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Sourdough use in Bread Production: Review

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DOI: 10.35516/jjas.v18i2.173

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Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Volume 18, No.2 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35516/jjas.v18i2.173

Sourdough use in Bread Production: Review

Ayed S. Amr *1 and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh2

1,2 Professor and graduate student respectively, Department of Nutrition and Food Technology, University of
Jordan, Amman, Jordan11942.

Received on 29/8/2021 and Accepted for Publication on 21/11/2021.

ABSTRACT

The nutritional, economic, and social value of bread as a staple food commodity leads to the interest in optimizing
its production and extending its shelf life through the enhancement of its flavor, textural and nutritional properties
and delaying staling and microbial spoilage. However, the freshness, flavor, and textural quality are still major
concerns and areas of development for the bread-making industry. Sourdough technology as a tool for enhancing
the quality of pan bread, as discussed and studied by many researchers worldwide from different viewpoints, was
reviewed in this article. The increased interest in sourdough-produced bread is a result of consumers’ demand for
natural, flavor-intensive bread with good keeping qualities and shelf life to satisfy their quest for a more natural
and healthier lifestyle. This review focuses mainly on describing the natural sourdough techniques developed by
the conventional and modern approaches over the past decades in the production of healthier bread. The methods
used in the production of sourdoughs as well as their effect on the quality of the various bread types are also
reviewed.

Keywords: Sourdough, Sour bread, Dough ferment, Dough microflora, Bread quality, Natural yeast.

INTRODUCTION preparation due to the property of pocket formation,

Flat Arabic bread is a staple food for the Middle wrapping, spooning of foods, plate lining, and others
Eastern in general and Arab people in particular. (Amr, 1988).
According to the Department of Statistics in Jordan, the Traditionally, Arabic flatbread was produced for
average annual per capita flatbread consumption of centuries at homes and small hearth bakeries with natural
Jordanians is approximately119 kg (DOS, 2010). wheat flour microflora as a leavening agent which
Flatbread, in addition to being a calorie carrier, plays a includes various types of bacteria and natural yeast. This
crucial role in a typical Arabic meal including sandwich mixed–culture leavening method resulted in doughs with
various levels of acidity, hence the term sourdough, and
* Corresponding author.E-mail: [email protected]
consequently a bread with unique flavor due to its high

© 2022 DSR Publishers/The University of Jordan. All Rights Reserved.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

acid level and other components produced by the wild likely were discovered by accident and introduced to the
microbial cocktail. However, this practice gave way to formula later in time after the advantages of yeasting were
the use of commercial pure yeast produced by specialized discovered (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). This use of
companies which resulted in the loss of the traditional unfermented doughs is still practiced in the production of
nostalgic characteristic flavor of Arabic bread. some bakery products like Matzo produced by the Jews
The aim of this work is to review the literature on the on some religious occasions (Albala, 2013) and
production of sourdough bread with different starter Shepherd's cake type of bread (Amr, 1988).
cultures including natural sourdough ferment and The earliest archaeological evidence of leavened
evaluate its effect on the sensory, rheological, and staling bread was found during classic antiquity in the second
behavior of the resulting bread. millennium BCE in Egypt (Samuel, 1996) and probably
in other cultures. The inclusion of yeast in the bread
Methodology formula was found by man to impart good properties to
Official scientific books and Internet browsing from the bread and became the common standard practice for
different databases were used to recognize and to the production of most bakery products worldwide
download review and research articles linked to the terms (Carbonetto et al., 2018).
(natural sourdough usage in bread production, natural Fermented bread has been produced from self-rising
sourdough biotechnology, effect of sourdough on bread doughs by spontaneous fermentation by natural yeast
quality, sourdough preparation techniques, natural present if wheat or other types of flour are used in bread
sourdough characteristics, sourdough bread aroma production (Samuel, 1996). Nowadays, in addition to
compounds and anti-staling effect of sourdough). The yeast, bread is produced by a variety of means including
collection of the papers was done according to the nature mechanical development (Chin & Campbell, 2005) and
of the sourdough used in the preparation of the bread since chemical agents which perform the same functions that
the current review is concentrating on naturally- prepared yeast does. Chemical leavening involves for example the
sourdough from wheat flour. Furthermore, the papers that use of ammonium bicarbonate which decomposes later
were linked to the key terms “Flat Arabic Bread, Baladi and produces carbon dioxide, and this technique is limited
Bread, and Kmaj Arabic Bread” were collected as a to low-moisture baked products, such as cookies and
priority for this scientific review. Reference lists of crackers, wheat flour tortillas, and pancakes (Qarooni,
identified studies were also searched to find additional 1996).
articles and reviews. Any other topics related to Bread Production with Wild Yeast: Ancient bread
sourdough of a western type of bread were also reviewed makers probably relied on spontaneous fermentation to
and taken into consideration for adopting the suitable leaven their doughs and may have developed sourdoughs
techniques that can be applied in flat Arabic bread at an early date by reserving a piece of fermented dough
production. to inoculate the subsequent day’s batch (Kulp & Lorenz,
Yeasted Bread Production Development 2003). Wild Saccharomyces yeasts have been cultivated
History: Bread has been known by man for more than by humans for thousands of years; winemaking dates back
1500 BC by mural Egyptian paintings and the first to at least 5000 BC, and desiccated brewer’s yeasts have
formula may have consisted of wheat flour and water been found in Egyptian beer residues and bread made
(with or without salt) without yeast or any other rising about 1000 BC (Samuel, 1996). The use of wild yeast in
agents (Corsetti & Settanni, 2007). Raised doughs most bread production most likely was known in the same era

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of time. Modern Saccharomyces cerevisiae has evolved depending on the original ingredients and
into a form different from that of its wild relatives and has handling methods. Khameerah might be borrowed by
become specialized in the rapid production of carbon neighbors or friends (Amr, Personal Communication,
dioxide and ethanol from sugars (Carbonetto et al., 2021). This reality dispels some belief by that Arabic
2018). bread is not fermented. The truth is that it
As time went on, it is believed that the brewer’s yeast undergoes fermentation but much shorter than the
was added to the dough to encourage the bread to rise proofing stages followed in the production of the pan and
more quickly. The utilization of beer yeast in bread another western type of bread, in addition, not enough
making had been practiced by the Gallo-Roman bakers at time is given for the sheeted dough to rise before baking
the time of Julius Caesar but had been long since (Amr & Ajo, 2005).
forgotten. It is thought that this ancient practice had been Function of Yeast: Conditioning of dough by the
imported from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and gas produced by yeast and imparting desirable aroma and
transplanted to Marseille around 600 BC, but along with flavor to the baked goods are the primary functions of
many other technological practices, this had disappeared fermentation by bakers’ yeast. Leavening is a complex
following the fall of the Roman Empire (Kulp & Lorenz, process and therefore the rate of CO2 production is
2003). determined by the activities of glycolytic enzymes of
The Use of Yeast in Arabic Bread Production: The yeast while the retention of CO2 produced by yeast is a
traditional way of Arabic bread production at home and function of wheat flour (Trivedi et al., 2008). The two
bakery levels before the use of commercial yeast, physical processes that take place during dough
involved the use of a piece of naturally fermented fermentation are gas production by yeast and gas retention
dough (called Khameerah) from the previous day as a by the gluten network. During the fermentation process,
starter. Most likely this Khameerah contained a myriad yeast produces mainly carbon dioxide and ethanol, but the
number of yeast species and bacteria along with the role of yeast goes much deeper than that of producing
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, hence it is better described as other secondary metabolites that may impact the final
ferment rather than yeast. The original mother dough is product quality. Yeast affects the volume, structure,
prepared from a lean formula consisting of local whole flavor, color, and shelf life of each fermented product
wheat flour, water, and salt and left to ferment for a few (Fleet, 2007). Due to the production of secondary
days. This is to be distinguished from the sponge used in metabolites through different metabolic pathways, yeast
the sponge and dough process whereby the sponge influences the flavor (by producing such compounds as
constitutes up to 30% of the batch (Amr, Personal esters, aldehydes, and ketones), color ( by caramelization
Communication, 2021). and Maillard reactions of sugars produced from
The use of wild microflora (yeast and bacteria) in this carbohydrate hydrolysis by yeast enzymes), and
process gives doughs pronounced alcohol and acid smell improved shelf-life (acids and glycerol) of baked
as well as a sizable amount of air (CO2) that causes the products. However, the foremost important characteristic,
rising of the dough. The alcohol is evaporated by the heat which is typically considered during strain selection, is
of baking leaving the esters and other compounds which the ability to ferment sugars anaerobically with adequate
give the bread its characteristic flavor (Dong & Karboune, gas production (Reed & Nagodawithana, 1991).
2021). The so-produced bread is not standardized, and Commercial Yeast Production: The production of
their flavors vary from household or bakery to another baker’s yeast exclusively for bread production dates from

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

the latter part of the 19th century (Reed & 2008). Strict sterility conditions are implemented to avoid
Nagodawethana, 1991). It started with the production of cross-contamination during the production process,
distiller’s yeast using grain mashes as a substrate for its including equipment sterilization, use of air filters, and
propagation; however, this substrate was replaced later general plant maintenance (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003).
with sugar cane molasses in the United States and sugar Finally, a Special centrifugal separator is used to recover
beet molasses in Europe as cheaper raw material (Reed & the fully fermented mashes chilled to (1–5oC) and then
Nagodawethana, 1991; Kulp & Lorenz, 2003; Trivedi et kept in a refrigerated storage tank until further
al., 2008). concentrated into filaments and dried with warm air in-
Bakers’ yeast propagation is a highly aerobic process tray, conveyor, rotary, vacuum, or fluid-bed driers
(Trivedi et al., 2008); however, the glucose breakdown (Trivedi et al., 2008) and the production process generally
proceeds in both anaerobic (Glycolysis) and aerobic takes (5-7) weeks. The cream yeast may be processed into
(TCA cycle) conditions to pyruvate, so a continuous one of two general categories: compressed yeast, or active
airflow is an important process required to alter the dry yeast. The compressed yeast is produced by
alcoholic fermentation process (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). dewatering the yeast cream with either rotary vacuum
These reactions differ in energy yields as indicated by the filters or filter presses with a final solids content of
following general equations: approximately 30% and this press or filter cake is packed
1. Anaerobic fermentation (Glycolysis): and sold for commercial bakeries as a crumbly mass in
C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + 2ATP bags or extruded in blocks that are wax wrapped and then
2. Aerobic fermentation (TCA Cycle): it is cooled and shipped refrigerated (Reed &
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP Nagodawethana, 1991).
Production of baker’s yeast starts by selecting suitable
strains which are preserved as pure cultures, usually on Sourdoughs as rising agents in bread production.
agar slants in test tubes (Reed & Nagodawethana, 1991). Definition: Sourdough is a dough that tastes sour due
They are frequently transferred by well-known pure to the high levels of acids produced intentionally or
culture methods and then propagated under strictly sterile unintentionally by microorganisms or by the addition of
conditions in a microbiological laboratory (Kulp & acid. The bread produced from such dough is called sour
Lorenz, 2003). The production growth medium consists bread (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013).
of a sterilized blend of clarified sugar cane or beet
molasses, minerals (potassium, magnesium, sodium, Natural Sourdoughs: The use of wild ferments with
sulfur, iron, copper, and zinc), vitamins (Vitamin B- their varied microorganisms is expected to produce a
complex), and minerals salts. During the major number of desirable and undesirable products which
propagation steps, the nutrients are fed incrementally in include a number of organic acids, alcohols, esters, and
synchrony with the growth of the yeast mass (Trivedi et other compounds ( Yildiz et al., 2019). The situation is
al., 2008). The feeding process and growth conditions are aggravated by the runaway uncontrolled fermentation
controlled by computer programs designed for specific which depends on the nature and concentration of the
yeast strains and yeast applications. The parameters organisms in the ferment and the optimum fermentation
which are controlled during fermentation include time, temperature, and pH of the process. This resulted in
temperature, pH, aeration rate, the rate of feed of wort, non-uniform spontaneous carbon dioxide, acid, and
nitrogen source, and phosphate source (Trivedi et al., alcohol production and the rising of the dough. These

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doughs were described as natural sourdoughs due to their stable ecosystems due to specific metabolic adaptations
sour smell and the bread produced therefrom is or the production of antimicrobial compounds (De Vuyst
distinguished by its characteristic sensory and physical & Vancanneyt, 2007). Based on that, the sourdough
properties (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). microflora is composed of stable associations of
Development of Sourdough: High acid dough lactobacilli and yeasts, in particular, due to metabolic
(Sourdough) is likely to have originated in ancient Egypt interactions and such microbial associations may endure
around 1500 BC and was the first form of leavening for years, although the fermentation process runs under
available to bakers (Wood, 1996). It remained the usual non-aseptic conditions. A reproducible and controlled
form of leavening down into the European middle ages composition and activity of the sourdough microflora is
until it was replaced later by purpose-cultured yeast in the indispensable to achieve a constant quality of sourdough
19th century (Pollock & Cairns, 1991). Furthermore, it is bread (De Vuyst & Neysens, 2005).
still a daily practice in some countries of Africa and the Sourdough Starter Culture Classification:
Middle East (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). Historically, the Sourdough starter cultures are grouped based on two
use of sourdough was necessary for rye bread production, major criteria as follows.
because Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is not Starter Culture Types Based on Technology of
suitable as a leavening agent for rye bread for the Their Production: On the basis of the technology applied
prevention of ropeness (Chavan & Chavan, 2011). in their production, sourdoughs have been grouped into
Sourdough has been used to produce the gluten-free millet four types (Siepmann et al., 2018) :
bread known as “Karadish” (Amr, personal -Type I: sourdough is produced by using part of the
communication, 2021). Furthermore, the development of previous fermentation (traditional sourdoughs). Usually,
dried sourdoughs as convenient bakery ingredients, was this is a natural mixture of wild yeast and bacteria.
initiated in the 1920s and 1930s and resulted finally in the -Type II is an industrial type of sourdough produced
early 1970s, in the development of naturally fermented by using adapted yeast strains with lactic acid bacteria.
organic dried sourdoughs, for use in a pan and other types -Type III is often used by industrial bakeries, with
of western bread (Brandt, 2007). constant quality and no end-product variations. Type III
The Sour Fermentation Process: The sourdough sourdough starters are referred to as inoculated (Type II)
leavening process usually occurs through three types of starters that are maintained according to traditional (Type
metabolic fermentation: alcoholic, lactic, and heterotactic I) methods.
fermentation. Naturally occurring yeasts are responsible The doughs of Types II and III require the addition of
for alcoholic fermentation that produces one mole of baker’s yeast (S. cerevisiae) as a leavening agent, whereas
ethanol and one mole of carbon dioxide per mole of Type I sourdoughs do not require this addition (Siepmann
glucose. The various strains differ in fermentation et al. 2018).
characteristics due to differences in osmotic pressure -Type IV is a mixture of types I and II produced at the
sensitivity, acid and temperature tolerance, cell wall laboratory scale.
permeability, and sugar type fermentation ability (Kulp &
Lorenz, 2003). In general, the microbial flora in the Starter Culture Types Based on the Nature of the
sourdough is different from that of the flour used as raw Fermentation:
material (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). Despite changes in Natural flora starter cultures produced under
raw materials or the bakery environment, sourdoughs are optimized conditions: This process involves propagation

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

of the natural flora under optimized media and Arabic bread production, and this process lasts for up to 6
temperature conditions. These starters are produced by days (Amr, Personal Communication, 2021).
natural fermentation used as a processing step in bakeries Synthetic Starter Cultures: These products,
where the starters are maintained and directly utilized in essentially flavor ingredients, are produced by
production. The natural starters can be refrigerated or compounding acids typically present in natural starters
frozen and shipped to other bakeries, and they have (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). Commercially available
different descriptions usually referred to as mother sourdough starter cultures commonly consist of mixtures
sponge, however, in France, it is called, (levain), while in of different lactic acid bacteria groups to assure good
Germany called (Anstellgut) (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). acidification and aromatization in addition to the yeast
Basically, the environmental bacteria and yeasts colonize (Chavan & Chavan, 2011). This type of starter is referred
a flour-water mixture and ferment the digestible to as Type II starters which are usually fermented at
carbohydrates alongside other nutrients within the higher temperatures for a quicker build of the desired
mixture. The microbial community is provisioned with bacterial organic acids and ultimately result in a lower pH
resources through continuous refreshment with flour and system. It is easier to use at large scales of production
water over 5–15 days which is also referred to as back because of its consistency, and they impart specific flavor
slopping or propagation, during which part of the mixture profiles and can produce a different crumb texture or
is discarded (Gobbetti et al., 2016). structure or loaf volume (De Vuyst, and Neysens, 2005).
This type of starter is commonly referred to as Type I Specific bacteria are added to Type II starters to achieve
sourdough starters which are most commonly used in unique (i.e., extra sour) organoleptic properties and
artisanal bakeries and usually kept at ambient temperature enhanced shelf life, because ultimately the dough will be
(20-30oC) and can be refrigerated when not in use or at supplemented with bakers' yeast (or any other yeast which
regular intervals. These starters usually begin with a near- is acid-tolerant and an extreme CO2 producer) to ensure a
neutral pH dough acidity level, which declines gradually full, adequate rise (Ganzle & Zheng, 2019).
due to the organic acids produced by lactic acid and acetic
acid bacteria until full maturation. Mature Type I starters Mixed microbiologically - selected starter cultures:
are highly acidic and usually, the number of bubbles, Generally, a mixture of selected lactobacilli grown on
volume/height, smell, and flavor are the main parameters various bacteriological media then recovered, washed,
used to define a mature Type I sourdough starter and carefully dried to retain their activity (Kulp & Lorenz,
(Gobbetti et al., 2016). 2003). This type of culture is called type III culture. It is
The traditional starter culture used for the production normally used to inhibit ropiness by Bacillus subtilis
of Arabic bread and elaborated earlier belongs to this bacteria which produces large quantities of
group. This type of starter culture used to be prepared at Exopolysaccharides (Chavan & Chavan, 2011). Type III
the home levels from whole wheat flour, milled in Buhr- sourdough starters are dried versions of Type II that
like mills (Called Raha), and water to form a soft dough contain yeast and lactic acid bacteria strains resistant to
and then kept in a covered pot (usually clay pottery) with drying and able to survive under these conditions (De
wet towels in worm place. Daily mixing with flour and Vuyst & Neysens, 2005). Therefore, Type III starters
water addition to refreshing the dough until sour smell challenge the effects of ecological drift on the sourdough
and gas bubbles are obtained indicating that the ecosystem by forcing competition between inoculated
“Khameereh” is ready to be used as a leavening agent for

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Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Volume 18, No.2 2022

microorganisms and those naturally present in the local acidifarinae, Lb. hammesii, and Lb. nantensis. The
sourdough environment (Siepmann et al., 2018). distribution of lactic acid bacteria species is highly
Microbial Composition of Sourdough: variable from one sourdough ecosystem to another (De
Sourdough starter cultures and the resulting doughs Vuyst et al., 2009). Less than 50 different species of
contain several microorganisms including bacteria, Lactic acid bacteria, including Lactococcus, Leuconostoc,
yeasts, and even molds as contaminants in the natural Enterococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, and
cultures (De Vuyst et al., 2009). However, the important Weissella, have been isolated from sourdough with
organisms are: Lactobacillus strains are the most frequently observed,
while Leuconostoc species, and Enterococcus species,
Bacterial Species were irregularly found in the sourdough ecosystem.
Sourdough bacteria cannot be seen as an independent However, among lactobacilli, the Lactobacillus
group of bacteria existing only in sourdough. Rather, they sanfranciscensis, Lactobacillus planatarum, and
can be described as a group of specially adapted varieties Lactobacillus brevis were the most often isolated
of lactic acid bacteria that are also common in other bacterial strains from the sourdough ecosystem (Hammes
habitats (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). The most relevant et al., 2005).
bacteria isolated from sourdough are shown in Table 1.
Yeast Species
Table 1: Sourdough Most Common Lactic Acid The most common sourdough yeast species is
Bacterial Species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but due to the lack of reliable
Homofermentative LAB Heterofermentative LAB yeast identification and classification systems, the figure
of S. cerevisiae may be overestimated (Hammes et al.,
Lactobacillus casei** Lactobacillus brevis
2005). De Vuyst et al. (2002) investigated the microflora
of a traditional wheat sourdough used for the production
Lactobacillus delbrueckii Lactobacillus buchneri
of San Francisco sour bread and they reported that the
Lactobacillus farciminis Lactobacillus fermentum predominant yeast species was Torulopsis holmii which
is a non-sporulating form of Saccharomyces exiguus that
Lactobacillus plantarum**
is responsible for the leavening action in the dough.
Pediococcus acidilactici According to Yildiz et al. (2019), the most common
dominant yeasts isolated from sourdoughs are:
Pediococcus pentosaceus
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces exiguous,
*Adopted from (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003) Saccharomyces dairensis, Saccharomyces ellipsoideus,
** Facultative heterofermentative according to Saccharomyces fructuum, and Saccharomyces inusitatus,
Yildiz et al. (2019) Candida boidinii, Candida guilliermondii, Candida
holmii, Candida stellate, Candida krusei, Candida
With recent improvements in the biodiversity study of tropicalis, Candida milleri, Hansenula anomala, Pichia
sourdough lactic acid bacteria, particularly sourdough saitoi, Hansenula subpelliculosa, Torulopsis holmii,
ecosystems, several novel species have been isolated from Hansenula tropicalis, Pichia polymorpha.
traditional sourdough such as: Lactobacillus (Lb.) Particularly, the yeasts associated with lactic acid
mindensis, Lb. spicheri, Lb. rossiae, Lb. zymae, Lb. bacteria in the sourdough ecosystem are Saccharomyces

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

exiguous, Candida humilis (also called Candida milleri), Sourdough Storage

and Candida krusei. In addition to that, there are other Storage of sourdough depends on several parameters
yeast species such as: Pichia anomala (also called which include: the pH value, the quantities of acetic and
Hansenula anomala), Saturnispora saitoi (also called lactic acid, the quantity of ethanol, and the fermentable
Pichiasaitoi), Torulaspora delbrueckii, Debaryomyce sugars present. The higher the pH, the more dissociated
shansenii, and Pichia membranifaciens also been reported organic acids, which helps to preserve the sourdough’s
(Hammes et al., 2005). properties. Acetic acid is by far the most toxic since at pH
4.3 it’s mainly in non-dissociated form whereas lactic
Molds acid is nearly non-dissociated (Debonne et al., 2020)
A natural sourdough environment is not suitable for The liquid sourdough that is frequently used by bread
mold growth and the inhibitory effects are assumed to be manufacturers within the United States, is stored at (1–
the result of a combination of acids, low pH, and other 2°C), or at (4–5°C) which can be used to start a new
antimicrobial substances present in the sourdough formed fermentation without the refreshment step within 2–3
during the fermentation process. Acetic acid especially is days maximum. One or two refreshments are needed in
shown to be very effective in mold and rope prevention, case of prolonged storage time for 10 days. Prolonged
and the possible antimicrobial metabolites in sourdough storage of the sourdough for a couple of months at (4–
might be bacteriocins or low molecular mass compounds 5°C) is possible when the ratio between water and flour is
with a wide spectrum of activity against gram-positive reduced (30% water: 70% flour). In this case, a firm
and gram-negative bacteria and fungi (Russo et al., 2017). sourdough is produced. Such a storage type necessarily
requires sourdough reactivation (at least two
Sourdough Properties refreshments) before use (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). In
Sourdough Stability general, as a consequence of the daily schedule in bread
The stability of sourdough used for bread production manufacturing, a portion of the sourdough is refreshed at
is normally affected by several factors to be taken into least one time before its use. Refreshments are needed
consideration in order to keep the microorganisms active before reusing and in some cases, sourdough can be
such as type of flour, fermentation conditions (pH, time, frozen and reused after refreshment (Gobbetti & Ganzle,
and temperature), and the microbial content, thus, 2013).
problems of microbiota stability arise (De Vuyst &
Vancanneyt, 2007). Sourdough vs. Sponge and Dough
In naturally fermented sourdoughs, the stability of the Bread making, both at artisan and industrial levels, is
starter culture depends on the type of flour used and the traditionally a discontinuous process since the various
fermentation conditions which cannot be controlled, stages of mixing, leavening, and baking are carried out on
however in synthetic sourdough production the problem limited quantities of materials and in separated facilities.
of microbial stability in terms of species and strain Discontinuous bread-making processes are performed
composition should be carefully addressed to obtain using the straight-dough or the sponge-and-dough
stable microbiota during sourdough propagation and is methods. Bread making with sourdough could be
essential to get standard and repeatable final products considered as a particular sponge-and-dough method
(Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013).

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Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Volume 18, No.2 2022

The traditional sponge-and-dough method is one of dough, as well as organic acids and other metabolites to
the most common bread production methods in many provide bread with good texture, sensory properties, and
countries of the world including the USA and Canada extended shelf life. Consequently, consecutive microbial
(Cavanagh et al., 2010). It involves a two-stage process re-inoculation often called ‘‘backslopping’’, of the
consisting of the preparation of a plastic sponge that is microorganisms from a previous batch is used to maintain
fermented with a certain amount of flour and when the microbial flora, which is adapted and selected to the
combined with the balance of flour, water, and other process applied (Haggman & Salovaara, 2008).
ingredients. On the other hand, the straight dough method The ratio between water and flour in the dough is
is a single-stage process in which all ingredients are indicated as dough yield (YD) and it deals with the dough
mixed simultaneously and fermented together. The Brew consistency. Different flours have different capabilities to
(liquid ferment) process is also the sponge and dough absorb water, and doughs of various consistencies are
method whereby the plastic sponge is replaced with liquid obtained having the same DY. Dough yield is calculated
ferment that can be transferred by pumping (Kulp & as follows (Decock & Cappelle, 2005):
Lorenz, 2003). DY = (flour weight + water weight) × 100/ flour
Sourdough production, on the other hand, involves weight.
using special starter culture different from that used in the To consider other ingredients in the formula, the
sponge and dough process. It is intended to produce acid expression is modified as follows:
in detectable quantities as compared to the ordinary DY = dough weight × 100/ flour weight.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast used in the sponge and Many different recipes and processes are used for
dough. In addition, the amount of the sponge used in the sourdough preparation
preparation of the dough is much higher than the ferment worldwide; however, the most common commercial
used in sourdough. Another difference is that while the techniques for sourdough
sponge is taken from the previous dough mostly on the preparation is the French, Polish and American
same day, the sourdough starter is usually taken from systems that are described as
doughs prepared days before. below:
The French System
Modern Use of Sourdough in Bread Production Mother sponge preparation for obtaining the French
The increased interest in sourdoughs is a result of “pain au levain” begins with quite firm wheat flour dough
consumers’ demand for bread without additives, flavor- (dough yield (DY) of 150–152) with the addition of salt
intensive, and with good keeping qualities and shelf life. and flour. This dough undergoes a first fermentation step
Moreover, the use of sourdough and the development of lasting 24 hours which allows early fermentation activity
modern sourdough equipment and processes led to easier of flour resident natural yeast and lactic acid bacteria and
handling in the production of sourdoughs in artisanal and results in a low carbon dioxide and organic acids release.
industrial bakeries (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). The decrease of pH induces the activity of flour
Methods of Bread Production Using Sourdough endogenous proteases which together with bacterial
Sourdough preparation can be affected through many hydrolytic enzymes act on gluten and lead to a lower
different protocols. The main objective is to obtain a dough firmness (Calvel, 2001). The second step begins
leavening agent that contains well-adapted resident with the first refreshment of the dough by introducing
microorganisms to produce sufficient CO2 to leaven the oxygen and new fermentable carbohydrates into the

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

mixture to stimulate microbial growth and activity and The American System
this is done by adding a quantity of flour and water to The American system relies on the mother sponge
bring the dough yield to a value similar to the weight of preparation on a mix of water and wheat or rye flours. The
the previously fermented dough. This dough represents value of dough yield (DY) ranges from 225 (liquid dough
the starting dough for the next refreshment. By applying with ratio water: flour of 1.25:1) to 250 (liquid dough with
such a procedure a sourdough with a steady fermentative ratio water: flour of 1.5:1). These values of DY remain
and leavening capability is obtained (Gobbetti & Ganzle, unaltered throughout the consecutive refreshments as
2013, Cauvain, 2003). well as the time and temperature of fermentation must be
The refreshments are carried out at regular intervals of strictly controlled during each phase (Kulp & Lorenz,
time (e.g. 7–8 hours), to maintain an equilibrium in the 2003). In the first step, the water/ flour mixture ferments
ratio between microbial communities. When the dough at (32–35°C) for 24 hours in order to acidify the dough
volume increases by three to fourfold with respect to the and at the end of this step, the first refreshment is obtained
initial dough volume, new refreshment should be by adding flour and water to the previously fermented
performed. The mother sponge dough (levain chef), dough, without changing the value of DY. After 8 hours
which is obtained following the above procedure, of fermentation at (32–35°C), the second refreshment is
represents the dough used to prepare the full sour needed carried out and the dough ferments for another 16 hours.
to leaven the bread dough (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013). Refreshments are carried out every 8 to 16 hours between
which the dough is allowed to ferment at (24–27°C). In
The Polish System order to calculate the amount of water and flour to be
Usually called the “Polish”, “Poolish” or “Viennese” added at each refreshment stage a multiplicative factor of
methods were initially introduced in Poland and 4 is considered which means the weight of the fermented
subsequently spread into Vienna at the beginning of the dough is multiplied by 4 every two refreshments which
last century (Vogel et al., 1996). The “Poolish” premix is allows the ratio between the two ingredients to be
generally prepared by using 50–75% of the water required maintained at a level of (1.25:1) (Gobbetti & Ganzle,
by the recipe, to which an equivalent amount of flour is 2013). By using this system, the value of DY remains
added. This ratio gives a mass of low consistency that is constant until a sourdough with a pH value of (3.6–3.8)
left to ferment from 3 to 8 hours, according to the quantity and TTA (total titratable acidity) of (16–20 ml
of baker’s yeast added. This method gives sensory NaOH/20g) of dough is obtained. The last fermentation
advantages and allows the formation of a delicate aroma, of 8 hours at (24–27°C) is needed to give the sourdough
but the use of this method remained limited (Gobbetti & the sensory and leavening aspects of the mother sponge.
Ganzle, 2013). Generally, a sourdough with the above characteristics is
Leavening with sourdough requires the use of a piece obtained in approximately 5 to 7 days, after which it is
of dough from a previous batch (usually from 5-20% of maintained in an active state by storage at low
the formula) which is fermented and stored under temperature (e.g., 4°C) and subjected to refreshment at
controlled conditions of temperature and humidity. least once a day (Kulp & Lorenz, 2003).
Refreshing the mixture is important for dough
development and maintains the microbial species of the
sourdough (Gobbetti & Ganzle, 2013).

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Advantages of Using Sourdough in Bread Lactobacillus sp. promotes higher production of

Production ornithine, and thus enhances the formation of 2-acetyl
Sourdoughs play an important role in the preparation pyrroline that is responsible for the roasty note of wheat
of bread e.g., improved dough machinability, nutritional bread crumb produced by the sourdough method (Ganzle
properties through phytate hydrolysis, and other pan et al., 2007).
bread properties including loaf volume, crumb texture, Sour Bread Shelf Life
and keeping properties (Hammes et al., 2005). The ability of sourdough to improve bread quality and
increase its shelf-life has been described extensively by
Sour Bread Flavor Arendt et al. (2007) and Dal Bello et al. (2007) who
The flavor is the most vital sensory attribute in terms showed that the addition of sourdoughs helped increase
of bread acceptability to consumers. The main stimuli that the shelf-life of bread by inhibiting the growth of various
contribute to flavor perception during consumption are microorganisms. The improvement of shelf life is
aroma, taste, texture, and mouthfeel (Taylor, 1996). attributed to the production of compounds like organic
The aroma of wheat bread crumbs is specially formed acids and dipeptides during the fermentation process
from the fermentative activity of yeast and from the (Ryan et al., 2009). Ryan et al. (2008) has also shown that
oxidation of flour lipids, while the aroma of bread crust is sourdough can be used to significantly reduce the level of
especially formed by Maillard reactions during baking chemical additives in bread. It has been also reported to
(Purlis, 2010). Changes in the fermentation conditions, increase the folate content of both wheat and rye breads
therefore, influence the aroma formation in the crumb. (Kariluoto et al., 2004). Katina et al. (2006) concluded
Sourdough fermentation has a well-established role in that the anti-staling effect of combined use of bran
improving the flavor and structure of rye and wheat bread sourdough and enzyme mixture was due to reduced starch
(Kulp & Lorenz, 2003). retrogradation rate, slowed the increase in rigidity of
The bread features a characteristic taste and smell, polymer structure, and due to degradation of cell wall
caused by the formation of volatile compounds that are components leading to altered water distribution between
mainly formed during baking, following the Maillard starch–protein matrix.
reaction between glucose and free amino acids, which are Bread staling is an important issue for the bread
released during fermentation (Vogel et al., 1996). industry as the shelf-life of wheat bread is markedly
Microbial and enzymatic conversions of decreased by bread firming during storage (Katina et al.,
carbohydrates, proteins, peptides, and lipids in the dough 2006). The application of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in
result in the formation of alcohols, esters, and carbonyls the form of sourdough has a positive effect on bread
creating flavor compounds relevant for the crumb odor. staling. One such effect is an improvement in loaf-
The crust odor is influenced by the thermal reactions specific volume, which is associated with the reduction in
during the process of baking. It is influenced by the the rate of staling as measured by differential scanning
fermenting microorganism, the fermentation temperature, calorimetry (Corsetti et al., 2001). Antimicrobial benefits
and the type of flour (Hansen & Schieberle, 2005). Lactic can also be obtained by the sourdough associated lactic
acid bacteria can catalyze reactions such as deamidation, acid bacteria, which can produce many antimicrobial
transamination, and decarboxylation, and their amino substances, such as organic acids, CO2, ethanol, hydrogen
acid metabolism by-products also contribute to the flavor. peroxide, diacetyl, fatty acids, phenylacetic acid, reuterin,
The expression of the arginine deaminase pathway in and fungicins (Messens & De Vuyst, 2002). Sidhu et al.

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

(1997), measured the starch properties during staling of L. plantarum previously identified from natural
Arabic Bread (Khaboos) by using the differential sourdoughs were used during a standard bread-making
scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the x-ray diffraction and pasta making recipes, which resulted in a
methods. They showed that the degree of crystallinity of considerable increase of vitamin B2 content (about a
white Khaboos increased with aging time while in brown twofold and threefold increase in pasta and bread
Khaboos it reached a maximum after two days of storage. respectively), thus representing a convenient and efficient
Furthermore, Sobhy et al, (2016), studied the effect of strategy for the production of vitamin B2-enriched bread
sourdough on shelf life and sensory characteristics of and pasta (Capozzi et al., 2012).
Egyptian type of Arabic bread (Baladi) and concluded The cereal grains, legumes, and oilseeds generally
that the fermentation of wheat flour dough by using contain 1 to 4 percent by weight phytic acid which acts as
sourdough containing 2% S. cerevisiae and 1, 2 or 3% of the major storage form of phosphorous and strongly
L. plantarum resulted in the formation of organic acids, chelates divalent cations such as Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, and
that together with other compounds formed (bacteriocins) Zn making them insoluble and thus unavailable for
resulted in the antimicrobial effect on Baladi bread nutrition. Therefore, phytic acid is considered to be an
samples, as well as sourdough bread samples have scored anti-nutritional factor in humans and animals (Amr, 1986;
higher sensory characteristics when compared to control. Pandey et al., 2001). Fermentation has been shown to
Moreover, Alian et al. (2018) revealed that sourdough enhance phytate hydrolysis by reducing about 60% of the
Egyptian Baladi bread fermented with probiotic bacteria phytic acid content of Arabic bread (Amr, 1986).
(free and encapsulated cells) have improved the Sourdough also favors mineral solubility in wheat bread
organoleptic quality, color, production of organic acids as compared to traditional yeast fermentation. Here the
(lactic and citric acids), CO2, retarded staling and polymers produced from Lactobacilli positively influence
extended the shelf-life of the bread samples. On the other the properties of dough and bread including water
hand, sourdough lactic acid bacteria fermentation created absorption, dough rheology, and stability during frozen
an optimum pH for the activity of the endogenous storage as well as loaf volume and staling properties of
enzymes (amylases and proteases) that improved the loaf bread (Lopez et al., 2000).
volume; delayed starch retrogradation and bread firming, Tamani et al. (2013) reported an association between
inhibited ropiness caused by spore-forming bacteria the increased Exo Polysaccharides (EPS) production
Bacillus subtilis, and enhanced the bread flavor (Corsetti during dough formation following the inoculation of ropy
et al., 1998). Rope spoilage was also inhibited in wheat LAB starter cultures with increased bread volume and
bread samples by adding 20-30g of sourdough per 100g reduced staling over 5 days of storage. They suggested
of wheat dough containing Lactobacillus plantarum that the higher levels of EPS obtained with LAB have
(Katina et al., 2002). resulted in greater water retention, leading to the softer
crumb structure of these bread, even though the Exo
Nutritional Properties of Sour Bread Polysaccharides (EPS) production did not correlate with
It is well known that certain strains of lactic acid the extension of shelf-life, thus their effect was more
bacteria have the capability to synthesize water-soluble qualitative than quantitative. Recently, sourdough was
vitamins such as those included in the B-group (folates found to be a helpful agent for regulating the digestibility
B9, riboflavin B2, and vitamin B12) (leBlanc et al., 2011). of starch and, consequently, reducing the estimated
Recently, spontaneous roseoflavin-resistant derivatives of glycemic index (eGI) in bread products. The eGI of

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Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Volume 18, No.2 2022

sourdough bread was statistically lower than that of the prefer peptides uptake rather than amino acids transport
control bread (p <0.05). The greatest decreases in eGI (Thiele et al., 2004).
were in the whole wheat sourdough bread samples Extensive research studies worldwide have discussed
obtained at 30 ◦C using the type-2 fermentation method and analyzed the sourdough nutritional, chemical, and
(Demirkesen-Bicak et al., 2021). biotechnological aspects of western types of bread,
however, the literature on sourdough usage in Arabic
Sensory Properties of Sour Bread bread processing is very limited and almost
The main differences between ordinary bakers’ yeast negligible(Catzeddu,2019; Sobhy et al.,2006).
bread and sourdough fermented bread are physical and
organoleptic. The physical characteristics include the Conclusions
higher crumb compactness and heavier crusts of Sourdough technology, although a traditional process
sourdough bread, compared with those fermented by when combined with modern manufacturing techniques,
yeast, which exhibits high loaf volume and soft crumb could improve nutritional value and yield healthier
with uniform crumb grain and a thin crust of pan bread products for consumers. Sourdough helps to facilitate
(Decock & Cappelle, 2005. The organoleptic properties desirable texture and loaf volume to bread. Moreover,
that are attractive to some markets are the acidic and sourdough is useful for making bread products with an
intense flavor of sourdough fermented bakery products increased level of flavor compounds that ultimately
and the highly flavorful crust. The flavor of yeast- increase customer satisfaction.
leavened bakery products is essentially neutral and mild, Sourdough technology can also be useful to reduce or
especially when they are fermented for a short time (Kulp eliminate the level of preservatives often used in baked
& Lorenz, 2003). products, as sourdough has shown antibacterial and anti-
Sourdough fermentation has proved useful in mold activity. Thus, sourdough could be a useful
improving the texture and palatability of whole-grain and technique in extending the shelf life of Arabic flatbread
fiber-rich or gluten-free products and it may stabilize or using natural ingredients, improving the quality, and
increase the levels of bioactive compounds (Arendt et al., providing tastier and more convenient bread items to the
2007). Arabic cuisine.
The degradation of protein during sourdough Acknowledgment
fermentation is one of the key features that influence the The authors thank the deanship of scientific research
overall quality of sourdough bread. Proteolysis at the University of Jordan for supporting this work.
(breakdown of proteins into peptides) during sourdough
bread fermentation is initiated by wheat or rye Declaration of Conflict of interest: The authors
endogenous proteinases that are activated by the low pH. declare no conflict of interest in the preparation of this
Further hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids is carried work.
out by intracellular/extracellular peptidases of lactic acid
bacteria. In addition, most sourdough lactic acid bacteria

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Sourdough use in Bread …. Ayed S. Amr and Ashraf M. Alkhamaiseh.

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‫إنتاج الخبز بالعجينة الحامضية‪ :‬مراجعة‬

‫‪2‬‬
‫عايد شاكر عمرو‪ 1‬وأشرف محمود الخمايسه‬

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‫تاريخ استالم البحث‪ 2021/5/31 :‬وتاريخ قبوله‪.2021/7/25 :‬‬

‫ملخـص‬

‫أدت أهمية الخبز الغذائية واالقتصادية واالجتماعية وكمادة غذائية أساسية‪ ،‬إلى االهتمام بتحسين إنتاجه وإطالة‬
‫مدة صالحيته من خالل تعزيز خصائصه الحسية كالنكهة والقوام والقيمة التغذوية وتأخير التيبس والتلف‬
‫الميكروبي‪ .‬ومع ذلك‪ ،‬فال يزال مستوى طزاجة ونكهة وقوام الخبز من أكثر مواضيع االهتمام ومجاالت التطوير‬
‫في صناعته‪ .‬في هذه المقالة‪ ،‬تمت مراجعة تقنية العجينة الحامضية كأداة لتحسين جودة خبز القوالب‪ ،‬كما نوقشت‬
‫ودرست من قبل العديد من الباحثين في جميع انحاء العالم من وجهه نظر مختلفة‪ .‬إن االهتمام المتزايد بالخبز‬
‫المنتج بالعجينة الحامضية هو نتيجة الزدياد طلب المستهلكين على خبز محضر من مكونات طبيعية يتمتع بنكهة‬
‫قوية وخصائص حفظ جيدة إلرضاء سعيهم نحو نمط حياة طبيعي وصحي‪ .‬تركز هذه المراجعة بشكل أساسي‬
‫على وصف تقنيات العجين المخمر طبيعيا والتي تم تطويرها باألساليب التقليدية والحديثة على مدى العقود‬
‫الماضية في إنتاج خبز أفضل صحيا‪ .‬كما تم فيها أيضا مراجعة طرق إنتاج الخبز بالعجينة الحامضية وتأثيرها‬
‫على جودة أنواع الخبز المختلفة‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات الدالة‪ :‬عجينة حامضية ‪ ،‬خبز حامضي‪ ،‬الخميرة األم‪ ،‬نبيت العجين‪ ،‬جودة الخبز‪ ،‬خميرة طبيعية‪.‬‬

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