor
dingl
y
neur
alcor
rel
atesofdy
slexi
a hav
erev
eal
ed abnor
mal
i
tiesi
ntheLef
tHemi
spher
e

80
sy
stemst
hatunder
li
ecer
tai
nlanguagesy
stemsmostnot
abl
ythepr
ocesst
hatal
l
ows
f
ormappi
ngt
hev
isual
repr
esent
ati
on(
pri
ntedwor
ds)i
ntophonol
ogi
calones.

Howev
er,al
thought
heet
iol
ogyofacqui
redanddev
elopment
aldy
slexi
aisdi
ff
erent
t
hei
rmani
fest
ati
oni
ssi
mil
ar.They ar
eof
tenpoorspel
l
ers,t
hemi
sspel
l
ingi
sof
ten
phonet
ical
l
y.I
naddi
ti
ont
hepr
obl
emsi
nindi
vi
dualwor
drecogni
ti
onhav
edet
ri
ment
al
ef
fect
s on r
eadi
ng.Dy
slexi
creader
stend t
oread mor
e sl
owl
ythan non-
dysl
exi
c
r
eader
s.They hav
e mor
e pr
onouncement er
ror
s t
han non-
dysl
exi
c and t
hei
r
compr
ehensi
oni
spoor
ert
hatt
hatofnondy
slexi
c.Howev
er,i
tshoul
dbeemphasi
zed
t
hatdy
slexi
aisnotsi
mpl
epoorr
eadi
ng nei
theri
sitasar
esul
tofpsy
chol
ogi
cali
ssues.
Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofdy
slexi
aandt
hepr
obl
em v
ari
eswi
thnat
ureofdy
slex
ia

Ty
pesofdy
slexi
a
Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofdy
slexi
a,dependi
ngont
henat
ureandsev
eri
ty.Thi
sincl
ude
sur
facedy
slexi
a;phonol
ogi
cal
dysl
exi
aanddeepdy
slexi
a
Sur
facedy
slexi
a
 Peopl
ewi
thsur
facedy
slexi
amustr
elyal
mostcompl
etel
yoni
ndi
rectaccess
(
phonol
ogi
cal
)rout
etowor
drecogni
ti
onon“soundi
ngoutwor
ds”ast
hey
encount
ert
hem
 Assucht
heyhav
edi
ff
icul
twi
thwor
dswi
thi
rr
egul
arpr
onounci
ati
on.For
exampl
ewor
dsl
i
kest
eak,
breakorbi
rd
 Howev
er,some sur
face dy
slexi
c can pr
onounce some i
rr
egul
arwor
ds
cor
rect
lysuggest
ingt
hatphonol
ogi
cal
rout
eist
heonl
yoneused.
Phonol
ogi
caldy
slexi
a
 Phonol
ogi
cal
dysl
exi
aisqui
teunusual
.
 Theyhav
esel
ect
ivei
nabi
l
ityt
oreadpseudowor
ds(
fakewor
ds)
 Theyhav
eli
tt
leornot
roubl
ewi
thf
ami
l
iarwor
dsandbot
hregul
arandi
rr
egul
ar
wor
ds
 Ther
efor
e,i
tseemst
hatt
heyhav
etr
oubl
e i
ndi
rectaccess r
out
eto wor
d
r
ecogni
ti
on
 Thei
rinabi
l
ityt
osoundoutpseudowor
dsi
sindi
cat
ivet
hatt
heyar
eunabl
eto

81
 soundoutwor
dsi
ngener
alandmustr
elyondi
rectaccess (
nonphonol
ogi
cal
)
r
out
etowor
drecogni
ti
on.
 Phonol
ogi
caldy
slexi
a pr
ovi
desev
idencet
hatt
her
eisdi
rectr
out
eto wor
d
r
ecogni
ti
on
Deepdy
slexi
a
 Theyexhi
bitsomeoft
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esseeni
nphonol
ogi
calandsur
facedy
slexi
a
(
readi
ngsomebot
hwor
dsandnonwor
ds)
 Howev
er,
themostst
ri
ki
ngaspecti
sdef
ici
tinsemant
ics(
meani
ngofl
anguage)
 Deepdy
slexi
cexhi
bitsemant
icer
ror
sinr
eadi
nge.
g.t
heymayr
eaddaught
eras
si
ster
 Theyhav
eaneasi
ert
imer
eadi
ngwor
dsconcr
eteandi
magi
nabl
eref
erent
s(e.
g.
t
ruck)t
hanabst
ractwor
dssuchas(l
ove)
 I
naddi
ti
on,f
unct
ionwor
dsl
i
kebel
ow,pr
esentapr
obl
em andwi
l
lrandoml
y
subst
it
utedwi
thanot
herf
unct
ionl
i
kei
nto
Psy
chol
ogi
calchal
lenges
 Anxi
etyduet
oinabi
l
ityt
omeetsoci
alexpect
ati
ons
 Fr
ust
rat
ionandangerduet
ononachi
evement
 Poorsel
fimageduet
oconst
antf
ail
ure
 Lackofsel
fconf
idence
 I
nfer
ior
it
ychal
l
enges
 Lackofposi
ti
vesel
fest
eem
 Poorsoci
alski
l
ls
 Coul
dleadt
owi
thdr
awal
 School
dropouti
spossi
ble

Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng
Whati
sapr
obl
em?A pr
obl
em consi
stsofbasi
ccomponent
s:andi
nit
ialst
ate(
the
si
tuat
ionatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hepr
obl
em )agoalst
ate(
thesol
uti
ont
othepr
obl
em a
setofr
ules orconst
rai
nts)t
hatmustbef
oll
owed andusual
l
yasetofobst
acl
est
hat
mustbeov
ercome.Pr
obl
emscanbewel
ldef
inedori
l
ldef
ined

82
Wel
ldef
inedandi
lldef
inedpr
obl
ems
Thepr
obl
emsweencount
eri
nli
fecanbecl
assi
fi
edagai
nstcont
inuum f
rom wel
l
def
inedt
oil
ldef
ined.Wel
ldef
inedpr
obl
emsar
ecl
earandst
ruct
ured:t
hei
nit
ialst
ate;
t
hegoalst
ateandconst
rai
ntsar
eal
lunder
stoodandoncey
our
eachasol
uti
oni
tis
easi
l
yassessed.

I
ncont
rastani
l
ldef
inedpr
obl
em i
sfuzzyandabst
ract
.Il
ldef
ined pr
obl
em hasnocl
ear
goal
sandi
sdi
ff
icul
tto ov
ercomet
heconst
rai
nts.I
tisal
so pr
obl
emat
ici
nthe
assessmentofsol
uti
onsr
eached.
Rout
ineandnon-
rout
inepr
obl
ems
Pr
obl
emsal
sov
aryi
nter
msofhowf
ami
l
iarwear
ewi
tht
hepr
ocedur
est
heyi
nvol
ve.
Ar
out
inepr
obl
em i
sonet
hatcanbesol
vedbyappl
yi
ngwel
lpr
act
icedpr
ocedur
es.
Thenon-
rout
inepr
obl
emse.
g.st
udent
sthei
rfi
rstcour
sei
nresear
chcoul
drequi
rei
n
appr
oach t
he st
udent may not be f
ami
l
iar wi
th.
Peopl
e hav
e an easi
er t
ime
concept
ual
i
zingr
out
inepr
obl
emst
hani
nnonr
out
inepr
obl
ems

Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngasacogni
ti
vepr
ocess.
Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngi
soneoft
hemostcompl
ext
asksofcogni
ti
on.
Inmanyway
spr
obl
em
sol
vi
ngi
sthecul
minat
ion ofal
lthepr
ocessest
hatmakeupcogni
ti
vear
senal
se.
g.
compl
eti
ngpr
obl
em st
udent
swoul
dneed per
cei
vet
hepr
obl
em (t
otakei
nthepr
obl
em
i
nfor
mat
ion)
,pat
ter
nrecogni
ti
on(t
orecogni
zeswor
dsi
nthepapergui
del
i
ne)
,at
tent
ion
andwor
kingmemor
y(t
ohol
dinf
ormat
ioni
nconsci
ousawar
enesswhennecessar
y),
l
anguage(
tounder
standt
heexam i
tems)anddeci
sion pr
ocesst
o(deci
de how t
o
pr
ior
it
izewhathast
obedone)

Thecompl
exi
tyi
npr
obl
em sol
vi
ngof
tenoccur
sov
erl
ongert
imei
nter
valt
hanmany
cogni
ti
vepr
ocess.
Thet
imer
equi
redt
osol
ve apr
obl
em i
schal
l
engi
ngt
oresear
cher
s.
Of
tent
hepar
ti
cipant
scanonl
ybepr
esent
edwi
thapr
obl
em wi
thi
ngi
vent
ime.
Ther
efor
e
assessi
ngt
hepr
obl
em sol
vi
ngi
nter
msofaccur
acyr
atepr
esent
sagr
ossest
imat
esof
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngpr
ofi
ciency
.Measur
ingpr
obl
emspr
ovi
desusef
uli
nfor
mat
ionbutdoes

83
notshademuchl
i
ghtont
henat
ureofpr
ocessi
ngt
hatoccur
sdur
ingpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng

Var
iednat
ureofpr
obl
ems
Thecompl
exi
tyofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngpr
esent
sanot
herpr
obl
em t
oresear
cher
s.Pr
obl
em
canappl
ytodi
ver
seset
sofci
rcumst
ancesMey
er(
1992)pr
ovi
dessomeor
dert
othe
di
ver
sit
ybydi
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weenf
ivesor
tsofpr
obl
ems.Thesei
ncl
ude:
 Tr
ansf
ormat
ionalpr
obl
ems(
theypr
esentt
othesol
ver
,agoalst
ateand
t
hesol
vermustf
indt
hepr
operst
rat
egi
est
omov
ethatwi
l
lchanget
he
i
nit
ial
stat
eint
othegoal
stat
e
 Ar
rangement pr
obl
ems:i
nvol
ves pr
esent
ati
on of al
lthe necessar
y
i
nfor
mat
iont
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em.Thesol
ver mustf
igur
eouthow t
he
el
ement
sar
etobear
ranged.Agoodexampl
eisacr
osswor
dpuzzl
e
 I
nduct
ionpr
obl
em:Pr
emi
seorcondi
ti
onsar
egi
ven aser
iesofexempl
ars
ori
nst
ancest
hatpat
ter
nort
her
ulest
hatr
elat
est
oinst
ances
 Deduct
ionpr
obl
ems:
Premi
seorcondi
ti
onsar
egi
venandt
hesol
vermust
det
ermi
newhet
heraconcl
usi
onf
it
sthi
spr
emi
se
 Di
ver
gentpr
obl
ems:r
equi
rest
hesol
vert
ogener
ateasmanysol
uti
onsas
possi
blet
oagi
venpr
obl
em
Approachest oproblem sol
ving
Diff
er entr
esearcherhavetheori
zedont heapproachesusedinprobl
em sol
vi
ng Some
arediscussedbelow;
Thorndikeandbehav ior
istprobl
em sol
vi
ng:Thel awofeffect
Thorndikewasamongt hepioneerr
esearcher
sinproblem sol
vi
ng.Hewasint
erest
edi
n
t
hebasi
cpr
ocessi
nvol
vedi
nlear
ning.Hedesi
gnedanexper
imenti
nwhi
cht
hecat
s
wer
ethepar
ti
cipant
sandputt
hem i
ntoapuzzl
ebox.Thecat
snor
mal
l
ydonotenj
oy
bei
ngconf
ined.Thei
nit
ial
stat
ewasbei
ngi
nencl
osedspace,t
hegoal
stat
ewast
obe
outoft
heencl
osur
e.Theconst
rai
ntwast
heencl
osur
eit
sel
f.
Thor
ndi
kewasi
nter
esti
n
t
hewhet
hert
heabi
l
ityt
osol
vet
heconf
inementpr
obl
em woul
dappearsuddenl
yasan
i
nsi
ghtorgr
adual
l
ythr
oughpr
ocessoft
ri
alander
ror.Hef
oundoutt
hatt
hecat
slear
nt
t
hrought
ri
alander
ror
Hedescr
ibet
hispr
ocessast
hel
awef
fect
.Accor
dingt
othel
awef
fect
,ifar
esponse
l
eadst
osat
isf
yingout
come,
theconnect
ionbet
weent
her
esponseandt
hesi
tuat
ioni
n

84
whi
chi
ttookpl
acewi
l
lbest
rengt
hened.I
fther
esponsel
eadst
ounsat
isf
yingout
come
t
heconnect
ionwi
l
lbeweak.
Kohl
erandgest
altpsychol
ogi
sts:
probl
em sol
vingasi
nsi
ght
Gest
altpsy
chol
ogisthaver
adi
call
ydif
fer
entviewoftheprobl
em sol
vi
ng.Accor
dingt
o
cogni
ti
ve psy
chol
ogi
stt
he mi
nd has an i
nher
entt
endencyt
orecogni
ze i
ncomi
ng
i
nfor
mat
ion and t
his or
gani
zat
ional pr
ocess ar
e t
he def
ini
ng f
eat
ures of
cogni
ti
on.
Rat
hert
hanmi
ndl
esspl
ayi
ngoutofasi
tuat
iont
hatgr
adual
l
ybui
l
dupov
er
t
ime,
probl
em sol
vi
ngi
nvol
vesr
est
ruct
uri
ngorr
eor
gani
zat
ionofpr
obl
em el
ement
sthat
r
esul
tsi
nsuddenr
eal
i
zat
ionoft
hesol
uti
on

Newel
l,Si
monandthecogni
ti
vepsychologi
st:GeneralProblem sol
ver(
GPS)
Newel
l,Shaw andSi
mon( 1958)f
eltthatcomput erprogramsmi ghtser
veasusef
ul
t
ool
sfor model
i
nghumanpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng. Newel
l&Si
mon(
1972)or
igi
nat
edt
he
concept
ual
i
zat
ionofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngasast
epbyst
eppr
ogr
essi
onf
rom t
hei
nit
ial
stat
e
t
ogoalst
ate.
Theydi
dsowi
thi
nthef
ramewor
kcomput
erpr
ogr
ammet
ermedt
he
gener
alpr
obl
em sol
ver(
GPS)whi
cht
heypr
oposedahumansol
vi
ngmodelThatcanbe
appl
i
edt
oanypr
obl
em.

GPSappr
oacht
opr
obl
em sol
vi
ngat
tempt
stomi
nimi
zet
hedi
stancebet
weent
hei
nit
ial
st
agesandgoalst
atebybr
eaki
ngbybr
eaki
ngdownt
hepr
obl
em i
ntosubgoal
s.The
subgoalanal
ysi
sisaccompl
i
shedt
hrought
heoper
ator
s.Oper
ator
sar
ewor
dsf
or
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngt
echni
que.Tor
esol
veapr
obl
em wi
thi
nacary
oumayneedt
echni
que
t
o openupanengi
ne,t
het
echni
que t
hatal
l
owsy
ouopeni
sanoper
atorbecausei
t
hel
psy
out
opar
tl
ywor
kont
hepr
obl
em.Youwi
l
lneedanot
heroper
ator(
techni
quet
o
r
epai
r)
.Thet
echni
quesar
eappl
i
edatami
crol
evelt
oreducet
hedi
stancebet
weent
he
i
nit
ial
andt
hegoal
stat
e.

Anot
heri
mpor
tantaspectoft
heGPSi
sthenot
ionofpr
obl
em space.Thepr
obl
em
spacer
efer
stot
hebasi
cwhi
chr
efer
stot
hepr
obl
em sol
ver
’sment
alr
epr
esent
ati
onof
t
hei
nit
ialst
ate,t
hegoalst
ateandal
lpossi
blei
nter
medi
atest
atesandt
heoper
ator
s
t
hatcanbeappl
i
ed t
oreacht
hesub-
goal
s.Hencet
hepr
obl
em sol
vi
ng pr
ocessi
s
essent
ial
l
ynav
igat
ingt
hroughpr
obl
em space

85
Themai
nfeat
urest
hatdef
ineGPSasani
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngmodelsuggest
sthat
ext
ernali
nfor
mat
ion i
str
ansf
ormed i
ntoi
nter
nalment
alr
epr
esent
ati
on,t
hen a
sequent
ial
ver
sionv
ari
ousment
aloper
ati
onsar
eappl
i
ed.

Pr
obl
em r
epr
esent
ati
on
Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng i
nvol
ves conv
ert
ing t
he pr
esent
ed i
nfor
mat
ion i
nto some i
nter
nal
r
epr
esent
ati
on.Wi
tht
hef
ramewor
kofGPSpr
obl
em r
epr
esent
ati
oni
nvol
vecor
rect
ly
speci
fyi
ngt
hepr
obl
em spacei
.e.cor
rect
lyi
dent
if
yingt
hei
nit
ialst
ateaswel
laswel
las
t
heoper
ator
sthatmi
ghtbeappl
i
edwi
thi
ntheconst
rai
ntsoft
hepr
obl
em

Thepr
ocess ofpr
obl
em r
epr
esent
ati
onmayseem aut
omat
icort
ri
vi
ali
sinsome
r
espectbuti
tisacr
it
icalcomponentofsuccessf
ulpr
obl
emssol
vi
ng.Ther
ear
evar
ious
r
epr
esent
ati
onwhi
chmaybei
mpor
tantt
othepr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.Theabi
l
ityt
osol
vea
pr
obl
em dependscr
it
ical
l
yont
heexactnat
ureofpr
obl
em r
epr
esent
ati
on.

I
nit
ialr
epr
esent
ati
onofapr
obl
em i
scr
it
icali
nitsev
ent
ualsol
uti
on.Fai
l
urei
npr
oper
r
epr
esent
ati
onmi
ghtr
esul
tfr
om anumberoff
act
orst
he pr
obl
em el
ement
smaynot
hav
erecei
ved at
tent
ion,t
hepr
obl
em el
ement
smaynothav
ebeen under
stood or
pr
evi
ouswi
thsi
mil
armayhav
eledt
o encodi
ngt
hepr
obl
em i
nar
igi
dmanner
,Thi
s
coul
dbeduet
oMent
alSet
,Ment
alseti
sthet
endencyt
orel
yonhabi
tsandpr
ocedur
es
usedi
nthepast
.Ament
alsetcani
nter
fer
ewi
thourabi
l
ityt
osol
veev
erydaypr
obl
ems

Funct
ional Fi
xednessr
efer
stopeopl
e’
stendencyt
ovi
ew obj
ect
sinanar
row f
ixed
senset
hati
sint
ermsoft
ypi
cal
funct
ions.
Probl
em sol
vi
ngProcess
Oncet hepr
oblem hasbeent
ransf
ormedf
rom ext
ernalf
rom ext
ernal
l
ypr
esent
ed
pr
obl
em t
oint
ernalr
epr
esent
ati
on,t
henextpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngi
nvol
vessear
chi
ngf
or,
t
est
ing and ev
aluat
ing t
hepr
obl
em.Wi
thi
nthecont
extofNewel
l& Si
mon(
1972)
i
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngappr
oachpr
obl
emssol
uti
onamount
stot
rav
eli
ngt
hrought
he
pr
obl
em space
Thegener
alappr
oachest
othi
sex
cur
sionar
ethr
oughal
gor
it
hmsorheur
ist
ics
Al
gor
it
hms

86
Al
ogar
it
hmsi
sbasi
cal
l
yasetofr
ulest
hatcanbeappl
i
ed t
osol
vecer
tai
nsor
tsof
pr
obl
ems.
A mat
hemat
icalf
ormul
ais a good exampl
e ofal
gor
it
hms.
Alogar
it
hms ar
ever
y
power
fulpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngt
echni
ques:appl
i
edcor
rect
lyanal
ogar
it
hm wi
l
lal
way
slead
t
ocor
rectanswer
sifoneexi
sts.Agoodexampl
eofl
ogar
it
hmsi
suseofmat
hemat
ical
f
ormul
ast
osol
vemat
hemat
icpr
obl
ems.Buti
tisnotaper
fectwor
ld;
alogar
it
hm i
snot
usedt
opr
obl
em sol
vi
ngondayt
odaybasi
s.
Heur
ist
ics
Gi
venthestr
engt
hsandl
i
mit
ati
onsofhumanpr
obl
emssol
veral
ongt
hef
actt
hatmost
pr
obl
em ar
eil
ldef
ined and hav
erel
ati
vel
ylar
ge pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng space heur
ist
ic
pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngi
smuchmor
eef
fect
ive.Heur
ist
icar
egener
alst
rat
egi
esorr
ulesoft
he
t
humbt
hatcanbeappl
i
edt
ovar
iouspr
obl
ems.Heur
ist
icsser
veasshor
tcut
sthr
ough
pr
obl
em space.Speci
fi
cheur
ist
icsexi
stf
orspeci
fi
cpr
obl
emsdomai
n.

Ther
ear
eanumberofgener
alpur
poseheur
ist
icst
hatcanbeappl
i
edt
oawi
dear
rayof
pr
obl
em.Theyi
ncl
ude;
Wor
kingbackwar
ds:
Oneef
fect
ive st
rat
egyf
orsol
vi
ngsomepr
obl
emsi
stof
ocusont
hegoalst
ate and
wor
kbackwar
ds i
nor
dert
omuchoutt
hest
epst
hatwoul
dgety
out
her
e.Wor
king
backwar
dsai
dspr
obl
em sol
vebyi
mposi
ngconst
rai
ntsonwhatmaybedi
ff
icul
t.
MeansendAnal
ysi
s:
Thegener
alpr
obl
em sol
verdev
eloped byNewel
land Si
monut
il
ized means–End
Anal
ysi
s.Means_EndAnal
ysi
sinv
olv
esbr
eaki
ngapr
obl
em downi
ntosmal
l
ersubgoal
s
wher
e accompl
i
shi
ng each goal
s mov
es t
he sol
vercl
oser t
othe f
inalgoal
-the
pr
obl
emssol
uti
on.Ast
het
erm meansendanal
ysi
simpl
i
est
hesol
versy
stemat
ical
l
y
at
tempt
stodev
isemeanst
ogett
oeachsub-
goal
.Meansendanal
ysi
scanbean
ef
fect
ivewayoft
osol
veat
ransf
ormat
ional
probl
ems
Anal
ogi
es
Anal
ogi
esar
eheur
ist
icst
rat
egyofusi
ngal
readysol
vedpr
obl
em t
orepr
esentandsol
ve
cur
rentpr
obl
em.Anal
oguesusi
ngpr
obl
emst
hathav
eal
readybeensol
vedasai
ds f
or
sol
vi
ngt
hecur
rentpr
obl
em bei
ngf
aced. I
tispot
ent
ial
l
yoneoft
hemostpower
ful

87
heur
ist
ics.Foranal
oguest
osucceedaspr
obl
em sol
vi
ngst
rat
egi
es(
Nov
ickandHol
yak
(
1991) summar
izedt
heorofanal
ogybydescr
ibi
ngt
hreepr
ocessest
hatmi
ghtbe
t
ermednot
ici
ng,
mappi
ngandschemadev
elopment
 Fi
rstt
hepr
obl
em sol
vermustr
ecogni
zet
hatar
elat
ionshi
p exi
stsbet
weent
he
pr
obl
em athandwi
thasi
mil
arone
 Thesol
vermustbeabl
etomar
kthemai
nel
ement
soft
het
wopr
obl
ems
 Thesol
vermustar
ri
veatt
hegener
alschemaunder
lyi
ngt
hepr
obl
em t
hatwi
l
l
al
l
owf
ort
hesol
uti
onoft
het
arget
edpr
obl
em
 Maki
ng connect
ion bet
ween t
wo anal
ogous pr
obl
em i
s mor
eli
kel
yift
wo
anal
ogouspr
obl
em shar
esur
facef
eat
urest
hani
ftheyonl
yshar
est
ruct
ural
f
eat
ures

I
nsi
ghtandCr
eat
ivi
ty
Cr
eat
ivi
tyi
npr
obl
em sol
vi
ngcanbedescr
ibedi
nter
msoff
ourst
ages;
 Pr
epar
ati
on:Wher
ethesol
vergat
her
sinf
ormat
iont
hatmakeat
temptat
pr
obl
em sol
uti
on
 I
ncubat
ionwhi
chmi
ghtbet
ermedaspr
oduct
ivei
nact
ivi
ty
 Cr
it
icali
nsi
ght
swhi
chi
sani
mpor
tantr
eal
i
zat
ionorunder
standi
ngt
hat
l
eadst
oil
l
umi
nat
ion
 Cr
eat
ivet
houghtwhi
chhast
odowi
thv
eri
fi
cat
ioni
nwhi
cht
hepr
obl
em
sol
verassesseswhet
hert
hesol
uti
onwi
l
lact
ual
l
ywor
k
I
nsi
ght
s
 The quest
ionofi
nsi
ght
sinpr
obl
em sol
vi
nghasoccupi
edt
hemi
ndsofmany
r
esear
cher
sincogni
ti
vepsy
chol
ogy
 I
nsi
ght
sinv
olv
esasuddenr
eal
i
zat
ionoft
hepr
obl
em sol
uti
onorofakeyi
dea
necessar
ytosol
vet
hepr
obl
em.Accor
dingl
y,Gest
altpsy
chol
ogi
stsbel
i
evet
hat
t
hekeyt
opr
obl
em sol
vi
ngi
stobef
oundi
nrest
ruct
uri
ngt
hepr
obl
em whi
chi
f
successf
ull
eadst
osuddenr
eal
i
zat
ionoft
hesol
uti
on.Thesuddenr
eal
i
zat
ioni
s
t
hei
nsi
ght
.

 Howev
er,t
henot
ionofi
nsi
ght
siscont
rov
ersi
al;manyt
heor
ist
sbel
i
evet
hat

88
 pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng i
sincr
ement
alpr
ocessofget
ti
ng cl
oserand cl
osert
othe
sol
uti
on r
athert
han sudden.
Anot
herpr
obl
em i
sthati
nsi
ght
s has notbeen
def
inedcl
ear
lyorexper
iment
all
ydemonst
rat
ed.I
naddi
ti
oni
nsi
ght
scannotbe
appl
i
edt
oal
lpr
obl
ems.Somepr
obl
emscannotbesol
vedby suddeni
nsi
ght
s
andt
hesear
enoni
nsi
ghtpr
obl
ems
 .
Cr
eat
ivi
ty
 Ex
per
tsoncr
eat
ivi
tyagr
eet
hatcr
eat
ivesol
uti
onshav
etwocomponent
s–
nov
elt
y and appr
opr
iat
eness. Cr
eat
ive sol
uti
ons ar
e nov
eldi
ff
erentf
rom
pr
evi
oussol
uti
onsandar
eusual
l
yunexpect
ed.Howev
er,
sur
pri
seandor
igi
nal
i
ty
cannotmaket
hesol
uti
ont
oapr
obl
em cr
eat
ive.Thesol
uti
onmustal
sosat
isf
y
t
heconst
rai
ntsoft
hepr
obl
em ahead,i
tmustf
ulf
il
laneedandbesensi
bleand
usef
ul
 Fact
orsassoci
atedwi
thcr
eat
ivi
tyi
ncl
ude
 Cr
eat
ivi
tyasacogni
ti
vepr
ocess
 Cr
eat
ivi
tyi
sinf
luencedbyaper
son’
sper
sonal
i
ty
 Cr
eat
ivi
tyi
sinf
luencedbyt
hest
yleoft
hinki
ng andseemst
ofol
l
ow a
const
antpat
ter
nofdev
elopmentov
ert
hel
i
fespan
 Cr
eat
ivi
tyi
sal
soapr
oductofi
ntel
l
ect
ual
andsoci
alenv
ironmenti
nwhi
ch
aper
sonwor
ks.

Reasoni
ng,
JudgmentandDeci
sionmaki
ng
Thet
hreeaspect
sofcogni
ti
vepr
ocessesdependsondi
ff
erentpr
ocessesandpr
esent
s
di
ff
erentchal
l
enges,
butt
heydependoneachot
her
.Reasoni
ngi
nvol
vesev
aluat
ionofa
concl
usi
onbasedsol
elyongi
veni
nfor
mat
ion.Deci
sionmaki
ngandj
udgmentr
equi
res
t
hatonegobey
ondt
hei
nfor
mat
iongi
ven.Wi
thj
udgmentweappl
yreasoni
ngabout
gi
veni
nfor
mat
ionbuty
oumustusegi
veni
nfor
mat
iont
oar
ri
veataconcl
usi
on.Deci
sion
maki
ngi
nvol
vesaf
urt
heri
nfor
mat
ionbey
ondt
hegi
veni
nfor
mat
iont
oasi
tuat
iont
hat
i
nvol
vesuncer
tai
ntyorr
isks.I
ndeci
sionmaki
ngy
oumustev
aluat
egi
veni
nfor
mat
ion,
ar
ri
ve atj
udgmentand based on t
hisj
udgmentmake a choi
ce among sev
eral
al
ter
nat
ives.
Thi
sisr
iskybecausei
tinv
olv
esconsi
der
abl
eamountofguesswor
k.I
n

89
deci
sionmaki
ngof
tenpr
ovi
del
i
mit
edi
nfor
mat
ionorr
equi
readegr
eeofknowl
edgeor
comput
ati
onal
ski
l
lst
hati
swel
lbey
ondwhathumansdo.
REASONI
NG
Ther
e ar
etwo mai
n appr
oachest
oreasoni
ng.These ar
e deduct
ive and i
nduct
ive
r
easoni
ngr
easoni
ng
Deduct
iver
easoni
ng
 Deduct
iver
easoni
ngr
efer
stodet
ermi
ningi
faspeci
fi
cconcl
usi
oni
sval
i
dbased
ongener
alpr
inci
plesorasser
ti
ons.
Deduct
iver
easoni
ngi
sli
kesol
vi
ngawel
l
def
inedpr
obl
em i
nthatdeduct
iver
easoni
ngpr
obl
em i
nvol
vesl
argedegr
eeof
const
rai
ntsandt
heconcl
usi
oni
seasi
l
yassessed
 I
tisal
soasawel
ldef
inedpr
obl
em i
nthatal
gor
it
hm (
stepbyst
epf
ormul
ae)i
s
appr
opr
iat
eforsol
uti
ons
 Twof
ormsofdeduct
iver
easoni
nghav
erecei
vedagr
eatdealofat
tent
ionf
rom
cogni
ti
ver
esear
cher
s.Thesear
esy
ll
ogi
sti
creasoni
ngandcondi
ti
onal
reasoni
ng
Sy
ll
ogi
sti
creasoning
Sy
ll
ogi
sti
csconsistoft
wopr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
on.Thepr
emi
seandconcl
usi
onmay
begi
nwi
thauni
ver
salquant
if
ierorapar
ti
cul
arquant
if
ier
.Thet
ermsi
nthesy
ll
ogi
sm
maybest
atedposi
ti
vel
yornegat
ivel
y.Sy
ll
ogi
smsar
eei
therv
ali
dori
nval
i
d
Al
lst
udent
sar
ebr
ight
Al
lbr
ightpeopl
ecompl
eteassi
gnment
s
Ther
efor
eal
lst
udent
scompl
eteassi
gnment
s.
Sy
ll
ogi
sm maybev
ali
ddependi
ngont
het
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
se.Bi
asef
fectal
soaf
fect
s
sy
ll
ogi
sti
creasoni
ng
Condi
ti
onalr
easoni
ng
The second f
orm ofdeduct
iver
easoni
ng i
s cal
l
ed condi
ti
onalr
eason or(
ift
hen
r
easoni
ng)andi
nvol
vesev
aluat
ingwhet
herapar
ti
cul
arconcl
usi
on i
sval
i
dgi
vent
hat
cer
tai
ncondi
ti
onshol
d
e.
g.I
fsomeonel
i
keschi
l
drent
hent
heyar
esensi
ti
veper
son
Mar
yli
keschi
l
drent
her
efor
emar
ryi
sasensi
ti
veper
son

Condi
ti
onalst
atement
spr
ovi
det
her
ulest
hatar
eexpr
essedi
nift
henf
ormat
.Ingener
al

90
deduct
iver
easoni
ngf
alli
ntooneoft
het
wocampsandcoul
dbedescr
ibedasr
ule
based account
s.Basi
cal
l
ythi
svi
ew cont
ent
sthatpeopl
epossesr
epr
esent
ati
onal
equi
val
entt
ologi
crul
es.The r
ules ar
e appl
i
ed t
othe pr
emi
se t
o det
ermi
ne t
he
concl
usi
on

I
ngener
alt
heexpl
anat
ionofhow wer
easondeduct
ivel
y gener
alf
all
sundert
wo
cat
egor
ies.Oneov
erv
iew mi
ghtber
ulebasedaccountofdeduct
iver
easoni
ng.I
nthi
s
v
iew i
tisassumedt
hatpeopl
epossessr
epr
esent
ati
onalequi
val
entofl
ogi
crul
esThe
r
ulesar
eappl
i
edt
othepr
emi
set
odet
ermi
nei
ftheconcl
usi
oni
sval
i
d.Anot
herv
ersi
on
i
sment
almodel
svi
ew.Accor
dingt
othi
svi
ew wef
ir
stf
orm ament
almodelbasedon
t
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthepr
emi
se andourownpr
evi
ousexper
ience.Nextwesear
chf
or
ment
almodeli
nwhi
cht
hepr
emi
sewoul
dbet
ruebutt
hest
atedconcl
usi
oncoul
dbe
f
alse.I
fthemodel
isf
oundt
heconcl
usi
onwoul
dbet
ermedv
ali
d

I
nduct
iver
easoni
ng
Thef
li
psi
deofdeduct
iver
easoni
ngi
sthei
nduct
iver
easoni
ng.Rat
hert
hanwor
king
f
rom gener
alpr
emi
set
oar
ri
veatspeci
fi
cconcl
usi
onwemov
efr
om speci
fi
ctogener
al.
Bi
sanzi
,Bi
sanzandKor
pan(
1994)descr
ibedsomechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatseem t
oty
pif
y
i
nduct
iver
easoni
ng

Fi
rstt
hepr
oductofi
nduct
iver
easoni
ng(
i.
egener
alpr
inci
ple)i
snotnecessar
il
ycor
rect
.
Thev
ali
dit
yof aconcl
usi
on i
sinher
enti
nthepr
emi
se.I
nduct
ivear
gument
sar
e
ev
aluat
edi
nter
msoft
hei
rst
rengt
hsr
athert
hant
hev
ali
dit
y

Secondl
ywi
thi
nduct
iver
easoni
ngt
her
eisneedf
orconst
rai
ntsont
heconcl
usi
on
r
eached. Thi
s woul
d hel
p check on conf
ir
mat
ion bi
as t
hatof
ten i
nfl
uences our
r
easoni
ng.I
nduct
iver
easoni
ngi
sper
vasi
vei
nsomef
ormi
tunder
li
esj
ustev
eryday
pr
ocess(
omni
presenceofi
nduct
iver
easoni
ng)and i
sappl
i
edi
npr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.For
exampl
e,mostofpr
obl
emsweencount
erar
especi
fi
candwehav
etosol
vet
hem
i
nduct
ivel
y

91
Judgment
I
nducti
vereasoni
ng i
nvol
ves ar
ri
vi
ng atgener
alconcl
usi
on based on t
he dat
a.
Judgmenti
sanext
ensi
onofi
nduct
iver
easoni
ng.Hast
icandDawes(
2001)def
ine
j
udgmentas humanabi
l
ityt
oinf
er,est
imat
eandpr
edi
ctt
hechar
act
erofunknown
ev
ent
s.I
tisaboutmaki
ngeducat
edguesesbasedonl
i
mit
edi
nfor
mat
ional
ongwi
thour
pr
evi
ousknowl
edgeexpect
ati
onsandbel
i
ef.Tomakej
udgment
swer
elyonmemor
y
andt
hei
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Thusj
udgmentmaybeaf
fect
edbyBi
asedencodi
ngor
bi
asedr
etr
iev
al
Decisi
onmaking
Despit
etheer
rorwemakei
njudgmentt
heyf
orm ani
mpor
tantpar
tofdat
abasef
ort
he
pr
ocess ofdeci
sion maki
ng.Howev
erdeci
sion maki
ng goesbey
ond j
udgmentt
o
i
ncl
udeachoi
cebet
weenal
ter
nat
ives.E.
g.DoIgot
ocl
assorr
emai
nint
hehouse?
.
Sev
eral
fact
orsi
nfl
uenceourdeci
sionst
hisi
ncl
udeexpect
edut
il
it
y.

Expect
edUt i
li
ty:Anor
mativeappr
oach
I
nmaki ngdecisi
onspeopl
earegui
dedbyv
ari
ousf
act
ors.Amongt
hem i
sut
il
it
ytheor
y
Basi
cal
l
ythi
stheor
yst
atest
hatwhenf
acedwi
thsomet
ypeofuncer
tai
ntychoi
cewe
makeourdeci
sionsbasedon t
wof
act
ors;
uti
l
ityoft
heout
comesandt
hei
rrespect
ive
pr
obabi
l
ity
.Ut
il
it
yref
erst
owhat
everendaper
sonwoul
dli
ket
oachi
evee.
g.happi
ness,
moneye.
t.
cBar
on1999)ar
guest
hatut
il
it
yref
erst
oamountofgoodt
hatcomesoutof
adeci
sion.I
tinv
olv
eswei
ghi
ngt
hegoodt
hatmi
ghtcomeupoutofeachal
ter
nat
ive.
Pr
ospectt
heor
y:Adescr
ipt
iveappr
oach
Kahneman&Tv
ersky(
1979)pr
ospect
ivet
heor
yasanal
ter
nat
ivet
out
il
it
ytheor
y
Pr
ospect
ivet
heor
yisadescr
ipt
ivemodelofdeci
sionmaki
ng.
.Itat
tempt
stodescr
ibe
how we makedeci
sionsandwhyourdeci
sionsv
iol
atet
heexpect
edut
il
it
ymodel
.
Accor
dingt
opr
ospect
ivet
heor
ydeci
sionsar
eval
uednotbasedonabsol
utev
alueoft
he
endr
esul
taspr
oposedbyexpect
edut
il
it
y.Rat
her wev
aluedeci
sionbasedont
he
amountofgai
norl
ossf
rom whatwehav
enow.

Anot
heri
mpor
tantf
eat
ureoft
hemodeli
sthati
tpr
oposest
hatgai
nsandl
ossesar
eon
di
ff
erentscal
esofv
alue.Thev
alueweat
tachongai
nsi
ncr
easesmor
esl
owl
y as
f
unct
ionsoft
hesi
zeoft
hegai
nthanoft
henegat
ive(
losses)
.Basi
cal
l
ywef
eell
osses

92
mor
eacut
elyt
hanwedof
ort
hegai
ns.Thepsy
chol
ogi
calpai
nthati
sassoci
atedwi
th
l
oosi
ng i
sgr
eat
ert
hant
hepsy
chol
ogi
calpl
easur
eofgai
ning.Ther
efor
ewet
endt
o
makedeci
sionsbasedonav
oidi
ngpai
nofl
oosi
ng

Pr
ospectt
heor
ypr
edi
ctst
hatourpr
efer
encewi
l
lchangewhenev
erourr
efer
encepoi
nts
changes.
I
finf
ormat
ioni
spr
esent
edi
nter
msofposi
ti
vegai
ns(
gai
nfr
ame)
wewi
l
lbemor
eli
kel
y
t
oav
oidr
isks.Howev
eri
fthesamei
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
esent
edi
nanegat
ivel
osef
rame
e.
g.emphasi
zi
ngwhatwemayl
osewewi
l
lbemor
eli
kel
ytot
akear
iskt
oav
oidt
his
l
oss.Fr
ami
ngi
sthet
erm usedt
odescr
ibet
heef
fect
sofhowascenar
ioi
spr
esent
ed.

93