Edited by:

Dr. Muhad Rozi Mat Nawi

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Mara
2015

Source: Fluid Mechanics – Fundamentals & Applications, 3rd

Edition by Cengel and Cimbala, McGraw-Hill, 2014
 Appreciate the consequences of compressibility
in gas flows.

 Understand why a nozzle must have a diverging

section to accelerate a gas to supersonic
speeds.

 Predict the occurrence of shocks and calculate

property changes across a shock wave.

 Understand the effects of friction and heat

transfer on compressible flows.
 Recall definition of enthalpy;

which is the sum of internal

energy u and flow energy
P/.

 For high-speed flows,

enthalpy and kinetic energy
are combined into
stagnation enthalpy h0;
 Steady adiabatic flow through
duct with no shaft/electrical
work and no change in
elevation and potential
energy;

 Therefore, stagnation
enthalpy remains constant
during steady-flow process.
 If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (V2 =
0);

 Therefore, h0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid

when it is brought to rest adiabatically.

 During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is

converted to enthalpy.

 Properties at this point are called stagnation

properties (which are identified by subscript 0).
 If the process is also reversible, the
stagnation state is called the
isentropic stagnation state:
◦ Stagnation enthalpy is the same for
isentropic and actual stagnation
states.

◦ Actual stagnation pressure P0,act is

lower than P0 due to increase in
entropy s as a result of fluid friction.

◦ Nonetheless, stagnation processes

are often approximated to be
isentropic, and isentropic properties
are referred to as stagnation
properties
 For an ideal gas, h = CpT, which allows the h0 to
be rewritten;

◦ T0 is the stagnation temperature. It represents the

temperature an ideal gas attains when it is brought to
rest adiabatically.
◦ V2/2Cp corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called
the dynamic temperature.
 For ideal gas with constant specific heats,
stagnation pressure and density can be expressed
as;
 When using stagnation enthalpies, there is
no need to explicitly use kinetic energy in
the energy balance.

 Where h01 and h02 are stagnation enthalpies

at states 1 and 2.

 If the fluid is an ideal gas with constant

specific heats.
 Important parameter in
compressible flow is the
speed of sound;
◦ Speed at which infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels.

 Consider a duct with a moving

piston;
◦ Creates a sonic wave moving to
the right.
◦ Fluid to left of wave front
experiences incremental change in
properties.
◦ Fluid to right of wave front
maintains original properties.
 Construct CV that
encloses wave front and
moves with it.
 Mass balance;

cancel Neglect
H.O.T.
 Energy balance; ein = eout

cancel Neglect
cancel
H.O.T.
 Using the thermodynamic relation;

 Combing this with mass and energy

conservation gives;

 For an ideal gas;

 Since
◦ R is constant.
◦ k is only a function of
T.
◦ Speed of sound is only
a function of
temperature.
  Second important
parameter is the
Mach number Ma.

 Ratio of fluid velocity

to the speed of
sound;

Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Supersonic  Flow regimes
classified in terms of
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic
Ma.
Ma  1 : Transonic
 For flow through
nozzles, diffusers, and
turbine blade
passages, flow
quantities vary
primarily in the flow
direction:
◦ Can be approximated as
1D isentropic flow.

 Consider example of
Converging-Diverging
Duct.
 Example 12-3 illustrates
◦ Ma = 1 at the location of the
smallest flow area, called the
throat.

◦ Velocity continues to increase

past the throat, and is due to
decrease in density.

◦ Area decreases, and then

increases. Known as a
converging - diverging
nozzle. Used to accelerate
gases to supersonic speeds.
 Relationship between V, , and A are
complex.
 Derive relationship using continuity, energy,
speed of sound equations.
 Continuity;

◦ Differentiate and divide by mass flow rate (AV);

 Derived relation (on
image at left) is the
differential form of
Bernoulli’s equation.

 Combining this with

result from continuity
gives;

 Using thermodynamic
relations and
rearranging;
 This is an important relationship:
◦ For Ma < 1, (1 - Ma2) is positive  dA and dP
have the same sign:
 Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct
increases, and must decrease as the flow area decreases.

◦ For Ma > 1, (1 - Ma2) is negative  dA and dP

have opposite signs:
 Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and
must decrease as the area increases.
 A relationship between dA and dV can be
derived by substituting V = -dP/dV (from
the differential Bernoulli equation);

 Since A and V are positive;

◦ For subsonic flow (Ma < 1) dA/dV < 0
◦ For supersonic flow (Ma > 1) dA/dV > 0
◦ For sonic flow (Ma = 1) dA/dV = 0
Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers
 Relations between static properties and stagnation properties
in terms of Ma are useful.
 Earlier, it was shown that stagnation temperature for an ideal
gas was;

 Using definitions, the dynamic temperature term can be

expressed in terms of Ma;
 Substituting T0/T ratio into P0/P and 0/
relations;

 Numerical values of T0/T, P0/P and 0/

compiled in Table A-13 for k=1.4.

 For Ma = 1, these ratios are called critical

ratios.
 Converging or converging-diverging
nozzles are found in many engineering
applications:
◦ Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft
propulsion, industrial blast nozzles, torch
nozzles.

 Here, we will study the effects of back

pressure (pressure at discharge) on the exit
velocity, mass flow rate, and pressure
distribution along the nozzle.
 State 1: Pb = P0, there is no
flow, and pressure is constant.

 State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along

nozzle decreases.

 State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is

sonic, creating maximum flow
rate called choked flow.

 State 4: Pb < Pb, there is no

change in flow or pressure
distribution in comparison to
state 3.

 State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4.

 Under steady flow conditions, mass flow
rate is constant;

 Substituting T and P from the expressions

on slides 23 and 24 gives;

◦ Mass flow rate is a function of stagnation

properties, flow area, and Ma.
 The maximum mass flow rate through a
nozzle with a given throat area A* is fixed
by the P0 and T0 and occurs at Ma = 1;

 This principal is important for chemical

processes, medical devices, flow meters,
and anywhere the mass flux of a gas must
be known and controlled.
 The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is
limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which
occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.

 Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities

(Ma > 1) requires a diverging flow section:
◦ Converging-diverging (C-D) nozzle.
◦ Standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and
rocket propulsion.

 Forcing fluid through a C-D nozzle does not

guarantee supersonic velocity:
◦ Requires proper back pressure Pb.
1. P0 > Pb > Pc
◦ Flow remains subsonic, and
mass flow is less than for
choked flow. Diverging section
acts as diffuser.

2. Pb = PC
◦ Sonic flow achieved at throat.
Diverging section acts as
diffuser. Subsonic flow at exit.
Further decrease in Pb has no
effect on flow in converging
portion of nozzle.
3. PC > Pb > PE
◦ Fluid is accelerated to supersonic
velocities in the diverging section
as the pressure decreases.
However, acceleration stops at
location of normal shock. Fluid
decelerates and is subsonic at
outlet. As Pb is decreased, shock
approaches nozzle exit.

4. PE > Pb > 0
◦ Flow in diverging section is
supersonic with no shock forming
in the nozzle. Without shock, flow
in nozzle can be treated as
isentropic.
 Review
◦ Sound waves are created by small pressure
disturbances and travel at the speed of sound
◦ For some back pressures, abrupt changes in fluid
properties occur in C-D nozzles, creating a shock
wave.

 Here, we will study the conditions under

which shock waves develop and how they
affect the flow.
 Shocks which occur in a plane
normal to the direction of flow
are called normal shock waves.

 Flow process through the shock

wave is highly irreversible and
cannot be approximated as
being isentropic.

 Develop relationships for flow

properties before and after the
shock using conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy.
Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of
momentum

Increase in entropy
 Combine conservation of mass
and energy into a single
equation and plot on h-s
diagram:
◦ Fanno Line : locus of states that
have the same value of h0 and
mass flux.

 Combine conservation of mass

and momentum into a single
equation and plot on h-s
diagram:
◦ Rayleigh line.

 Points of maximum entropy

correspond to Ma = 1:
◦ Above / below this point is
subsonic / supersonic.
 There are 2 points where the
Fanno and Rayleigh lines
intersect : points where all 3
conservation equations are
satisfied:
◦ Point 1: before the shock
(supersonic).
◦ Point 2: after the shock
(subsonic).

 The larger Ma is before the

shock, the stronger the shock
will be.

 Entropy increases from point 1 to

point 2 : expected since flow
through the shock is adiabatic
but irreversible.
 Equation for the Fanno line for
an ideal gas with constant
specific heats can be derived;

 Similar relation for Rayleigh line

is;

 Combining this gives the

intersection points;
 Not all shocks are
normal to flow
direction.

 Some are inclined

to the flow
direction, and are
called oblique
shocks
 At leading edge, flow is
deflected through an angle
 called the turning angle.

 Result is a straight oblique

shock wave aligned at
shock angle  relative to
the flow direction.

 Due to the displacement

thickness, is slightly
greater than the wedge
half-angle .
 Like normal shocks, Ma decreases across
the oblique shock, and are only possible if
upstream flow is supersonic.

 However, unlike normal shocks in which the

downstream Ma is always subsonic, Ma2 of
an oblique shock can be subsonic, sonic, or
supersonic depending upon Ma1 and .
  All equations and
shock tables for
normal shocks apply
to oblique shocks as
well, provided that we
use only the normal
components of the
-Ma relationship Mach number;
◦ Ma1,n = V1,n/c1
◦ Ma2,n = V2,n/c2
 If wedge half angle 
> max, a detached
oblique shock or bow
wave is formed.

 Much more
complicated that
straight oblique
shocks.

 Requires CFD for

analysis.
 Similar shock waves see for axisymmetric
bodies, however, -Ma relationship and
resulting diagram is different than for 2D
bodies.
 For blunt bodies,
without a sharply
pointed nose,  = 90,
and an attached
oblique shock cannot
exist regardless of Ma.
  In some cases, flow is turned in the
opposite direction across the shock.

 Example : wedge at angle of attack 

greater than wedge half angle .

 This type of flow is called an expanding

flow, in contrast to the oblique shock
which creates a compressing flow.

 Instead of a shock, a expansion fan

appears, which is comprised of infinite
number of Mach waves called Prandtl-
Meyer expansion waves.

 Each individual expansion wave is

isentropic : flow across entire
Flow turns gradually as each expansion fan is isentropic.
successful Mach wave turns
the flow ay an infinitesimal amount  Ma2 > Ma1.

 P, , T decrease across the fan.

 Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans also occur in
axisymmetric flows, as in the corners and
trailing edges of the cone cylinder.
Interaction between shock waves and
expansions waves in “over expanded”
supersonic jet
 Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice
involve chemical reactions such as combustion, nuclear
reactions, evaporation, and condensation as well as heat
gain or heat loss through the duct wall.

 Such problems are difficult to analyze.

 Essential features of such complex flows can be captured

by a simple analysis method where generation/absorption
is modeled as heat transfer through the wall at the same
rate
◦ Still too complicated for introductory treatment since flow may
involve friction, geometry changes, 3D effects.

 We will focus on 1D flow in a duct of constant cross-

sectional area with negligible frictional effects.
Consider 1D flow of an ideal
gas with constant cp through a
duct with constant A with heat
transfer but negligible friction
(known as Rayleigh flow);
Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
Energy equation
◦ CV involves no shear, shaft, or other forms of work, and
potential energy change is negligible;

◦ For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change
◦ In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy
changes by heat transfer only;
 Infinite number of downstream
states 2 for a given upstream
state 1.

 Practical approach is to assume

various values for T2, and
calculate all other properties as
well as q.

 Plot results on T-s diagram

◦ Called a Rayleigh line.

 This line is the locus of all

physically attainable
downstream states.

 S increases with heat gain to

point a which is the point of
maximum entropy (Ma =1).
 Friction must be included for flow through
long ducts, especially if the cross-sectional
area is small.

 Here, we study compressible flow with

significant wall friction, but negligible heat
transfer in ducts of constant cross section.
Consider 1D adiabatic flow of
an ideal gas with constant cp
through a duct with constant A
with significant frictional
effects (known as Fanno flow);
Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
Energy equation
◦ CV involves no heat or work, and potential energy change is
negligible.

◦ For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change
◦ In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy
changes by heat transfer only
 Infinite number of downstream
states 2 for a given upstream
state 1.

 Practical approach is to assume

various values for T2, and
calculate all other properties as
well as friction force.

 Plot results on T-s diagram

◦ Called a Fanno line.

 This line is the locus of all

physically attainable downstream
states.

 s increases with friction to point

of maximum entropy (Ma =1).

 Two branches, one for Ma < 1,

one for Ma >1.