READING AND WRITING

WRITING EMAILS

SUBJECT LINE

 Use an informative subject line

o Avoid: too general subject (e.g., presentation); no subject; too long subject
 A well-defined subject makes it easier to judge the importance of an email
 A lot of users file their emails by subject

FORMS OF ADDRESS

 Dear Mr. X; Dear Ms. (Mrs.) X

 Dear Prof./Professor X; Dear Dr. X
 Avoid: Hello X, Hi, Hi John, Miss, Mz., Dear Mrs., Dear Misses, Dear Madam etc.

BODY

 Concise but should contain all the necessary info

 Useful: identify yourself + the class/course code
o > Teachers have more than 1 course/group...

REQUESTS

 Introduce your question => use indirect requests

o Could you (please) tell me / remind me whether xxx / when xxx / the deadline for xxx
o Avoid (informal): Can you...? Do you know...?
 Thank for the (coming) answer:
o Many thanks in advance for your answer/help
o I look forward to reading your reply
o Avoid (informal): Thanks

APOLOGIES

 I (would like to) apologize for sending my homework late.

 I apologize for my late answer.
 Please accept my apologies for...
 Avoid (informal): Sorry for...
 Before sending a message of excuse, think twice...
ATTACHMENTS

 I’m sending you ... in attachment / as an attachment  Please find enclosed my assignment
on xxx...
 You will find attached my ...
 Here is...
> + don’t forget the attachment!
> Do not just send your work in attachment without introductory note (very impolite!)

SALUTATIONS

 Best regards
 Best wishes
 With (very) best wishes
 Best, All the best
 Have a nice day!
 Yours sincerely, yours faithfully (> very formal)

SIGNATURE

 Full name
 Optional (if not mentioned elsewhere):
o course code / group number / year of study / ...

OTHERS

 Use your university email address (to ensure your email gets through)
 Attachments in attachment
o Use an explanatory name (e.g. Homework – John Smith)
 Use proper paragraphing (not one long paragraph)
 Use formal language:
o No: CAPITALS; exclamation marks “!”; emoticons; slang
o Avoid: contractions
 Proofread the email and use a spell-checker
WRITING PROCESS

STEP 1 – LISTING

 Gather your ideas

 Brainstorm

STEP 2 – ORGANISE YOUR IDEAS

Make a simple outline from the list you made in STEP 1 using this outline. Follow the instructions:

 Give your outline a title.

 Decide on your main idea about your topic. Write a sentence that expresses the main idea at
the top of your outline.
 List two or more ways in which the person you chose has made a difference (A, B, C…). Think
about which way should come first, second, third etc. Put the ways and any supporting
information in a logical order.

STEP 3 – WRITE THE FIRST DRAFT

Write the first draft of your paragraph. Follow the instructions:

 Begin your paragraph with a topic sentence that names the person and tells your main idea.
 Use your outline from STEP 2 to write the body of the paragraph with the supporting
sentences in a logical order.
 You may add a concluding sentence at the end.
  Check for subject verb agreement and capital letters.
 Give your paragraph a title. The title should clearly identify your topic

STEP 4 – REVISE AND EDIT THE FIRST DRAFT

 Revise the paragraph using the following peer review grid.

 Use the self-check grid to check your second draft for content, organization, grammar,
punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and sentence structure.

STEP 5 – FINAL DRAFT

 Write a clean copy of your paragraph. Be sure to proofread it and fix any errors.
WRITING FOR AN AUDIENCE

Academic audience (university professors or staff, researchers, etc.)

 Do not use abbreviations, contractions, or informal language

 Use the appropriate person, or pronoun => usually third person (they) rather than second
person (you)
o E.g., You usually get nervous §when you have to speak in front of a big audience. =>
Students usually get nervous when they have to ...

FORMAL OR INFORMAL REGISTER/LANGUAGE

Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is more common when we
speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing
postcards or letters to friends , emails or text messages . There are also examples where spoken
English can be very formal, for example, in a speech or a lecture […]

> Formality is linked to the broader context

> Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of grammar and
vocabulary

> Contractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are more common in informal
language

In formal writing: In informal writing, ok if:

 No contractions  Slang and clichés
 No abbreviations  Abbreviations
 Use paragraphing (not one single bloc  Incomplete sentences
of text)  Short sentences
 Spell out numbers less than one  First person, second person, third
hundred person
 Third person point of view (avoid ‘I’ or  Paragraphs or no paragraphs
‘you’)  Jokes
 Avoid slang, idioms, exaggeration  Personal opinions
(hyperboles) and clichés  Extra punctuation
 Do not start sentences with words like  …
‘and’, ‘so’, ‘but’, ‘also’
 Complete sentences
 …
GRAMMAR NOTES

CAPITALISATION IN WRITING

 First word in a sentence

 Pronoun I
 Abbreviations & acronyms (formed from the first letters of words)
 Proper nouns (deities, names of people and their title, cities, geographic areas, buildings,
organizations)
 Nationalities (+ adj derived), languages, religions
 Days, months, special days (but NOT seasons)
 First word + all content words in titles of books, magazines, newspapers, films...
o Star Trek, War and Peace...

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

 There is or there are

o There is + SG There are + PL
 Prepositional phrase between the subject and the verb
o The price [of the concert tickets] is high.
 One of the PL + SG
o One of the students is sick today.
 Each of the PL + SG
o Each of the books is good.
 Collective nouns (Swan 526)
o Singular words like family, team, government... which refer to groups of people =>
either SG or PL verbs and pronouns
 The team is/are going to lose.
o PL: more common when the group is seen as a collection of people doing personal
things like deciding, hoping or wanting
 My family have decided to move to New York. They're going in April.
o SG: more common when the group is seen as an impersonal unit
 The average family has 3.6 members. It is smaller than 50 years ago.
o US: singular verbs are more common with collective nouns.
 The team is in Texas.
 Plural names of countries
o Usually have singular verbs and pronouns
 The United States is anxious to improve its image.
 The Netherlands is famous for cheese and windmills.
 Third person singular present simple +s
o My friend plays the guitar
PUNCTUATION

COMMAS

 After transition signals

o First, let me explain why you should use commas.
 Before words like and, so, but, and yet to separate two parts of a sentence that each have a
subject and a verb
o Many students work, so they don't have time to cook properly BUT Many students
work and study at the same time.
 In complex sentences, when subordinate clauses begin sentences, they are often followed by
a comma
o If you are ever in London, come and see me.
o Come and see me if you are ever in London.
 To separate items in a series
o In this auditorium, there are students from Belgium, France, Germany, England, and
China.
 To separate thousands, millions, etc.
o The trip costs over $3,000.
 In dates
o The third millennium started on January 1, 2001.
 Long subject: comma NOT used
o The man from the Japanese Ministry of Education arrived early. (NOT ... Education,
arrived early)

OTHER COMMENTS

 Etc. and ... to continue a list => use a phrase like such as in your sentence.
o Exchange students at UCLouvain come from countries such as France, Germany, or
China.
 Exclamation marks (!) => express your feeling using evaluative adjectives
o Angel falls are one of the most spectacular wonders on earth.
 Ellipsis (...) at the end of sentences => finish your sentence
o The teacher said I should study hard, so I will revise my notes after each class.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

 Adjective + noun
 We can easily confuse adjectives and adverbs
o Quick / quickly, easy / easily etc.
 Adjective + s = NO
o *diffferents countries
 Place of the adjective
o Russia can be a country very cold in the winter.
PARALLEL STRUCTURES

Parallel structures: each item in a list or in a comparison follows the same grammatical pattern

 If the first item of the list is a noun => all other items in the list need to be a noun too
o I like football, photography, and animals.
o NOT: I like football, taking pictures, and to care for animals.
 If the first item of the list is an –ing form => all other items in the list need to be an –ing form
o I like playing football, taking pictures, and caring for animals.
o NOT: I like playing football, photography, and caring for animals.

SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences. There are three common problems:

NUMBERS

Sometimes we write numbers as words (e.g. twenty-five) and sometimes as figures (e.g. 25).

 Spell out numbers below 10. Numerals should be used for numbers 10 and above, but
numbers nine and below should be spelled out. Ordinal numbers (i.e., third, 12th), follow the
same basic rule.
 Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence. A number that begins a sentence should
be spelled out rather than noted as a numeral, even if the number is below 10.
 Spell out common fractions or phrases with numbers. Spell out numbers when they are part
of common phrases or fractions.
 Use numerals for measurements. If a number precedes a measurement (5 cm, 7g), use the
numeral form rather than spelling it out.
 Use numerals for fractions, ratios, and percentages. Any number used for data and statistics
(75%, 6:1) should use the numeral form rather than the word spelling.
 Use numerals for sums of money, dates, ages, and time. If you’re discussing numbers like
dollar amounts (3 dollars) or somebody’s age (7 years old), use numerals rather than spelling.
 Numbers in a series. When you’re referring to a number in a series—like Grade 7, or District
4—you use the numeral and capitalize the noun that precedes it.
PARAGRAPHS

 A paragraph is a group of related sentences that (usually) discuss one main idea. There is one
sentence or more => § should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.
 A paragraph may stand by itself (cf. test and exam questions) or be part of a longer piece of
writing (essay or book)
 Paragraphs use indentation

PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

1. The Topic sentence (main idea of the paragraph)

2. The supporting sentences (more details ideas about the topic)
3. The concluding sentence (repeats the main idea of gives a final comment)

TOPIC SENTENCE
  It is to introduce the paragraph’s main idea
 It is the most important sentence in a paragraph
 It needs to be a complete sentence
 There are two parts: the topic and the controlling idea
 It is usually the first sentence
 It can’t be neither too general nor too specific
 DOES NOT ANNOUNCE A TOPIC

Remarks:

 One topic can have different controlling ideas (depending on the prompt)
 There can be more than one part in the controlling idea, but it should be related

TOO GENERAL OR TOO SPECIFIC

When a topic sentence is too narrow, there is not enough to write about.

 Almost 90% of Americans own cell phones.

 Americans own and use a wide variety of cell phones, depending on their work and personal
needs.

To revise a topic sentence that is too narrow:

 State a clear viewpoint about your topic;

 Broaden your topic to include a wider group or range of items;
 Expand your topic to include causes and effects or comparisons or contrasts.

When a topic sentence is too broad, there are difficulties covering all aspects in a single paragraph
and often leads to disorganized writing.

 Internet crime in the world today is increasing dramatically.

 Phishing scams are responsible for increases in identify theft among senior citizens in our
town.

To revise a topic sentence that is too broad, use the following tips:
  Narrow your topic by subdividing it;
 Rewrite your topic sentence to focus on one aspect or part of the topic;  Apply the topic
sentence to a specific time and place;
 Consider using one of your details as a topic sentence

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

 To give specific information about the main idea

 Ex. explanations, examples, and facts.

CONCLUDING SENTENCE

 It needs to bring the paragraph to a clear and satisfying close

 It is used to remind the reader of the mind idea of the paragraph
 It restates the topic sentence in a new way (=it does not simply repeat the words in the topic
sentence)
 It may summarize the main points from the supporting sentences that were in the paragraph
 NEVER add new information
 Often begins by a transition phrase: in sum, in short, in conclusion, in brief, or to sum up.

FOR EXAMPLE

Memory techniques

People use three main techniques to help them learn new information quickly and easily. The first
technique is mnemonic device. Mnemonic devices are short words, music, or rhymes to help
memorize lists or fact. For example, some students may have learned the acronym FANBOYS to help
them remember how to combine their ideas into longer sentences. Each letter in FANBOYS stands
for one coordinator: for, and, nor, but, or yet, so. The second technique is repetition. People say or
write something again and again. Many online shoppers are able to remember their credit card
number without looking at their card. They have memorized their credit card number because they
have typed it over and over. Finally, chunking is another method that helps memory. Chunking
means dividing something into shorter parts. When students learn to spell difficult words, such as
Wednesday, they can break them into parts: Wed-nes- day. Chunking words with numbers works as
well. For instance, to memorize a phone number, one could break it into parts. Focusing attention on
three sets of numbers (206-555-1313) is easier for the brain. In sum, mnemonic devices, repetition,
and chunking are helpful techniques that people can use to increase their ability to remember
information.

UNITY AND COHERENCE

UNITY

A paragraph discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end. Every supporting sentence
must directly support the main idea. If some sentences do not support the controlling idea, they are
off-topic or irrelevant.

COHERENCE

The sentences must hold together => the movement from one sentence to the next must be logical
and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps and each sentence should flow smoothly into the next
one.

There are four ways to achieve coherence:

 Repeat kay nouns

 Use consistent pronouns
 Arrange your ideas in logical order
 Use transition signals to link ideas

TRANSITION SIGNALS

Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from one idea to the
next. Transition signals tell your reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, and, in addition),
an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (therefore,
as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion). There is no rule about how many transition signals are
necessary => use them, but do not abuse them either.

INTRODUCTION
FUNNEL INTRODUCTIONS

Number of words in an introduction:

 Not a set number per se, but around 10 15% of the total length of your essay
 For instance, if you have to write a thousand-word essay, your introduction should be around
100 150 words long.

CONCLUSION

1. Reformulation of the thesis statement, not just rewriting it

2. Summary of the arguments = summary of each topic sentence
3. Opening thoughts

The conclusion should be the same length as the introduction. It should remind the reader of the
topic of the essay (see 1). Summarise the information presented in the body of the essay. DO NOT
introduce new information. DO NOT simply restate the thesis statement.

Expression:

 In conclusion
 In summary
 To conclude
 To sum up
 All in all (less formal)
 As a conclusion

BASIC ESSAY ORGANISATION

THE TITLE

An essay needs a title. Usually, it suggests the subject of the essay and it is intended to capture the
reader’s interest.

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

It is the first paragraph of an essay. It has two main functions

o It attracts the reader’s interest

o It presents the topic of the essay

It also presents the thesis statement of the essay, offers background information, and can be used to
define technical or unfamiliar terms.
A common way of writing an introduction is the “funnel introduction”. The idea is that we are going
from the general sentences to increasingly focused sentences, until the last sentence, which states
very specifically what the essay will be about. The structure:

 General statements (“hook” + “narrow the topic”): give the reader background information
about the topic of the essay (from general to more specific)
 Thesis statement: normally the last sentence in an introductory paragraph.

THE THESIS STATEMENT

It is the main point of an essay; all the other ideas and paragraphs support this point. The thesis is
usually stated in a single sentence at the end of the introductory paragraph.

Attention: a thesis statement is a statement, not a question!

BODY PARAGRAPH

The body paragraph contains one or more paragraphs that explain or support the thesis statement
via examples, facts, statistics, reasons, personal experiences and observations, descriptions,
quotations from or references to authorities and experts, anecdotes, or comparisons. > We can
combine various types of supporting information.

Each body paragraph has a topic sentence, several supporting sentences, and an optional concluding
sentence. Each body paragraph explains and gives details about the thesis statement.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

An essay is brought to a close with a brief conclusion bit careful because it is not only a summary. A
conclusion has three purposes:

 Signaling the end of the essay

 Reminding the reader of what the writer wants to say in the essay (key message)
 Giving final thoughts on the topic

The concrete structure:

 1. Repeat the thesis statement in different words and/or summaries the main points of the
essay (same order as in the essay)
2. Add a final comment: opinion, recommendation, judgement, or prediction about the topic.

TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS

We use transition signals to show the connection of ideas within a paragraph. It is also important to
use them between body paragraphs. We can use basic ones such as first, second, third or finally. Or
we can used more complex ones, such as in addition, however, nevertheless, etc.

Tip: Use a preposition as a transition signal between body paragraph so that you can repeat the topic
of the preceding paragraph in the same sentence in which you name the topic of the next paragraph.
> this technique strengthens the links between body paragraph and helps create a coherent essay.

In order to express concession, several transition words can be used: although/ even though/
though/ even if/ despite the fact that. Despite and in spite of cannot be used in this sentence for a
grammatical reason. In fact, despite and in spite of need to be followed by a noun or an -ing verb, not
a clause (‘solutions can easily be found’).

In order to express concession, several transition words can be used: therefore/ as a matter of fact/
as a result/ consequently/ for this reason/ then. When those link words are in the middle of a
sentence, they must be preceded and followed by commas.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
It is an essay in which you agree or disagree with an issue, using reasons to support you mission. The
goal is to convince your reader that your opinion is right. In an essay, you need to:

 Take a stand on an issue

 Support your stand with solid reasons
 Support your reasons with solid evidence

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

It is the first paragraph of an essay after the title. It does two things:

 It invites the reader into the essay with interesting background information about the topic
(cf. Funnel introduction)
 It tells the reader what the essay is about in the thesis statement (usually last sentence of the
paragraph)

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The background information (cf. funnel introduction) helps the reader understand the topic and why
it is important. It can include:

 General information about the topic

 Important facts about the topic
 A story that helps the reader understand why the topic is important
 Historical information about the topic
 …

The background information can be organized as funnel introduction: begin with a very general
statement and then write sentences that become more and more specific, until you get to the
specific topic of the essay.

For the general sentences, (=beginning of funnel introduction) you can phrase such as in today’s
world, throughout history, is an important issue today and most people are familiar with.

 In today’s world, education is extremely valuable.

 Education is an important issue today.

THESIS STATEMENT

The thesis statement (TS) gives the writer’s opinion about the topic. The purpose of the essay is to
persuade the reader of this opinion.

 You have to make sure the thesis statement gives an explicit opinion on the topic.
 It introduces the opinion with an expression such as: in my opinion, in my view, I believe; or
with a modal verb such as should, ought to, need to, must.
 The thesis statement often mentions the main reasons for the opinion. Each body paragraph
in the essay will be about one of these reasons.
 The thesis statement often mentions the opposing view first.
The thesis statement includes:

 The topic of the essay

 The writer’s opinion about the topic
 The main reasons for the opinion

For every writing prompt, there are many possible good thesis statements that answer the question
in the prompt, but the thesis statement in an argumentative essay always clearly states which side
you are for.

BODY PARAGRAPH

In the body paragraph of an argumentative essay, you support your opinion with reasons. Each
reason is in a separate paragraph.

 For example, if your thesis statement gives three reasons for your opinion, your essay should
have three body paragraphs, one for each reason.

Each body paragraph:

 Starts with a topic sentence that gives one reason for your opinion. This reason should be
one of the reasons mentioned in the thesis statement
 Includes supporting example, details, or quotations that support your reasons.
 Uses phrases like one reason, another reason, finally to help connect one paragraph to the
next paragraph.

SUPPORTING DETAILS: QUOTATIONS

There are two types of quotations: direct and indirect. They are often used in academic writing as
supporting details.

There are rules to use them properly:

 If you copy words exactly use quotation marks > do not use quotation marks for indirect
quotations
 Use a reporting verb such as:
o Assert, insist, report, suggest, claim, maintain, say, write, declare, mention, state,
note, etc.
The reporting verb may come before, after, or in the middle of the quotation, and the verb
may be in any appropriate tense. Separate a quotation from a reporting phrase with
commas.
Another useful reporting phrase is according to followed by the name of the source. This
phrase usually appears at the beginning or end, but not in the middle of a sentence.
 Begin each quoted sentence with a capital letter. When a quoted sentence is separated into
two parts, begin the second part with a small letter.
 Commas, periods, quotation marks, and exclamation points go inside the second quotation
mark of a pair.
DIRECT QUOTATION

You copy another person’s exact words (spoken or written) and enclose then in quotation marks (“ ”)

INDIRECT QUOTATION

The speaker’s or writer’s words are reported without quotation marks (= reported speech). Attention: you
should never use an indirect quotation without paraphrasing, or rephrasing information in your own words.

PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is using someone else’s words or ideas as if they were your own, and it is a serious offense. When
you use information (text, image, etc.) from an outside source without acknowledging that source, you are
guilty of plagiarism.

To avoid plagiarism, you should always:

 Put quotation marks around words that you copy exactly (you do not need to use quotation marks if
you change the words)
 And cite the source (whether you copy the words exactly or state an idea with your own words). To
cite the source means to tell where you got the information.

Including the source of the borrowed information with the quote gives authority to your writing because it lets
your reader know that your information is from a credible source.

SUPPORTING DETAILS: FACTS AND STATISTICS

Facts and statistics may provide evidence that the main idea is correct, or the facts may further explain the
main idea. You use statistics in the same way you use quotations (include the source). You can begin with a
reporting phrase such as Statistics show that… or Statistical data prove that… or A survey shows that….

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

The concluding paragraph is the last paragraph of the essay. It does not add any new topics or main points. The
concluding paragraph usually:

 Begins with a transition phrase to show that you are concluding.

o In conclusion, in short, in sum, to summarize, to conclude
 Restates the thesis in different words. You may also summarize your reasons.
 Ends with a final comment. It could be a recommendation, a prediction, a call for action, etc. Your final
comment should be powerful, that is one that your reader will remember.

HASHANI SESSIONS

PARAPHRASING
‘Paraphrasing involves taking a passage - either spoken or written - and rewording it. Writers often
paraphrase sentences and paragraphs to deliver information in a more concise way […]. When
paraphrasing, it is important to keep the original meaning so that the facts remain intact. Basically,
you are writing something in your own words that still expresses the original idea.

Paraphrasing is common when writing an essay or research paper. It allows you to explain important
ideas in your own writing style and focus on the information that is most useful in making your point.
Even when you put someone else’s ideas into your own words, you must cite the source of your
information. This gives credit to the original author for their ideas.

Paraphrasing is slightly different than summarizing. When you summarize a passage, you focus on
restating only the main idea in your own words. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, aims to provide
most of the information in a slightly condensed form. Summaries are much shorter than the original
passage, while paraphrasing can be shorter, longer or the same length’.

ORGANISING AND LINKING PARAGRAPHS

 Linking Words (see page 119 – 125 of the course notes)

 Concluding sentences leading forward to the next paragraph
 Topic sentences that link back to the previous paragraph
 Signposting = links to what has been said

EXPRESSING AN OPINION FORMALLY

EXPLICITLY

 In my view /in my opinion

o In my view /opinion, birds should not be kept in cages.
 To my mind: to emphasize that this is your own opinion
o To my mind , the quality of their football is just not good enough
 From my perspective
 …

IMPLICITLY

Explicit ways of giving your opinion are, in many cases, simply not necessary. It is often still clear that
you are giving your opinion or your interpretation, since you are the author of your text. In fact,
giving your opinion explicitly too often makes your text heavy.

EVALUATIVE ADVERBS

Most adverbs describe how or when an action occurs. Evaluative adverbs, which are also referred to
as commenting adverbs, are different. Instead of giving us information about the action itself,
evaluative adverbs are used by the speaker to comment or give an opinion on something. Evaluative
adverbs modify the entire clause.

For example: Interestingly (enough), significantly, arguably, ironically, obviously,…

IT IS + ADJECTIVE + THAT

Apparent, appropriate, arguable, clear, conceivable, crucial, desirable, doubtful, essential, evident,
important, inconceivable, interesting, necessary, notable, noteworthy, obvious, regrettable,
remarkable, significant, surprising, unfortunate.

Example: It is IMPORTANT that you keep a positive outlook.

IT IS + ADJECIVE + TO

Appropriate, convenient, difficult, easy, essential, hard, important, impossible, interesting, necessary,
reasonable, sufficient, useful.

Example: It is REASONABLE to assume that such changes have significant social effects.

IT IS WORTH + V-ING

Asking, considering, emphasizing, examining, investigating, looking at, mentioning, noting, pointing
out, quoting, recalling, remembering, repeating, stressing.

Example: It is worth noting that some writers on business strategy are well aware of this problem.