PUMP PRIMER II

CONTINUING EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE
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Important Information about this Manual
This manual has been prepared to educate operators in the general education of pumping,
pumps, motors, and hydraulic principles including basic water training and different pump
applications. For most students, the study of pumping and hydraulics is quite large, requiring a
major effort to bring it under control.

This manual should not be used as a guidance document for employees who are involved with
cross-connection control. It is not designed to meet the requirements of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Labor-Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), or your state environmental or health agency. Technical
Learning College or Technical Learning Consultants, Inc. makes no warranty, guarantee or
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manual and assumes no responsibility in connection with the implementation of this information.

It cannot be assumed that this manual contains all measures and concepts required for specific
conditions or circumstances. This document should be used for educational purposes and is
not considered a legal document. Individuals who are responsible for hydraulic equipment,
cross-connection control, backflow prevention or water distribution should obtain and comply
with the most recent federal, state, and local regulations relevant to these sites and are urged to
consult with OSHA, the EPA and other appropriate federal, state and local agencies.

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©2005 Technical Learning College (TLC) No part of this work may be reproduced or
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Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors
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Contributing Editors
Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired as
a Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and industrial
hygiene sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional presenter at an
EPA analytical conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a presenter at an AWWA
conference in Mesa, Arizona. He also taught safety classes at the Honeywell and City of
Phoenix, and is a motivational/inspirational speaker nationally and internationally.

Dr. Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.

Dr. Pete Greet S.M.E., retired biology instructor.

Jack White, Environmental, Health, Safety expert, City of Phoenix. Art Credits.

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Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function
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This is one reason we have taught more than 20,000 students.

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Course Description
Pump Primer II CEU Training Course
This short CEU course will review various hydraulic principles and basic pumping foundations to
properly understand the operation and function of primary water/wastewater related pumps and
equipment. You will not need any other materials for this course.

Water Distribution, Well Drillers, Pump Installers, Water Treatment Operators,

Wastewater Treatment Operators, Wastewater Collection Operators, Industrial
Wastewater Operators and General Backflow Assembly Testers. The target audience for
this course is the person interested in working in a water or wastewater treatment or
distribution/collection facility and/or wishing to maintain CEUs for certification license or to learn
how to do the job safely and effectively, and/or to meet education needs for promotion.

Final Examination for Credit

Opportunity to pass the final comprehensive examination is limited to three attempts per course
enrollment.

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mail support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service.

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Instructions for Assignment

The Pump Primer II - 0.8 CEU training course training course uses a multiple choice type
answer key. You can find a copy of the answer key r in Word format on TLC’s website under the
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You can write your answers in this manual or type out your own answer key. TLC would prefer
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Each student will receive a feedback form as part of their study packet. You will be able to find
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will forfeit all fees and the appropriate agency will be notified.

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Grading Criteria
TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC is not
notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice.

Required Texts
The Pump Primer II - 0.8 CEU training course will not require any other materials. This course
comes complete. No other materials are needed.

Recordkeeping and Reporting Practices

TLC will keep all student records for a minimum of seven years. It is your responsibility to give
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TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students
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You will have 90 days from receipt of this manual to complete it in order to receive your
Continuing Education Units (CEUs) or Professional Development Hours (PDHs). A score of
70% or better is necessary to pass this course. If you should need any assistance, please email
all concerns and the final test to: [email protected].

When the Student finishes this course…

At the conclusion of this course:
At the finish of this course, the student should be able to explain and describe the various
hydraulic principles, pumping devices, and pumping methods, identify various hydraulic and
horsepower principles that are commonly employed in moving fluids. Upon completion of this
course, the student will obtain 8 hours of continuing education relating to pump, pumping and
hydraulic principles.

Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills
needed for the environmental education field,

To provide TLC students opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills needed for
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Table of Contents

Pump Definitions 13
Understanding Pumps 15
Positive Displacement 19
Pump Specifics 22
Suction Lift 23
Pump Efficiency 25
Pump Viscosity 29
Head Loss 31
Water Pump Review 35
Centrifugal Pump 37
Affinity Laws 41
Vertical Turbine 43
NPSH 53
Pump Performance 57
Motor and Pump Calculations 59
Pump Troubleshooting 65
Coupling Section 69
Shaft Bearings 70
Packing Seals 71
Lantern Rings 72
Mechanical Seals 73
Submersible Pumps 79
Glossary 93
Appendix 135
References 157

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Common Hydraulic Terms

Head
The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point expressed in linear units.
Head is often used to indicate gauge pressure. Pressure is equal to the height times the
density of the liquid.

Head, Friction
The head required to overcome the friction at the interior surface of a conductor and
between fluid particles in motion. It varies with flow, size, type, and conditions of
conductors and fittings, and the fluid characteristics.

Head, static
The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point.

Hydraulics
Engineering science pertaining to liquid pressure and flow.

Hydrokinetics
Engineering science pertaining to the energy of liquid flow and pressure.

Pascal's Law
A pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal intensity
throughout the fluid.

Pressure
The application of continuous force by one body upon another that it is touching;
compression. Force per unit area, usually expressed in pounds per square inch (Pascal
or bar).

Pressure, Absolute
The pressure above zone absolute, i.e. the sum of atmospheric and gauge pressure. In
vacuum related work it is usually expressed in millimeters of mercury. (mmHg).

Pressure, Atmospheric
Pressure exported by the atmosphere at any specific location. (Sea level pressure is
approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute, 1 bar = 14.5psi.)

Pressure, Gauge
Pressure differential above or below ambient atmospheric pressure.

Pressure, Static
The pressure in a fluid at rest.

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Pump Definitions (Larger Glossary in the rear of this manual)
Fluid: Any substance that can be pumped such as oil, water, refrigerant, or even air.

Gasket: Flat material that is compressed between two flanges to form a seal.

Gland follower: A bushing used to compress the packing in the stuffing box and to control
leakoff.

Gland sealing line: A line that directs sealing fluid to the stuffing box.

Horizontal pumps: Pumps in which the center line of the shaft is horizontal.

Impeller: The part of the pump that increases the speed of the fluid being handled.

Inboard: The end of the pump closest to the motor.

Inter-stage diaphragm: A barrier that separates stages of a multi-stage pump.

Key: A rectangular piece of metal that prevents the impeller from rotating on the shaft.

Keyway: The area on the shaft that accepts the key.

Kinetic energy: Energy associated with motion.

Lantern ring: A metal ring located between rings of packing that distributes gland sealing fluid.

Leak-off: Fluid that leaks from the stuffing box.

Mechanical seal: A mechanical device that seals the pump stuffing box.

Mixed flow pump: A pump that uses both axial-flow and radial-flow components in one
impeller.

Multi-stage pumps: Pumps with more than one impeller.

Outboard: The end of the pump farthest from the motor.

Packing: Soft, pliable material that seals the stuffing box.

Positive displacement pumps: Pumps that move fluids by physically displacing the fluid inside
the pump.

Radial bearings: Bearings that prevent shaft movement in any direction outward from the cen-
ter line of the pump.

Radial flow: Flow at 90° to the center line of the shaft.

Retaining nut: A nut that keeps the parts in place.

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Rotor: The rotating parts, usually including the impeller, shaft, bearing housings, and all other
parts included between the bearing housing and the impeller.

Score: To cause lines, grooves, or scratches.

Shaft: A cylindrical bar that transmits power from the driver to the pump impeller.

Shaft sleeve: A replaceable tubular covering on the shaft.

Shroud: The metal covering over the vanes of an impeller.

Slop drain: The drain from the area that collects leak-off from the stuffing box.

Slurry: A thick, viscous fluid, usually containing small particles.

Stages: Impellers in a multi-stage pump.

Stethoscope: A metal device that can amplify and pinpoint pump sounds.

Strainer: A device that retains solid pieces while letting liquids through.

Stuffing box: The area of the pump where the shaft penetrates the casing.

Suction: The place where fluid enters the pump.

Suction eye: The place where fluid enters the pump impeller.

Throat bushing: A bushing at the bottom of the stuffing box that prevents packing from being
pushed out of the stuffing box into the suction eye of the impeller.

Thrust: Force, usually along the center line of the pump.

Thrust bearings: Bearings that prevent shaft movement back and forth in the same direction as
the center line of the shaft.

Troubleshooting: Locating a problem.

Vanes: The parts of the impeller that push and increase the speed of the fluid in the pump.

Vertical pumps: Pumps in which the center line of the shaft runs vertically.

Volute: The part of the pump that changes the speed of the fluid into pressure.

Wearing rings: Replaceable rings on the impeller or the casing that wear as the pump oper-
ates.

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Pump Review
Pumps are used to move or raise fluids. They are not only very useful, but are excellent
examples of hydrostatics. Pumps are of two general types, hydrostatic or positive displacement
pumps, and pumps depending on dynamic forces, such as centrifugal pumps. Here we will only
consider positive displacement pumps, which can be understood purely by hydrostatic
considerations. They have a piston (or equivalent) moving in a closely-fitting cylinder and forces
are exerted on the fluid by motion of the piston.

We have already seen an important example of this in the hydraulic lever or hydraulic press,
which we have called quasi-static. The simplest pump is the syringe, filled by withdrawing the
piston and emptied by pressing it back in, as its port is immersed in the fluid or removed from it.

Pump Safety Regulations

It is a necessity that your safety department establishes a safety program based upon a
thorough analysis of industrial hazards. Before installing and operating or performing
maintenance on the pump and associated components described in this manual, it is important
to ensure that it covers the hazards arising from high speed rotating machinery. It is also
important that due consideration be given to those hazards which arise from the presence of
electrical power, hot oil, high pressure and temperature liquids, toxic liquids and gases, and
flammable liquids and gases. Proper installation and care of protective guards, shut-down
devices and over pressure protection equipment must also be considered an essential part of
any safety program.

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Also essential are special precautionary measures to prevent the possibility of applying power to
the equipment at any time when maintenance work is in progress. The prevention of rotation
due to reverse flow should not be overlooked. In general, all personnel should be guided by all
the basic rules of safety associated with the equipment and the process. It should be
understood that the information contained in this manual does not relieve operating and
maintenance personnel of the responsibility of exercising good judgment in operation and care
of the pump and its components.

In the following safety procedures you will encounter the words DANGER, WARNING,
CAUTION, and NOTICE. These are intended to emphasize certain areas in the interest of
personal safety and satisfactory pump operation and maintenance. The definitions of these
words are as follows:

“DANGER” Danger is used to indicate the presence of a hazard which will cause severe
personal injury, death, or substantial property damage if the warning is ignored.

“WARNING” Warning is used to indicate the presence of a hazard which can cause severe
personal injury, death, or substantial property damage if the warning is ignored.

“CAUTION” Caution is used to indicate the presence of a hazard which will or can cause
minor personal injury, death, or substantial property damage if the warning is ignored.

Pump Applications
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications include the use
of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply,
gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical
movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc. Because of the wide variety
of applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from
handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low
volume.

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Understanding Complicated Pumps
More complicated pumps have valves allowing them to work repetitively. These are usually
check valves that open to allow passage in one direction, and close automatically to prevent
reverse flow. There are many kinds of valves, and they are usually the most trouble-prone and
complicated part of a pump. The force pump has two check valves in the cylinder, one for
supply and the other for delivery. The supply valve opens when the cylinder volume increases,
the delivery valve when the cylinder volume decreases.

The lift pump has a supply valve and a valve in the piston that allows the liquid to pass around it
when the volume of the cylinder is reduced. The delivery in this case is from the upper part of
the cylinder, which the piston does not enter.

Diaphragm pumps are force pumps in which the oscillating diaphragm takes the place of the
piston. The diaphragm may be moved mechanically, or by the pressure of the fluid on one side
of the diaphragm.

Some positive displacement pumps are shown below. The force and lift pumps are typically
used for water. The force pump has two valves in the cylinder, while the lift pump has one valve
in the cylinder and one in the piston. The maximum lift, or "suction," is determined by the
atmospheric pressure, and either cylinder must be within this height of the free surface. The
force pump, however, can give an arbitrarily large pressure to the discharged fluid, as in the
case of a diesel engine injector. A nozzle can be used to convert the pressure to velocity, to
produce a jet, as for firefighting. Fire fighting force pumps usually have two cylinders feeding
one receiver alternately. The air space in the receiver helps to make the water pressure uniform.

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The three pumps above are typically used for air, but would be equally applicable to liquids. The
Roots blower has no valves, their place taken by the sliding contact between the rotors and the
housing. The Roots blower can either exhaust a receiver or provide air under moderate
pressure, in large volumes. The Bellows is a very old device, requiring no accurate machining.
The single valve is in one or both sides of the expandable chamber. Another valve can be
placed at the nozzle if required. The valve can be a piece of soft leather held close to holes in
the chamber. The Bicycle pump uses the valve on the valve stem of the tire or inner tube to hold
pressure in the tire. The piston, which is attached to the discharge tube, has a flexible seal that
seals when the cylinder is moved to compress the air, but allows air to pass when the
movement is reversed.

Diaphragm and vane pumps are not shown, but they act the same way by varying the volume of
a chamber, and directing the flow with check valves.

Fluid Properties
The properties of the fluids being pumped can significantly affect the choice of pump. Key
considerations include:

• Acidity/alkalinity (pH) and chemical composition. Corrosive and acidic fluids can degrade
pumps, and should be considered when selecting pump materials.
• Operating temperature. Pump materials and expansion, mechanical seal components, and
packing materials need to be considered with pumped fluids that are hotter than 200°F.
• Solids concentrations/particle sizes. When pumping abrasive liquids such as industrial
slurries, selecting a pump that will not clog or fail prematurely depends on particle size,
hardness, and the volumetric percentage of solids.
• Specific gravity. The fluid specific gravity is the ratio of the fluid density to that of water under
specified conditions. Specific gravity affects the energy required to lift and move the fluid, and
must be considered when determining pump power requirements.
• Vapor pressure. A fluid’s vapor pressure is the force per unit area that a fluid exerts in an
effort to change phase from a liquid to a vapor, and depends on the fluid’s chemical and
physical properties. Proper consideration of the fluid’s vapor pressure will help to minimize the
risk of cavitation.
• Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to motion. Since kinematic
viscosity normally varies directly with temperature, the pumping system designer must know the
viscosity of the fluid at the lowest anticipated pumping temperature. High viscosity fluids result in
reduced centrifugal pump performance and increased power requirements. It is particularly
important to consider pump suction-side line losses when pumping viscous fluids.

Environmental Considerations
Important environmental considerations include ambient temperature and humidity, elevation
above sea level, and whether the pump is to be installed indoors or outdoors.

Software Tools
Most pump manufacturers have developed software or Web-based tools to assist in the pump
selection process. Pump purchasers enter their fluid properties and system requirements to
obtain a listing of suitable pumps. Software tools that allow you to evaluate and compare
operating costs are available from private vendors.

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Pumps as Public Water Supplies
One sort of pump once common worldwide was a hand-powered water pump, or 'pitcher pump'.
It would be installed over a community water well that was used by people in the days before
piped water supplies. Because water from pitcher pumps is drawn directly from the soil, it is
more prone to contamination. If such water is not filtered and purified, consumption of it might
lead to gastrointestinal or other water-borne diseases. A notorious case is the 1854 Broad
Street cholera outbreak. At the time it was not known how cholera was transmitted, but
physician John Snow suspected contaminated water and had the handle of the public pump he
suspected removed; the outbreak then subsided.

Modern hand-operated community pumps are considered the most sustainable low-cost option
for safe water supply in resource-poor settings, often in rural areas in developing countries. A
hand pump opens access to deeper groundwater that is often not polluted and also improves
the safety of a well by protecting the water source from contaminated buckets.

Pumps such as the Afridev pump are designed to be cheap to build and install, and easy to
maintain with simple parts. However, scarcity of spare parts for these types of pumps in some
regions of Africa has diminished their utility for these areas.

Types of Pumps
The family of pumps comprises a large number of types based on application and capabilities.
The two major groups of pumps are dynamic and positive displacement.

Dynamic Pumps (Centrifugal Pump)

Centrifugal pumps are classified into three general categories:

Radial flow—a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed wholly by centrifugal force.
Mixed flow—a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by centrifugal force
and partly by the lift of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
Axial flow—a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed by the propelling or lifting
action of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.

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A centrifugal pump has two main components:
I. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft
II. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.

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Positive Displacement Pumps
A Positive Displacement Pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side of the pump and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid is allowed to flow into the pump as the cavity on
the suction side expands and the liquid is forced out of the discharge as the cavity collapses.
This principle applies to all types of Positive Displacement Pumps whether the pump is a rotary
lobe, gear within a gear, piston, diaphragm, screw, progressing cavity, etc.

A Positive Displacement Pump, unlike a Centrifugal Pump, will produce the same flow at a
given RPM no matter what the discharge pressure is. A Positive Displacement Pump cannot be
operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump, i.e. it does not have a shut-
off head like a Centrifugal Pump does. If a Positive Displacement Pump is allowed to operate
against a closed discharge valve it will continue to produce flow which will increase the pressure
in the discharge line until either the line bursts or the pump is severely damaged or both.

Types of Positive Displacement Pumps

Single Rotor Multiple Rotor

Vane Gear

Piston Lobe

Flexible Member Circumferential Piston

Single Screw Multiple Screw

There are many types of positive

displacement pumps. We will look at:
 Plunger pumps
 Diaphragm pumps
 Progressing cavity pumps, and
 Screw pumps

Single Rotator
Component Description

Vane The vane(s) may be blades, buckets, rollers, or slippers that cooperate with
a dam to draw fluid into and out of the pump chamber.

Piston Fluid is drawn in and out of the pump chamber by a piston(s) reciprocating
within a cylinder(s) and operating port valves.

Flexible Member Pumping and sealing depends on the elasticity of a flexible member(s) that
may be a tube, vane, or a liner.

Single Screw Fluid is carried between rotor screw threads as they mesh with internal
threads on the stator.

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Multiple Rotator
Component Description

Gear Fluid is carried between gear teeth and is expelled by the meshing of the
gears that cooperate to provide continuous sealing between the pump inlet
and outlet.

Lobe Fluid is carried between rotor lobes that cooperate to provide continuous
sealing between the pump inlet and outlet.

Circumferential piston Fluid is carried in spaces between piston surfaces not requiring contacts
between rotor surfaces.

Multiple Screw Fluid is carried between rotor screw threads as they mesh.

What kind of mechanical device do you think is used to provide this positive displacement
in the:

Plunger pump?

Diaphragm pump?

In the same way, the progressing cavity and the screw are two other types of mechanical action
that can be used to provide movement of the liquid through the pump.

Plunger Pump
The plunger pump is a positive displacement pump that uses a plunger or piston to force liquid
from the suction side to the discharge side of the pump. It is used for heavy sludge. The
movement of the plunger or piston inside the pump creates pressure inside the pump, so you
have to be careful that this kind of pump is never operated against any closed discharge valve.

All discharge valves must be open before the pump is started, to prevent any fast build-up of
pressure that could damage the pump.

Diaphragm Pumps
In this type of pump, a diaphragm provides the mechanical action used to force liquid from the
suction to the discharge side of the pump. The advantage the diaphragm has over the plunger is
that the diaphragm pump does not come in contact with moving metal. This can be important
when pumping abrasive or corrosive materials.

There are three main types of diaphragm pumps available:

1. Diaphragm sludge pump
2. Chemical metering or proportional pump
3. Air-powered double-diaphragm pump

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Pump Types come in Two Main Categories
Centrifugal Pumps and Positive Displacement Pumps as classified according to the method of
how the energy is imparted to the fluid – Kinetic Energy or Positive Displacement and again
each of these categories having many pump types.

Centrifugal Pump
Types the Kinetic Energy type which imparts velocity energy to the pumped medium which is
converted to pressure energy when discharging the pump casing and can be grouped according
to several criteria, further to that a specific pump can belong to different groups.

These groups can be based upon:

The impeller suction
The number of impellers
The type of volute
International industry standards
Shaft orientation
Split case orientation
Driver pump types

Positive Displacement Pump

Types impart energy by mechanical displacement, these are of a lower flow range and are
pulsating. PD pumps divided into two classes – reciprocating and rotary. Typical ‘PD’ pump
types are:
Rotary Pump Types:
Rotary Gear Pumps
Peripheral Pumps
Screw Pumps
Gear Pumps
Rotary Lobe Pumps
Reciprocating Pump Types
Plunger Pumps
Diaphragm Pumps

Plunger Pumps
Plunger pumps have a cylinder with a
reciprocating plunger. The suction and
discharge valves are mounted in the
head of cylinder. The suction stroke pulls
the plunger back, suction valve opens
and fluid is sucked into the cylinder. The
discharge stroke pushes the plunger forward closing suction valve and pushing fluid out of the
discharge valve.

Diaphragm Pumps
Diaphragm pump types simply put use the plunger to pressurize either air or hydraulic fluid on
one side which flexes the diaphragm which increases and decreases the volumetric area in the
pumping chamber; non-return check valves ensure no back flow of the fluid.

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Pump Specifications
Pumps are commonly rated by horsepower, flow rate, outlet pressure in meters (or feet) of
head, inlet suction in suction feet (or meters) of head. The head can be simplified as the number
of feet or meters the pump can raise or lower a column of water at atmospheric pressure. From
an initial design point of view, engineers often use a quantity termed the specific speed to
identify the most suitable pump type for a particular combination of flow rate and head.

Pump Construction Material

The pump material can be Stainless steel (SS 316 or SS 304), cast iron etc. It depends on the
application of the pump. In the water industry and for pharma applications SS 316 is normally
used, as stainless steel gives better results at high temperatures.

Pumping Power
The power imparted into a fluid will increase the energy of the fluid per unit volume. Thus the
power relationship is between the conversion of the mechanical energy of the pump mechanism
and the fluid elements within the pump. In general, this is governed by a series of simultaneous
differential equations, known as the Navier-Stokes equations. However a more simple equation
relating only the different energies in the fluid, known as Bernoulli's equation can be used.

Hence the power, P, required by the pump:

where ∆P is the change in total pressure between the inlet and outlet (in Pa), and Q, the fluid
flowrate is given in m^3/s. The total pressure may have gravitational, static pressure and kinetic
energy components; i.e. energy is distributed between change in the fluid's gravitational
potential energy (going up or down hill), change in velocity, or change in static pressure. η is the
pump efficiency, and may be given by the manufacturer's information, such as in the form of a
pump curve, and is typically derived from either fluid dynamics simulation (i.e. solutions to the
Navier-stokes for the particular pump geometry), or by testing. The efficiency of the pump will
depend upon the pump's configuration and operating conditions (such as rotational speed, fluid
density and viscosity etc.)

For a typical "pumping" configuration, the work is imparted

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Suction Lift Chart
The vertical distance that a pump may be placed above the water level (and be able to draw
water) is determined by pump design and limits dictated by altitude. The chart below shows the
absolute limits. The closer the pump is to the water level, the easier and quicker it will be to
prime.
Suction Lift at Various Elevations
Altitude: Suction Lift In Feet
Sea Level 25.0
2,000 ft. 22.0
4,000 ft. 19.5
6,000 ft. 17.3
8,000 ft. 15.5
10,000 ft. 14.3

Centrifugal pumps are particularly vulnerable especially when pumping heated solution near the
vapor pressure, whereas positive displacement pumps are less affected by cavitation, as they
are better able to pump two-phase flow (the mixture of gas and liquid), however, the resultant
flow rate of the pump will be diminished because of the gas volumetrically displacing a
disproportion of liquid. Careful design is required to pump high temperature liquids with a
centrifugal pump when the liquid is near its boiling point.

The violent collapse of the cavitation bubble creates a shock wave that can literally carve
material from internal pump components (usually the leading edge of the impeller) and creates
noise often described as "pumping gravel".

Additionally, the inevitable increase in vibration can cause other mechanical faults in the pump
and associated equipment.

For a typical "pumping" configuration, the work is imparted on the fluid, and is thus positive. For
the fluid imparting the work on the pump (i.e. a turbine), the work is negative power required to
drive the pump is determined by dividing the output power by the pump efficiency. Furthermore,
this definition encompasses pumps with no moving parts, such as a siphon.

When asked how a pump operates, most reply that it “sucks.” While not a false statement, it’s
easy to see why so many pump operators still struggle with pump problems. Fluid flows from
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Pumps operate by creating low pressure at the
inlet which allows the liquid to be pushed into the pump by atmospheric or head pressure
(pressure due to the liquid’s surface being above the centerline of the pump). Consider placing
a pump at the top of the mercury barometer above: Even with a perfect vacuum at the pump
inlet, atmospheric pressure limits how high the pump can lift the liquid. With liquids lighter than
mercury, this lift height can increase, but there’s still a physical limit to pump operation based on
pressure external to the pump. This limit is the key consideration for Net Positive Suction Head.
Reference Centrifugal/Vertical NPSH Margin (ANSI/HI 9.6.1-1998), www.pumps.org, Hydraulic
Institute, 1998.

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Pump Categories
Let's cover the essentials first. The key to the whole operation is, of course, the pump. And
regardless of what type it is (reciprocating piston, centrifugal, turbine or jet-ejector, for either
shallow or deep well applications), its purpose is to move water and generate the delivery force
we call pressure. Sometimes — with centrifugal pumps in particular — pressure is not referred
to in pounds per square inch but rather as the equivalent in elevation, called head. No matter;
head in feet divided by 2.31 equals pressure, so it's simple enough to establish a common
figure.

Pumps may be classified on the basis of the application they serve. All pumps may be divided
into two major categories: (1) dynamic, in which energy is continuously added to increase the
fluid velocities within the machine, and (2) displacement, in which the energy is periodically
added by application of force.

Pumps

Dynamic
Displacement
Centrifugal

Axial flow Mixed Flow Peripheral Reciprocating Rotary

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Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power imparted on the fluid by the pump in relation
to the power supplied to drive the pump. Its value is not fixed for a given pump; efficiency is a
function of the discharge and therefore also operating head. For centrifugal pumps, the
efficiency tends to increase with flow rate up to a point midway through the operating range
(peak efficiency) and then declines as flow rates rise further. Pump performance data such as
this is usually supplied by the manufacturer before pump selection. Pump efficiencies tend to
decline over time due to wear (e.g. increasing clearances as impellers reduce in size).

When a system design

includes a centrifugal pump,
an important issue it its
design is matching the head
loss-flow characteristic with
the pump so that it operates
at or close to the point of its
maximum efficiency. Pump
efficiency is an important
aspect and pumps should be
regularly tested.
Thermodynamic pump testing
is one method.

Depending on how the

measurement is taken
suction lift and head may also
be referred to as static or
dynamic. Static indicates the
measurement does not take
into account the friction caused by water moving through the hose or pipes. Dynamic indicates
that losses due to friction are factored into the performance. The following terms are usually
used when referring to lift or head.

Static Suction Lift - The vertical distance from the water line to the centerline of the impeller.

Static Discharge Head - The vertical distance from the discharge outlet to the point of
discharge or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of a water tank.

Dynamic Suction Head - The Static Suction Lift plus the friction in the suction line. Also
referred to as a Total Suction Head.

Dynamic Discharge Head - The Static Discharge Head plus the friction in the discharge line.
Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.

Total Dynamic Head - The Dynamic Suction Head plus the Dynamic Discharge Head. Also
referred to as Total Head.

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Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
NPSH can be defined as two parts:

NPSH Available (NPSHA): The absolute pressure at the suction port of the pump.

AND

NPSH Required (NPSHR): The minimum pressure required at the suction port of the
pump to keep the pump from cavitating.

NPSHA is a function of your system and must be calculated, whereas NPSHR is a function of
the pump and must be provided by the pump manufacturer. NPSHA MUST be greater than
NPSHR for the pump system to operate without cavitating. Put another way, you must have
more suction side pressure available than the pump requires.

Specific Gravity
The term specific gravity compares the density of some substance to the density of water. Since
specific gravity is the ratio of those densities, the units of measure cancel themselves, and we
end up with a dimensionless number that is the same for all systems of measure. Therefore, the
specific gravity of water is 1— regardless of the measurement system. Specific gravity is
important when sizing a centrifugal pump because it is indicative of the weight of the fluid, and
its weight will have a direct effect on the amount of work performed by the pump. One of the
beauties of the centrifugal pump is that the head (in feet) and flow it produces has nothing to do
with the weight of the liquid. It is all about the velocity that is added by the impeller. The simplest
way to prove the validity of this statement is to use the falling body equation:

v2 = 2gh

Where:
v = Velocity
g = The universal gravitational constant
h = height.

This equation will predict the final velocity some object will attain when falling from some height
(ignoring friction of course). When rearranged, it takes the form of h = v2/2g and predicts the
maximum height an object can attain based on its initial velocity. The final velocity attained by a
falling object is actually the same as the initial velocity required for it to rise to the same height
from which it fell. When this equation is applied to a centrifugal pump, h becomes the maximum
theoretical head that it can produce. As the equation illustrates, that head depends upon the exit
velocity of the liquid from the impeller vanes and the effect of gravity; it has absolutely nothing to
do with the weight of the liquid. The weight of the liquid does affect the amount of work done by
a pump and, therefore, the HP required. A good way to understand the impact of liquid weight is
to convert flow in GPM and head in feet into units of work. The equation below performs this
conversion.

(gpm X 8.34 lb/gal X h) = w

Here the flow is multiplied by the weight of a gallon of water and then multiplied by the head in
feet. The result is the work performed in ft-lb/minute. The equation shows us that the amount of
work done by a centrifugal pump is directly proportional to the weight of the pumped liquid. If
you divide w by 33,000, the result is the HP required at that particular point of flow and head.

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The downward sloping curve in the upper portion of the graph is the H/Q curve and the red, blue
and green curves are the horsepower curves for three different liquids. The scale of the Y axis is
both head and horsepower. The blue curve shows the HP required for water (SG=1). The red
and green curves show the HP required to pump sugar syrup (SG=1.29) and gasoline
(SG=0.71). If you analyze the three HP curves at each flow point, you will see that the increase
or decrease is directly proportional to the SG of that particular liquid.

As long as the viscosity of a liquid is similar to that of water, its specific gravity will have no
effect on pump performance. It will, however, directly affect the input power required to pump
that particular liquid. The equation below can be used to compute the horsepower required to
pump liquids of varying specific gravities (where BHP is brake horsepower, Q is flow in GPM, H
is head in feet, SG is specific gravity and Eff is the hydraulic efficiency of the pump). It assumes
a viscosity similar to that of water.

BHP = (Q x H x SG) / (3960 x Eff)

SG can also have an effect on the onset of cavitation in a particular pump. Heavier liquids cause
a proportional increase in a pump's suction energy and those with a high suction energy level
are more likely to experience cavitation damage. Next month we will review the effect of
viscosity on centrifugal pump performance.

Pump Testing
To minimize energy use, and to ensure that pumps are correctly matched to the duty expected
pumps, and pumping stations should be regularly tested. In water supply applications, which are
usually fitted with centrifugal pumps, individual large pumps should be 70 - 80% efficient. They
should be individually tested to ensure they are in the appropriate range, and replaced or
prepared as appropriate. Pumping stations should also be tested collectively, because where
pumps can run in combination to meet a given demand, it is often possible for very inefficient
combination of pumps to occur. For example: it is perfectly possible to have a large and a small
pump operating in parallel, with the smaller pump not delivering any water, but merely
consuming energy. Pumps are readily tested by fitting a flow meter, measuring the pressure
difference between inlet and outlet, and measuring the power consumed. Another method is
thermodynamic pump testing where only the temperature rise and power consumed need be
measured. Depending on how the measurement is taken suction lift and head may also be
referred to as static or dynamic. Static indicates the measurement does not take into account
the friction caused by water moving through the hose or pipes. Dynamic indicates that losses
due to friction are factored into the performance. The following terms are usually used when
referring to lift or head.

Static Suction Lift - The vertical distance from the water line to the centerline of the impeller.

Static Discharge Head - The vertical distance from the discharge outlet to the point of
discharge or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of a water tank.

Dynamic Suction Head - The Static Suction Lift plus the friction in the suction line. Also
referred to as a Total Suction Head.

Dynamic Discharge Head - The Static Discharge Head plus the friction in the discharge line.
Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.

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Understanding Pump Viscosity
When to use a centrifugal or a Positive Displacement pump (“PD Pump”) is not always a clear
choice. To make a good choice between these pump types it is important to understand that
these two types of pumps behave very differently.

First let’s examine the density of the substance to be pumped. The density of a substance is
defined as its mass per unit volume, but here on the earth's surface, we can substitute weight
for mass. At 39-deg F (4-deg C), water has a density of 8.34 pounds per gallon or 62.43 pounds
per cubic foot. In the metric system its density is one gram per cubic centimeter, or 1,000-kg per
cubic meter.

Specific Gravity
The term specific gravity compares the density of some substance to the density of water. Since
specific gravity is the ratio of those densities, the units of measure cancel themselves, and we
end up with a dimensionless number that is the same for all systems of measure. Therefore, the
specific gravity of water is 1— regardless of the measurement system. Specific gravity is
important when sizing a centrifugal pump because it is indicative of the weight of the fluid and its
weight will have a direct effect on the amount of work performed by the pump. One of the
beauties of the centrifugal pump is that the head (in feet) and flow it produces has nothing to do
with the weight of the liquid. It is all about the velocity that is added by the impeller.

The simplest way to prove the validity of this statement is to use the falling body equation:
v2 = 2gh

Where:
v = Velocity
g = The universal gravitational constant
h = height.

This equation will predict the final velocity some object will attain when falling from some height
(ignoring friction of course). When rearranged, it takes the form of h = v2/2g and predicts the
maximum height an object can attain based on its initial velocity. The final velocity attained by a
falling object is actually the same as the initial velocity required for it to rise to the same height
from which it fell.

When this equation is applied to a centrifugal pump, h becomes the maximum theoretical head
that it can produce. As the equation illustrates, that head depends upon the exit velocity of the
liquid from the impeller vanes and the effect of gravity; it has absolutely nothing to do with the
weight of the liquid.

The weight of the liquid does affect the amount of work done by a pump and, therefore, the HP
required. A good way to understand the impact of liquid weight is to convert flow in GPM and
head in feet into units of work. The equation below performs this conversion.

(gpm X 8.34 lb/gal X h) = w

Here the flow is multiplied by the weight of a gallon of water and then multiplied by the head in
feet. The result is the work performed in ft-lb/minute. The equation shows us that the amount of
work done by a centrifugal pump is directly proportional to the weight of the pumped liquid. If
you divide w by 33,000, the result is the HP required at that particular point of flow and head.

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The downward sloping curve in the upper portion of the graph is the H/Q curve and the red, blue
and green curves are the horsepower curves for three different liquids. The scale of the Y axis is
both head and horsepower. The blue curve shows the HP required for water (SG=1). The red
and green curves show the HP required to pump sugar syrup (SG=1.29) and gasoline
(SG=0.71). If you analyze the three HP curves at each flow point, you will see that the increase
or decrease is directly proportional to the SG of that particular liquid.

As long as the viscosity of a liquid is similar to that of water, its specific gravity will have no
effect on pump performance. It will, however, directly affect the input power required to pump
that particular liquid. The equation below can be used to compute the horsepower required to
pump liquids of varying specific gravities (where BHP is brake horsepower, Q is flow in GPM, H
is head in feet, SG is specific gravity and Eff is the hydraulic efficiency of the pump). It assumes
a viscosity similar to that of water.

BHP = (Q x H x SG) / (3960 x Eff)

SG can also have an effect on the onset of cavitation in a particular pump. Heavier liquids cause
a proportional increase in a pump's suction energy and those with a high suction energy level
are more likely to experience cavitation damage.

Understanding Pump Friction Loss

To optimize a fluid piping system, it is important to have a clear understanding of how the
various system items interact. Regardless of the methods used to gain a thorough picture of
piping system operations, a variety of calculations must be performed. Among the formulas are
the Bernoulli equation to calculate the pressure in the system, and the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, which is commonly used to calculate head loss in a pipe run. The Bernoulli Equation
is a way of expressing the total energy of fluid as it flows through a pipe run

The Piping System

A piping system is configured of individual pipe runs connected in series and parallel
combinations with pumps, control valves, flowmeters and components. It is essential to
recognize how these unique elements interact and work together as a system. There are both
graphical and analytical methods that provide an understanding of how the various items
interact as a total system. The head loss is calculated using the graphical method for a variety
of flow rates for each pipe run. The results can be read off the graph after the information is
plotted. Using the analytical method, the results are calculated directly, which eliminates the
need for further graphics.

In fluid dynamics, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which relates

the head loss — or pressure loss — due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average
velocity of the fluid flow. The equation is named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach.

The Darcy–Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy
friction factor. This is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor or Moody friction factor. The
Darcy friction factor is four times the Fanning friction factor, with which it should not be
confused.

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Head Loss Formula
Head loss can be calculated with

where
 hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m);

 L is the length of the pipe (m);

 D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the
internal diameter of the pipe) (m);

 V is the average velocity of the fluid flow, equal to the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-
sectional wetted area (m/s);

 g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);

 fD is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor. It can be found from a
Moody diagram or more precisely by solving the Colebrook equation. Do not confuse
this with the Fanning Friction factor, f.

However the establishment of the friction factors was still an unresolved issue which
needed further work.

Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Flow of fluid through a pipe
The flow of liquid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the liquid and the
turbulence that occurs along the internal walls of the pipe, created by the roughness of the pipe
material. This resistance is usually known as pipe friction and is measured is feet or meters
head of the fluid, thus the term head loss is also used to express the resistance to flow.

Many factors affect the head loss in pipes, the viscosity of the fluid being handled, the size of
the pipes, the roughness of the internal surface of the pipes, the changes in elevations within
the system and the length of travel of the fluid. The resistance through various valves and
fittings will also contribute to the overall head loss. A method to model the resistances for valves
and fittings is described elsewhere.

In a well-designed system the resistance through valves and fittings will be of minor significance
to the overall head loss, many designers choose to ignore the head loss for valves and fittings
at least in the initial stages of a design.

Much research has been carried out over many years and various formulas to calculate head
loss have been developed based on experimental data. Among these is the Chézy formula
which dealt with water flow in open channels. Using the concept of ‘wetted perimeter’ and the
internal diameter of a pipe the Chézy formula could be adapted to estimate the head loss in a
pipe, although the constant ‘C’ had to be determined experimentally.

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The Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Weisbach first proposed the equation we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach formula or
Darcy-Weisbach equation:

hf = f (L/D) x (v2/2g)

where:
hf = head loss (m)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
or:
hf = head loss (ft)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (ft)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (ft)
v = velocity of fluid (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s²)

The Moody Chart

In 1944 LF Moody plotted the data from the Colebrook equation and this chart which is now
known as ‘The Moody Chart’ or sometimes the Friction Factor Chart, enables a user to plot the
Reynolds number and the Relative Roughness of the pipe and to establish a reasonably
accurate value of the friction factor for turbulent flow conditions. The Moody Chart encouraged
the use of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and this quickly became the method of choice for
hydraulic engineers. Many forms of head loss calculator were developed to assist with the
calculations, amongst these a round slide rule offered calculations for flow in pipes on one side
and flow in open channels on the reverse side.

The development of the personnel computer from the 1980’s onwards reduced the time needed
to perform the friction factor and head loss calculations, which in turn has widened the use of
the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the point that all other formula are now largely unused.

Pipe Runs
A piping system is composed primarily of individual pipe runs connecting all system elements
together. Because a pipe run is the basic building block of a piping system, examine the losses
associated with individual pipe runs when connected in series and parallel configurations. The
pipe head loss in a single pipe run can easily be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Performing the head loss calculation for a range of expected flow rates helps to develop a curve
showing the pipe run head loss for any flow rate within a defined range. The Bernoulli equation
allows for calculation of pressure anywhere in the pipe run.

Multiple pipe runs connected end-to-end form a "series" of individual pipe runs. The flow rate
through each pipe run in a series configuration is identical. As a result, the head loss for a series
of pipe runs is simply the sum of the head losses for each of the individual pipe runs. When
multiple pipe runs are placed in parallel, determining the head loss through them becomes more
difficult because the flow is distributed through the various pipe runs. The head loss across the
parallel paths can be calculated after determining the flow rate in each pipe run and the head
loss across each pipe run in a parallel configuration.

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A component-including filters, strainers, towers, columns and heat exchangers-is an item placed
in a piping system that has a head loss for a given flow rate. The function describing the head
loss across the component versus the flow rate is similar to that of the head loss through valves
and fittings.

Pump Curves
A pump curve describes the operation of a pump for a range of flows at a defined speed. Many
design elements affect the shape of the pump curve, and most of these cannot be changed by
the user. As a result, centrifugal pumps are usually selected from the manufacturer's available
designs to match the system requirements. An engineered or assembled-to-order pump can be
specified, and the manufacturer can often provide a pump performance characteristic well
suited to the specific application depending on the type of pump. Characteristics that can be
changed by users to change the pump (performance) curve are the impeller diameter and the
rotational speed. The pump curve change will cause the pump curve to intersect the system
curve at a different rate of flow. When selected properly, the pump will operate near its best
efficiency point (BEP). This relationship of speed change or diameter change is often referred to
as the pump affinity rules.

Control valves are inserted into a piping system to regulate the rate of flow or pressure in the
piping system. Remember, control valves control the flow by providing a variable hydraulic
resistance between the upstream and downstream components in the system. In other words,
the control valve does not change the basic shape of the system curve; it provides additional
resistance to the system to enable the valve to control the flow.

System Curves
Pump and system curves can illustrate the basic interaction in the total system. Pump and
system curves consist of a system curve showing the head required to pass a given flow rate
through the piping system, and a pump curve superimposed on the system curve. The point
where the system curve and the pump curve intersect is the balanced flow rate through the
pump. In the absence of control valves, the system will operate at the intersection of the pump
and system curves.

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 Vertical turbine well with a mineral oil cooled seal. Mechanical seal bottom.

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Basic Water Pump Review
The water pump commonly found in our systems is centrifugal pumps. These pumps work by
spinning water around in a circle inside a cylindrical pump housing. The pump makes the water
spin by pushing it with an impeller. The blades of this impeller project outward from an axle like
the arms of a turnstile and, as the impeller spins, the water spins with it. As the water spins, the
pressure near the outer edge of the pump housing becomes much higher than near the center
of the impeller.

There are many ways to understand this rise in pressure, and here are two:

First, you can view the water between the impeller blades as an object traveling in a circle.
Objects do not naturally travel in a circle--they need an inward force to cause them to accelerate
inward as they spin.

Without such an inward force, an object will travel in a straight line and will not complete the
circle. In a centrifugal pump, that inward force is provided by high-pressure water near the outer
edge of the pump housing. The water at the edge of the pump pushes inward on the water
between the impeller blades and makes it possible for that water to travel in a circle. The water
pressure at the edge of the turning impeller rises until it is able to keep water circling with the
impeller blades.

You can also view the water as an incompressible fluid, one that obeys Bernoulli's equation in
the appropriate contexts. As water drifts outward between the impeller blades of the pump, it
must move faster and faster because its circular path is getting larger and larger. The impeller
blades cause the water to move faster and faster. By the time the water has reached the outer
edge of the impeller, it is moving quite fast. However, when the water leaves the impeller and
arrives at the outer edge of the cylindrical pump housing, it slows down.

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Here is where Bernoulli's equation figures in. As the water slows down and its kinetic energy
decreases, that water's pressure potential energy increases (to conserve energy). Thus, the
slowing is accompanied by a pressure rise. That is why the water pressure at the outer edge of
the pump housing is higher than the water pressure near the center of the impeller. When water
is actively flowing through the pump, arriving through a hole near the center of the impeller and
leaving through a hole near the outer edge of the pump housing, the pressure rise between
center and edge of the pump is not as large.

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Understanding Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery.
Centrifugal pumps are used to transport liquids/fluids by the conversion of the rotational kinetic
energy to the hydro dynamics energy of the liquid flow. The rotational energy typically comes
from an engine or electric motor or turbine. In the typical simple case, the fluid enters the pump
impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially
outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits.

Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical pumping. The reverse
function of the centrifugal pump is the water turbine that converts potential energy of water
pressure into mechanical rotational energy.

The transfer of energy from the mechanical rotation of the impeller to the motion and pressure
of the fluid is usually described in terms of centrifugal force, especially in older sources written
before the modern concept of centrifugal force as a fictitious force in a rotating reference frame
was well articulated. The concept of centrifugal force is not actually required to describe the
action of the centrifugal pump.

In the modern centrifugal pump, most of the energy conversion is due to the outward force that
curved impeller blades impart on the fluid. Invariably, some of the energy also pushes the fluid
into a circular motion, and this circular motion can also convey some energy and increase the
pressure at the outlet.

Modern sources say things like that the fluid "flows radially under centrifugal force", or
"centrifugal force flings the liquid outward". Others counter that "there is no force at all, and a
great deal of confused thinking." Some are more careful, attributing the outward force to the
impeller, not to centrifugal force: "the impellers throw the water to the outside of the impeller
case. This centrifugal action is what creates the pressure..." Even serious texts that explain the
working of the pump without mention of centrifugal force introduce the pump as one in which
"the mechanical energy is converted, into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting
on the fluid."

A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any process plant. Its purpose
is to convert energy of a prime mover (an electric motor or turbine) first into velocity or kinetic
energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being pumped. The energy changes
occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute or diffuser. The
impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy. The volute or
diffuser is the stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
Note: All of the forms of energy involved in a liquid flow system are expressed in terms of feet of
liquid i.e. head.

Generation of Centrifugal Force

The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye (center) of a revolving device
known as an impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities
between the vanes outward and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of
the impeller a low-pressure area is created causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because
the impeller blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the
centrifugal force. This force acting inside the pump is the same one that keeps water inside a
bucket that is rotating at the end of a string.

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Vertical Centrifugal Pumps
Vertical centrifugal pumps are also referred to as cantilever pumps. They utilize a unique shaft
and bearing support configuration that allows the volute to hang in the sump while the bearings
are outside of the sump. This style of pump uses no stuffing box to seal the shaft but instead
utilizes a "throttle Bushing". A common application for this style of pump is in a parts washer.

Froth Pumps
In the mineral processing industry, or in the extraction of oils and, froth is generated to separate
the rich minerals or bitumen from the sand and clays. Froth contains air that tends to block
conventional pumps and cause loss of prime. The industry over the years has developed
different ways to deal with this problem. One approach consists of using vertical pumps with a
tank. Another approach is to build special pumps with an impeller capable of breaking the air
bubbles. In the pulp and paper industry holes are drilled in the impeller. Air escapes to the back
of the impeller and a special expeller discharges the air back to the suction tank. The impeller
may also feature special small vanes between the primary vanes called split vanes or
secondary vanes. Some pumps may feature a large eye, an inducer or recirculation of
pressurized froth from the pump discharge back to the suction to break the bubbles.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage centrifugal pump. The
impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts. For higher pressures at the
outlet impellers can be connected in series. For higher flow output impellers can be connected
in parallel. All energy transferred to the fluid are derived from the mechanical energy driving the
impeller.

Priming
Most centrifugal pumps are not self-priming. In other words, the pump casing must be filled with
liquid before the pump is started, or the pump will not be able to function. If the pump casing
becomes filled with vapors or gases, the pump impeller becomes gas-bound and incapable of
pumping. To ensure that a centrifugal pump remains primed and does not become gas-bound,
most centrifugal pumps are located below the level of the source from which the pump is to take
its suction. The same effect can be gained by supplying liquid to the pump suction under
pressure supplied by another pump placed in the suction line.

A centrifugal pump adds velocity to a liquid, but first it must get the liquid. As the centrifugal
pump throws liquid out from the eye of the impeller, the volute design creates a low pressure
area where the liquid used to be. At that point, either atmospheric pressure, gravity, or a
combination of the two will fill up the low pressure area with either more liquid or additional air.
The problem with centrifugal pumps is that a given impeller diameter and speed will throw all
fluids (either a liquid or a gas) to the same height. Since air qualifies as a fluid it will throw air to
the same height as water. That height is not enough to overcome atmospheric pressure, so the
centrifugal pump has to have all of its air removed before it will pump a liquid, and that is what
we mean by priming the pump.

There are several methods you can use to remove air from a centrifugal pump:
 You can fill the pump and suction piping with liquid and start all over again.

 You can attach a priming pump to the discharge side of the pump to remove any air in
the pump and suction piping. Be sure this pump has a mechanical seal. You never want
to use packing in a priming pump because air will leak into the stuffing box through the
packing.

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  Some people install a foot valve at the end of the suction piping to insure that the fluid
will not drain from the pump and suction piping. These valves seldom work out because,
like all check valves, they leak.

The self-priming pump will retain enough fluid when it stops, to start again without having to
worry about re-priming. A toilet or sink trap performs a similar function when it retains liquid to
prevent vapors and odors from coming into your house.

There are a couple of ways to do this:

 Change the volute and impeller casing so that it retains the liquid in a built in reservoir
that is filled during the initial priming phase and retains this fluid when the pump
completes its pumping task and shuts down. An internal recirculation port then connects
the discharge of the pump back to the suction cavity allowing a continuous recirculation
of liquid during the priming phase.

 Design a suction and discharge cavity above the centerline of the impeller eye insuring
that the pump is always full of liquid.

Understanding Suction Lift

Suction lift deals with the maximum distance to the intake of a pump. Fire pumps and others
may lift about 5' to 10' of suction. You must lower the pump continually towards the water to
keep them pumping. This creates a water risk, and when they put it back in, it pumps for a
while, and if it quits again, then the same process must be repeated until it is pumping properly.
Pumps operating at a negative minimum inlet pressure are capable of creating a suction lift
(non-self-priming). The suction capacity is approximately equal to the level of the negative
minimum inlet pressure minus a 1 m safety factor.

NPSH is initialism for Net Positive Suction Head. In any cross-section of a generic hydraulic
circuit, the NPSH parameter shows the difference between the actual pressure of a liquid in a
pipeline and the liquid's vapor pressure at a given temperature.

NPSH is an important parameter to take into account when designing a circuit: whenever the
liquid pressure drops below the vapor pressure, liquid boiling occurs, and the final effect will be
cavitation: vapor bubbles may reduce or stop the liquid flow, as well as damage the system.

Centrifugal pumps are particularly vulnerable especially when pumping heated solution near the
vapor pressure, whereas positive displacement pumps are less affected by cavitation, as they
are better able to pump two-phase flow (the mixture of gas and liquid), however, the resultant
flow rate of the pump will be diminished because of the gas volumetrically displacing a
disproportion of liquid. Careful design is required to pump high temperature liquids with a
centrifugal pump when the liquid is near its boiling point.

The violent collapse of the cavitation bubble creates a shock wave that can literally carve
material from internal pump components (usually the leading edge of the impeller) and creates
noise often described as "pumping gravel". Additionally, the inevitable increase in vibration can
cause other mechanical faults in the pump and associated equipment.

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where is the head loss between 0 and 1, is the pressure at the water surface, is the
vapour pressure (saturation pressure) for the fluid at the temperature at 1, is the
difference in height from the water surface to the location 1, and is the fluid density,
assumed constant, and is gravitational acceleration.

where is the head loss between 0 and 1, is the pressure at the water surface, is the vapor
pressure (saturation pressure) for the fluid at the temperature at 1, is the difference in height
(shown as H on the diagram) from the water surface to the location 1, and is the fluid density,
assumed constant, and is gravitational acceleration.

Suction Limitations
Regardless of the extent of the vacuum, water can only be “lifted” a set distance or height due to
it’s' vaporization pressure. As the pressure above the water is reduced, the water will tend to
rise as a result of the atmospheric pressure, which is tending to push the water into the pump
suction piping. The theoretical maximum suction lift for water is 33.9 feet. From a practical
standpoint, in consideration of the friction loss of the piping, the altitude of the station, etc., the
normal maximum lift for any pump is approximately 25 ft. However, it must be remembered that
cavitation of the impeller increases as the suction lift increases , and therefore, the pump, where
possible, should be located so that the suction line is submerged at all times.

Pumps lift water with the help of atmospheric pressure, then pressurize and discharge the water
from the casing. The practical suction lift, at sea level is 25 feet. Most pump manufacturers will
list this as the maximum suction lift. Static suction lift is the maximum distance from the water
level, to the centerline of the impeller. The main type of pump used for suction lift is a vertical
shaft turbine pump.

Suction lift exists when a liquid is taken from an open tank to an atmospheric tank where the
liquid level is below the centerline of the pump suction.

The following relationships may help to better understand Suction Lift:

Total Dynamic Head = Total discharge head + Total Suction Lift
Total Suction Lift = static + friction

Depending on how the measurement is taken suction lift and head may also be referred to as
static or dynamic. Static indicates the measurement does not take into account the friction
caused by water moving through the hose or pipes. Dynamic indicates that losses due to friction
are factored into the performance. The following terms are usually used when referring to lift or
head.

Static Suction Lift - The vertical distance from the water line to the centerline of the impeller.

Static Discharge Head - The vertical distance from the discharge outlet to the point of
discharge or liquid level when discharging into the bottom of a water tank.

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Dynamic Suction Head - The Static Suction Lift plus the friction in the suction line. Also
referred to as a Total Suction Head.

Dynamic Discharge Head - The Static Discharge Head plus the friction in the discharge line.
Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.

Total Dynamic Head - The Dynamic Suction Head plus the Dynamic Discharge Head. Also
referred to as Total Head.

Suction Lift Chart

The vertical distance that a pump may be placed above the water level (and be able to draw
water) is determined by pump design and limits dictated by altitude. The chart below shows the
absolute limits. The closer the pump is to the water level, the easier and quicker it will be to
prime.

Suction Lift at Various Elevations

Altitude: Suction Lift In Feet
Sea Level 25.0
2,000 ft. 22.0
4,000 ft. 19.5
6,000 ft. 17.3
8,000 ft. 15.5
10,000 ft. 14.3

Understanding Affinity Laws

The Affinity Laws
The affinity laws are used in hydraulics and HVAC to express the relationship between variables
involved in pump or fan performance (such as head, volumetric flow rate, shaft speed) and
power. They apply to pumps, fans, and hydraulic turbines. In these rotary implements, the
affinity laws apply both to centrifugal and axial flows.

The affinity laws are useful as they allow prediction of the head discharge characteristic of a
pump or fan from a known characteristic measured at a different speed or impeller diameter.
The only requirement is that the two pumps or fans are dynamically similar, that is the ratios of
the fluid forced are the same.

These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant i.e. . When applied to pumps
the laws work well for constant diameter variable speed case (Law 1) but are less accurate for
constant speed variable impeller diameter case (Law 2).

Law 1a. Flow is proportional to shaft speed:

Law 1b. Pressure or Head is proportional to the square of shaft speed:

Law 1c. Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed:

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Law 2. With shaft speed (N) held constant:
Law 2a. Flow is proportional to impeller diameter:

Law 2b. Pressure or Head is proportional to the square of impeller diameter:

Law 2c. Power is proportional to the cube of impeller diameter:

where
 is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM, GPM or L/s),

 is the impeller diameter (e.g. in or mm),

 is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm),

 is the pressure or head developed by the fan/pump (e.g. ft. or m), and

 is the shaft power (e.g. W).

These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant i.e. . When applied
to pumps the laws work well for constant diameter variable speed case (Law 1) but are less
accurate for constant speed variable impeller diameter case (Law 2).

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Understanding the Operation of a Vertical Turbine Pump
Vertical turbine pumps are available in deep well, shallow well, or canned configurations. VHS
or VSS motors will be provided to fulfill environmental requirements. Submersible motors are
also available. These pumps are also suitable industrial, municipal, commercial and agricultural
applications.

Deep well turbine pumps are adapted for use in cased wells or where the water surface is below
the practical limits of a centrifugal pump. Turbine pumps are also used with surface water
systems. Since the intake for the turbine pump is continuously under water, priming is not a
concern. Turbine pump efficiencies are comparable to or greater than most centrifugal pumps.
They are usually more expensive than centrifugal pumps and more difficult to inspect and
repair.
The turbine pump has three main parts: (1) the head assembly, (2) the shaft and column
assembly and (3) the pump bowl assembly. The head is normally cast iron and designed to be
installed on a foundation. It supports the column, shaft, and bowl assemblies, and provides a
discharge for the water. It also will support either an electric motor, a right angle gear drive or a
belt drive.

Bowl Assembly
The bowl assembly is the heart of the vertical turbine pump. The impeller and diffuser type
casing is designed to deliver the head and capacity that the system requires in the most efficient
way. Vertical turbine pumps can be multi-staged, allowing maximum flexibility both in the initial
pump selection and in the event that future system modifications require a change in the pump
rating. The submerged impellers allow the pump to be started without priming. The discharge
head changes the direction of flow from vertical to horizontal, and couples the pump to the
system piping, in addition to supporting and aligning the driver.

Drivers
A variety of drivers may be used; however, electric motors are most common. For the purposes
of this manual, all types of drivers can be grouped into two categories:
1. Hollow shaft drivers where the pump shaft extends through a tube in the center of the rotor
and is connected to the driver by a clutch assembly at the top of the driver.
2. Solid shaft drivers where the rotor shaft is solid and projects below the driver mounting base.
This type of driver requires an adjustable flanged coupling for connecting to the pump.

Discharge Head Assembly

The discharge head supports the driver and bowl assembly as well as supplying a discharge
connection (the “NUF” type discharge connection which will be located on one of the column
pipe sections below the discharge head). A shaft sealing arrangement is located in the
discharge head to seal the shaft where it leaves the liquid chamber. The shaft seal will usually
be either a mechanical seal assembly or stuffing box.

Column Assembly
The shaft and column assembly provides a connection between the head and pump bowls. The
line shaft transfers the power from the motor to the impellers and the column carries the water
to the surface. The line shaft on a turbine pump may be either water lubricated or oil lubricated.
The oil-lubricated pump has an enclosed shaft into which oil drips, lubricating the bearings. The
water-lubricated pump has an open shaft. The bearings are lubricated by the pumped water.

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If there is a possibility of fine sand being pumped, select the oil lubricated pump because it will
keep the sand out of the bearings. If the water is for domestic or livestock use, it must be free of
oil and a water-lubricated pump must be used.

Line shaft bearings are commonly placed on 10-foot centers for water-lubricated pumps
operating at speeds under 2,200 RPM and at 5-foot centers for pumps operating at higher
speeds. Oil-lubricated bearings are commonly placed on 5-foot centers.

A pump bowl encloses the impeller. Due to its limited diameter, each impeller develops a
relatively low head. In most deep well turbine installations, several bowls are stacked in series
one above the other. This is called staging. A four-stage bowl assembly contains four impellers;
all attached to a common shaft and will operate at four times the discharge head of a single-
stage pump.

Impellers used in turbine pumps may be either semi-open or enclosed. The vanes on semi-open
impellers are open on the bottom and they rotate with a close tolerance to the bottom of the
pump bowl. The tolerance is critical and must be adjusted when the pump is new. During the
initial break-in period the line shaft couplings will tighten, therefore, after about 100 hours of
operation, the impeller adjustments should be checked. After break-in, the tolerance must be
checked and adjusted every three to five years or more often if pumping sand.

Column assembly is of two basic types, either of which may be used:

1. Open lineshaft construction utilizes the fluid being pumped to lubricate the lineshaft bearings.
2. Enclosed lineshaft construction has an enclosing tube around the lineshaft and utilizes oil,
grease, or injected liquid (usually clean water) to lubricate the lineshaft bearings.

Column assembly will consist of:

1) column pipe, which connects the bowl assembly to the discharge head,
2) shaft, connecting the bowl shaft to the driver and,
3) may contain bearings, if required, for the particular unit. Column pipe may be either threaded
or flanged.
Note: Some units will not require column assembly, having the bowl assembly connected
directly to the discharge head instead.

Bowl Assemblies
The bowl consists of:
1) impellers rigidly mounted on the bowl shaft, which rotate and impart energy to the fluid,
2) bowls to contain the increased pressure and direct the fluid,
3) suction bell or case which directs the fluid into the first impeller, and
4) bearings located in the suction bell (or case) and in each bowl.

Both types of impellers may cause inefficient pump operation if they are not properly adjusted.
Mechanical damage will result if the semi-open impellers are set too low and the vanes rub
against the bottom of the bowls. The adjustment of enclosed impellers is not as critical;
however, they must still be checked and adjusted. Impeller adjustments are made by tightening
or loosening a nut on the top of the head assembly. Impeller adjustments are normally made by
lowering the impellers to the bottom of the bowls and adjusting them upward. The amount of
upward adjustment is determined by how much the line shaft will stretch during pumping. The
adjustment must be made based on the lowest possible pumping level in the well. The proper
adjustment procedure if often provided by the pump manufacturer.

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Basic Operation of a Vertical Turbine
Pre-start
Before starting the pump, the following checks should be made:
1. Rotate the pump shaft by hand to make sure the pump is free and the impellers are correctly
positioned.
2. Is the head shaft adjusting nut properly locked into position?
3. Has the driver been properly lubricated in accordance with the instructions furnished with the
driver?
4. Has the driver been checked for proper rotation? If not, the pump must be disconnected from
the driver before checking. The driver must rotate COUNTER CLOCKWISE when looking down
at the top of the driver.
5. Check all connections to the driver and control equipment.
6. Check that all piping connections are tight.
7. Check all anchor bolts for tightness.
8. Check all bolting and tubing connections for tightness (driver mounting bolts, flanged coupling
bolts, glad plate bolts, seal piping, etc.).
9. On pumps equipped with stuffing box, make sure the gland nuts are only finger tight — DO
NOT TIGHTEN packing gland before starting.
10. On pumps equipped with mechanical seals, clean fluid should be put into the seal chamber.
With pumps under suction pressure this can be accomplished by bleeding all air and vapor out
of the seal chamber and allowing the fluid to enter. With pumps not under suction pressure, the
seal chamber should be flushed liberally with clean fluid to provide initial lubrication. Make sure
the mechanical seal is properly adjusted and locked into place.
NOTE: After initial start-up, pre-lubrication of the mechanical seal will usually not be
required, as enough liquid will remain in the seal chamber for subsequent start-up
lubrication.
11. On pumps equipped with enclosed lineshaft, lubricating liquid must be available and should
be allowed to run into the enclosing tube in sufficient quantity to thoroughly lubricate all lineshaft
bearings.

Initial Start-Up
1. If the discharge line has a valve in it, it should be partially open for initial starting — Min. 10%.
2. Start lubrication liquid flow on enclosed lineshaft units.
3. Start the pump and observe the operation. If there is any difficulty, excess noise or vibration,
stop the pump immediately.
4. Open the discharge valve as desired.
5. Check complete pump and driver for leaks, loose connections, or improper operation.
6. If possible, the pump should be left running for approximately ½ hour on the initial start-up.
This will allow the bearings, packing or seals, and other parts to “run-in” and reduce the
possibility of trouble on future starts.

NOTE: If abrasives or debris are present upon startup, the pump should be allowed to
run until the pumpage is clean. Stopping the pump when handling large amounts of
abrasives (as sometimes present on initial starting) may lock the pump and cause more
damage than if the pump is allowed to continue operation.

CAUTION: Every effort should be made to keep abrasives out of lines, sumps, etc. so that
abrasives will not enter the pump.

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Stuffing Box Adjustment
On the initial starting it is very important that the packing gland not be tightened too much. New
packing must be “run in” properly to prevent damage to the shaft and shortening of the packing
life. The stuffing box must be allowed to leak for proper operation. The proper amount of
leakage can be determined by checking the temperature of the leakage; this should be cool or
just lukewarm — NOT HOT. When adjusting the packing gland, bring both nuts down evenly
and in small steps until the leakage is reduced as required. The nuts should only be tightened
about ½ turn at a time at 20 to 30 minute intervals to allow the packing to “run in”. Under proper
operation, a set of packing will last a long time. Occasionally a new ring of packing will need to
be added to keep the box full. After adding two or three rings of packing, or when proper
adjustment cannot be achieved, the stuffing box should be cleaned completely of all old packing
and re-packed.

Lineshaft Lubrication
Open lineshaft bearings are lubricated by the pumped fluid and on close coupled units (less
than 30’ long), will usually not require pre or post lubrication. Enclosed lineshaft bearings are
lubricated by extraneous liquid (usually oil or clean water), which is fed to the tension nut by
either a gravity flow system or pressure injection system. The gravity flow system utilizing oil is
the most common arrangement. The oil reservoir must be kept filled with a good quality light
turbine oil (about 150 SSU at operating temperature) and adjusted to feed 10 to 12 drops per
minute plus one (1) drop per 100’ of setting. Injection systems are designed for each installation
— injection pressure and quantity of lubricating liquid will vary. Refer to packing slip or separate
instruction sheet for requirements when unit is designed for injection lubrication.

General Maintenance Section

A periodic inspection is recommended as the best means of preventing breakdown and keeping
maintenance costs to a minimum. Maintenance personnel should look over the whole
installation with a critical eye each time the pump is inspected — a change in noise level,
amplitude or vibration, or performance can be an indication of impending trouble. Any deviation
in performance or operation from what is expected can be traced to some specific cause.
Determination of the cause of any misperformance or improper operation is essential to the
correction of the trouble — whether the correction is done by the user, the dealer or reported
back to the factory. Variances from initial performance will indicate changing system conditions
or wear or impending breakdown of unit.

Deep well turbine pumps must have correct alignment between the pump and the power unit.
Correct alignment is made easy by using a head assembly that matches the motor and
column/pump assembly. It is very important that the well is straight and plumb. The pump
column assembly must be vertically aligned so that no part touches the well casing.

Spacers are usually attached to the pump column to prevent the pump assembly from touching
the well casing. If the pump column does touch the well casing, vibration will wear holes in the
casing. A pump column out of vertical alignment may also cause excessive bearing wear.

The head assembly must be mounted on a good foundation at least 12 inches above the ground
surface. A foundation of concrete provides a permanent and trouble-free installation. The
foundation must be large enough to allow the head assembly to be securely fastened. The
foundation should have at least 12 inches of bearing surface on all sides of the well. In the case
of a gravel-packed well, the 12-inch clearance is measured from the outside edge of the gravel
packing.

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Vertical Turbine Pump

Large Diameter Submersible Pump, Motor, and Column Pipe

Larger check valve installed on submersible pump to prevent water hammer (notice motor
shaft splines.)

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Common Elements of Vertical Turbines

Above, Vertical Turbine

Pump Being Removed
(notice line shaft)

Below
Closed Pump Impeller

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More on the Centrifugal Pump
By definition, a centrifugal pump is a machine. More specifically, it is a machine that imparts
energy to a fluid. This energy infusion can cause a liquid to flow, rise to a higher level, or both.

The centrifugal pump is an extremely simple machine. It is a member of a family known as

rotary machines and consists of two basic parts: 1) the rotary element or impeller and 2) the
stationary element or casing (volute). The figure at the bottom of the page is a cross section of a
centrifugal pump and shows the two basic parts.

In operation, a centrifugal pump “slings” liquid out of the impeller via centrifugal force. One fact
that must always be remembered: A pump does not create pressure, it only provides flow.
Pressure is just an indication of the amount of resistance to flow. Centrifugal pumps may be
classified in several ways. For example, they may be either SINGLE STAGE or MULTI-STAGE.
A single-stage pump has only one impeller. A multi-stage pump has two or more impellers
housed together in one casing.

As a rule, each impeller acts separately, discharging to the suction of the next stage impeller.
This arrangement is called series staging. Centrifugal pumps are also classified as
HORIZONTAL or VERTICAL, depending upon the position of the pump shaft. The impellers
used on centrifugal pumps may be classified as SINGLE SUCTION or DOUBLE SUCTION. The
single-suction impeller allows liquid to enter the eye from one side only. The double-suction
impeller allows liquid to enter the eye from two directions.

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Impellers are also classified as CLOSED or OPEN. Closed impellers have side walls that extend
from the eye to the outer edge of the vane tips. Open impellers do not have these side walls.
Some small pumps with single-suction impellers have only a casing wearing ring and no
impeller ring. In this type of pump, the casing wearing ring is fitted into the end plate.

Recirculation lines are installed on some centrifugal pumps to prevent the pumps from
overheating and becoming vapor bound, in case the discharge is entirely shut off or the flow of
fluid is stopped for extended periods.

Seal piping is installed to cool the shaft and the packing, to lubricate the packing, and to seal the
rotating joint between the shaft and the packing against air leakage. A lantern ring spacer is
inserted between the rings of the packing in the stuffing box.

Seal piping leads the liquid from the discharge side of the pump to the annular space formed by
the lantern ring. The web of the ring is perforated so that the water can flow in either direction
along the shaft (between the shaft and the packing).

Water flinger rings are fitted on the shaft between the packing gland and the pump bearing
housing. These flingers prevent water in the stuffing box from flowing along the shaft and
entering the bearing housing.

Let’s look at the components of the centrifugal pump.

Centrifugal Pump

As the impeller rotates, it sucks the liquid into the center of the pump and throws it out under
pressure through the outlet. The casing that houses the impeller is referred to as the volute, the
impeller fits on the shaft inside. The volute has an inlet and outlet that carries the water as
shown above.
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These pictures illustrate the components that are common to most pump assemblies.

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NPSH - Net Positive Suction Head
If you accept that a pump creates a partial vacuum and atmospheric pressure forces water into
the suction of the pump, then you will find NPSH a simple concept.

NPSH (a) is the Net Positive Suction Head Available, which is calculated as follows:

NPSH (a) = p + s - v - f

Where:
'p'= atmospheric pressure,
's'= static suction (If liquid is below pump, it is shown as a negative value)
'v'= liquid vapor pressure
'f'= friction loss

NPSH (a) must exceed NPSH(r) to allow pump operation without cavitation. (It is advisable to
allow approximately 1 meter difference for most installations.) The other important fact to
remember is that water will boil at much less than 100 degrees CO if the pressure acting on it is
less than its vapor pressure, i.e. water at 95 degrees C is just hot water at sea level, but at
1500m above sea level it is boiling water and vapor.

The vapor pressure of water at 95 degrees C is 84.53 kPa, there was enough atmospheric
pressure at sea level to contain the vapor, but once the atmospheric pressure dropped at the
higher elevation, the vapor was able to escape. This is why vapor pressure is always
considered in NPSH calculations when temperatures exceed 30 to 40 degrees C.

NPSH(r) is the Net Positive Suction Head Required by the pump, which is read from the pump
performance curve. (Think of NPSH(r) as friction loss caused by the entry to the pump suction.)

Affinity Laws
The Centrifugal Pump is a very capable and flexible machine. Because of this it is unnecessary
to design a separate pump for each job. The performance of a centrifugal pump can be varied
by changing the impeller diameter or its rotational speed. Either change produces approximately
the same results. Reducing impeller diameter is probably the most common change and is
usually the most economical. The speed can be altered by changing pulley diameters or by
changing the speed of the driver. In some cases both speed and impeller diameter are changed
to obtain the desired results.

When the driven speed or impeller diameter of a centrifugal pump changes, operation of the
pump changes in accordance with three fundamental laws. These laws are known as the "Laws
of Affinity". They state that:
1) Capacity varies directly as the change in speed
2) Head varies as the square of the change in speed
3) Brake horsepower varies as the cube of the change in speed
If, for example, the pump speed were doubled:
1) Capacity will double
2) Head will increase by a factor of 4 (2 to the second power)
3) Brake horsepower will increase by a factor of 8 (2 to the third power)
These principles apply regardless of the direction (up or down) of the speed or change in
diameter.

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Consider the following example. A pump operating at 1750 RPM, delivers 210 GPM at 75' TDH,
and requires 5.2 brake horsepower. What will happen if the speed is increased to 2000 RPM?
First we find the speed ratio.

Speed Ratio = 2000/1750 = 1.14

From the laws of Affinity:
1) Capacity varies directly or:
1.14 X 210 GPM = 240 GPM
2) Head varies as the square or:

1.14 X 1.14 X 75 = 97.5' TDH

3) BHP varies as the cube or:

1.14 X 1.14 X 1.14 X 5.2 = 7.72 BHP

Theoretically the efficiency is the same for both conditions. By calculating several points a new
curve can be drawn.

Whether it be a speed change or change in impeller diameter, the Laws of Affinity give results
that are approximate. The discrepancy between the calculated values and the actual values
obtained in test are due to hydraulic efficiency changes that result from the modification. The
Laws of Affinity give reasonably close results when the changes are not more than 50% of the
original speed or 15% of the original diameter.

Suction conditions are some of the most important factors affecting centrifugal pump operation.
If they are ignored during the design or installation stages of an application, they will probably
come back to haunt you.

Suction Lift
A pump cannot pull or "suck" a liquid up its suction pipe because liquids do not exhibit tensile
strength. Therefore, they cannot transmit tension or be pulled. When a pump creates a suction,
it is simply reducing local pressure by creating a partial vacuum. Atmospheric or some other
external pressure acting on the surface of the liquid pushes the liquid up the suction pipe into
the pump.

Atmospheric pressure at sea level is called absolute pressure (PSIA) because it is a

measurement using absolute zero (a perfect vacuum) as a base. If pressure is measured using
atmospheric pressure as a base it is called gauge pressure (PSIG or simply PSI).

Atmospheric pressure, as measured at sea level, is 14.7 PSIA. In feet of head it is:
Head = PSI X 2.31 / Specific Gravity

For Water it is:

Head = 14.7 X 2.31 / 1.0 = 34 Ft

Thus, 34 feet is the theoretical maximum suction lift for a pump pumping cold water at sea level.
No pump can attain a suction lift of 34 ft; however, well designed ones can reach 25 ft quite
easily. You will note, from the equation above, that specific gravity can have a major effect on
suction lift. For example, the theoretical maximum lift for brine (Specific Gravity = 1.2) at sea
level is 28 ft.. The realistic maximum is around 20ft. Remember to always factor in specific
gravity if the liquid being pumped is anything but clear, cold (68 degrees F) water.

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In addition to pump design and suction piping, there are two physical properties of the liquid
being pumped that affect suction lift.

1) Maximum suction lift is dependent upon the pressure applied to the surface of the liquid at
the suction source. Maximum suction lift decreases as pressure decreases.

2) 2) Maximum suction lift is dependent upon the vapor pressure of the liquid being pumped.
The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure necessary to keep the liquid from vaporizing
(boiling) at a given temperature. Vapor pressure increases as liquid temperature increases.
Maximum suction lift decreases as vapor pressure rises.

It follows then, that the maximum suction lift of a centrifugal pump varies inversely with altitude.
Conversely, maximum suction lift will increase as the external pressure on its source increases
(for example: a closed pressure vessel).

Cavitation - Two Main Causes:

A. NPSH (r) EXCEEDS NPSH (a)
Due to low pressure the water vaporizes (boils) and higher pressure implodes into the vapor
bubbles as they pass through the pump, causing reduced performance and potentially major
damage.
B. Suction or discharge recirculation. The pump is designed for a certain flow range, if there is
not enough or too much flow going through the pump, the resulting turbulence and vortexes can
reduce performance and damage the pump.

Affinity Laws - Centrifugal Pumps

If the speed or impeller diameter of a pump changes, we can calculate the resulting
performance change using:

Affinity laws
a. The flow changes proportionally to speed
i.e.: double the speed / double the flow
b. The pressure changes by the square of the difference
i.e.: double the speed / multiply the pressure by 4
c. The power changes by the cube of the difference
i.e.: double the speed / multiply the power by 8

Notes:
1. These laws apply to operating points at the same efficiency.
2. Variations in impeller diameter greater than 10% are hard to predict due to the change in
relationship between the impeller and the casing. For rough calculations you can adjust a duty
point or performance curve to suit a different speed. NPSH (r) is affected by speed / impeller
diameter change = DANGER !

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Pump Casing
There are many variations of centrifugal pumps. The most common type is an end suction
pump. Another type of pump used is the split case. There are many variations of split case,
such as; two-stage, single suction, and double suction. Most of these pumps are horizontal.

There are variations of vertical centrifugal pumps. The line shaft turbine is really a multistage
centrifugal pump.

Impeller
In most centrifugal pumps, the impeller looks like a number of cupped vanes on blades mounted
on a disc or shaft. Notice in the picture below how the vanes of the impeller force the water into
the outlet of the pipe.

The shape of the vanes of the impeller is important. As the water is

being thrown out of the pump, this means you can run centrifugal
pumps with the discharged valve closed for a SHORT period of
time. Remember the motor sends energy along the shaft, and if the
water is in the volute too long it will heat up and create steam. Not
good!

Impellers are designed in various ways. We will look at:

 Closed impellers
 Semi-open impellers
 Opened impellers, and
 Recessed impellers

The impellers all cause a flow from the eye of the impeller to the
outside of the impeller. These impellers cause what is called radial
flow, and they can be referred to as radial flow impellers.

The critical distance of the impeller and how it is installed in

the casing will determine if it is high volume / low pressure or
the type of liquid that could be pumped.

Axial flow impellers look like a propeller and create a flow

that is parallel to the shaft.

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Pump Performance and Curves
Let’s looks at the big picture. Before you make that purchase of the pump and motor you need
to know the basics such as:

 Total dynamic head, the travel distance

 Capacity, how much water you need to provide
 Efficiency, help determine the impeller size
 HP, how many squirrels you need
 RPM, how fast the squirrels run

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Motor and Pump Calculations
The centrifugal pump pumps the difference between the suction and the discharge heads.
There are three kinds of discharge head:
 Static head. The height we are pumping to, or the height to the discharge piping outlet
that is filling the tank from the top. Note: that if you are filling the tank from the bottom,
the static head will be constantly changing.
 Pressure head. If we are pumping to a pressurized vessel (like a boiler) we must
convert the pressure units (psi. or Kg.) to head units (feet or meters).
 System or dynamic head. Caused by friction in the pipes, fittings, and system
components. We get this number by making the calculations from published charts.

Suction head is measured the same way.

 If the liquid level is above the pump center line, that level is a positive suction head. If
the pump is lifting a liquid level from below its center line, it is a negative suction head.
 If the pump is pumping liquid from a pressurized vessel, you must convert this pressure
to a positive suction head. A vacuum in the tank would be converted to a negative
suction head.
 Friction in the pipes, fittings, and associated hardware is a negative suction head.
 Negative suction heads are added to the pump discharge head, positive suctions heads
are subtracted from the pump discharge head.

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the total height that a fluid is to be pumped, taking into account
friction losses in the pipe.

TDH = Static Lift + Static Height + Friction Loss

where:
Static Lift is the height the water will rise before arriving at the pump (also known as the 'suction
head').

Static Height is the maximum height reached by the pipe after the pump (also known as the
'discharge head').

Friction Loss is the head equivalent to the energy losses due to viscose drag of fluid flowing in
the pipe (both on the suction and discharge sides of the pump). It is calculated via a formula or
a chart, taking into account the pipe diameter and roughness and the fluid flow rate, density,
and viscosity.

Motor hp Brake hp Water hp

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Horsepower

Work involves the operation of force over a specific distance. The rate of doing work is called
power. The rate in which a horse could work was determined to be about 550 ft-lbs/sec or
33,000 ft-lbs/min.

1 hp = 33,000 ft-lbs/min

Motor Horsepower (mhp)

1 hp = 746 watts or .746 Kilowatts

MHP refers to the horsepower supplied in the form of electrical current. The efficiency of most
motors range from 80-95%. (Manufactures will list efficiency %)

Brake Horsepower (bhp)

Water hp
Brake hp = ---------------
Pump Efficiency

BHP refers to the horsepower supplied to the pump from the motor. As the power moves
through the pump, additional horsepower is lost, resulting from slippage and friction of the shaft
and other factors.

Water Horsepower

(flow gpm)(total hd)

Water hp = ---------------------------
3960
Water horsepower refers to the actual horse power available to pump the water.

Horsepower and Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a liquid is an indication of its density or weight compared to water. The
difference in specific gravity, include it when calculating ft-lbs/min pumping requirements.

(ft)(lbs/min)(sp.gr.)
------------------------- = whp
33,000 ft-lbs/min/hp

MHP and Kilowatt requirements

1 hp = 0.746 kW or (hp) (746 watts/hp)

------------------------
1000 watts/kW

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Well Calculations
1. Well drawdown

Drawdown ft = Pumping water level, ft - Static water level, ft

2. Well yield
Flow, gallons
Well yield, gpm = -----------------------
Duration of test, min

3. Specific yield

Well yield, gpm

Specific yield, gpm/ft = ---------------------
Drawdown, ft

4. Deep well turbine pump calculations.

Discharge head, ft = (pressure measured) ( 2.31 ft/psi)

Field head, ft = pumping water + discharge head, ft

Bowl head, ft = field head + column friction

1 psi = 2.31 feet of head

1 foot of head = .433 psi

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Example 1

A centrifugal pump is located at an elevation of 722 ft. This pump is used to move water from
reservoir A to reservoir B. The water level in reservoir A is 742 ft and the water level in reservoir
B is 927 ft. Based on these conditions answer the following questions:

1. If the pump is not running and pressure gauges are installed on the suction and
discharge lines, what pressures would the gauges read?

Suction side:

Discharge side:

2. How can you tell if this is a suction head condition?

3. Calculate the following head measurements:

SSH:

SDH:

TSH:

4. Convert the pressure gauge readings to feet:

6 psi:

48 psi:

110 psi:

5. Calculate the following head in feet to psi:

20 ft:

205 ft:

185 ft:

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Understanding Pump Performance

The formula for calculating NPSHA:

NPSHA
Term = HA ± HZ - HF + HV - HVP

The formula for calculating NPSHA:

NPSHA
Term = HA ± HZ Definition Notes

- HF + HV - HVP
The absolute pressure on the Typically atmospheric
HA surface of the liquid in the supply pressure (vented supply
tank tank), but can be different for
closed tanks.
Don’t forget that altitude
affects atmospheric pressure
(HA in Denver, CO will be
lower than in Miami, FL).
Always positive (may be low,
but even vacuum vessels are
at a positive absolute
pressure)

The vertical distance between the Can be positive when liquid

HZ surface of the liquid in the supply level is above the centerline
tank and the centerline of the pump of the pump (called static
head)
Can be negative when liquid
level is below the centerline
of the pump (called suction
lift)
Always be sure to use the
lowest liquid level allowed in
the tank.

Friction losses in the suction piping Piping and fittings act as a

HF restriction, working against
liquid as it flows towards the
pump inlet.

Velocity head at the pump suction Often not included as it’s

HV port normally quite small.

Absolute vapor pressure of the Must be subtracted in the end

HVP liquid at the pumping temperature to make sure that the inlet
pressure stays above the
vapor pressure.
Remember, as temperature
goes up, so does the vapor
pressure.

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In rural and remote locations windmills are still used to pump water from shallow water tables.
The photograph above is an example of one seen through out the rural sections. Multiple gears
in the gear box at the center of the windmill provides enough tork to drive the shaft that is
connected to the pump to move up and down. The shaft from the wind mill connects to the
pumpshaft that is located in the pipipng above. This paticular shaft was sheared from the
stuffing box.

The photograph above shows well casing piping that contains the shaft and pump that is in the
center of the casing, the square nut is the inspection hole.

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Common Pump and Troubleshooting Questions
1. Cavitation: Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles
of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor
pressure. One of the most serious problems an operator will encounter is cavitation. It
can be identified by a noise that sounds like marbles or rocks are being pumped. The
pump may also vibrate and shake, to the point that piping is damaged, in some severe
cases. Cavitation occurs when the pump starts discharging water at a rate faster than it
can be drawn into the pump. This situation is normally caused by the loss of discharge
head pressure or an obstruction in the suction line. When this happens, a partial
vacuum is created in the impeller causing the flow to become very erratic. These
vacuum-created cavities are formed on the backside of the impeller vanes. When
cavitation occurs, immediate action must be taken to prevent the impeller, pump and
motor bearings, and piping from being damaged. Cavitation can be temporarily
corrected by throttling the discharge valve. This action prevents damage to the pump
until the cause can be found and corrected. Remember that the discharge gate valve is
there to isolate the pump, not control its flow. If it is left in a throttled position the valve
face may become worn to the point that it won't seal when the pump must be isolated
for maintenance. Butterfly valves can be throttled, but it is still not a good idea to throttle
a pump with an isolation valve.

2. What purpose do air and/or vacuum release valves serve on well casings?
Air and/or vacuum release valves are used to release trapped air or vacuums created
in water pipelines. This unique structure allows the dynamic valves to discharge air from
the water system in a controlled and gradual manner, preventing slam and local up-
surges. When vacuum occurs, the valves fast reaction will draw in large volumes of air
into the water system, impeding down-surges and, consequently, all pressure surges in
the line. The valves are normally closed when the line is not operating, thus preventing
the infiltration of foreign particles and insects into the water system.

3. What is a sanitary seal and what purpose does it serve on a wellhead?

Sanitary seal: A device placed into the topmost part of a well casing which, by means
of an expanding gasket, excludes foreign material from entering the well and may be
provided with a means for introducing disinfecting agents directly into the well, or a
device producing an equivalent effect. Such device shall be watertight to prevent the
entrance of surface water and other contaminants into the well.

4. What are the functions of a well casing and well casing perforations?
Well Casing is used to maintain an open access in the earth while not allowing any
entrance or leakage into the well from the surrounding formations. The most popular
materials used for casing are black steel, galvanized steel, PVC pipe and concrete pipe.

5. Well Casing Perforations: Is the process of creating holes in production casing to

establish communication between the well and formation. Perforation holes are used to
recover water from the ground.

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6. Which condition might cause a positive displacement diaphragm pump to
cycle improperly? Plugged exhaust port

7. How can ball bearing failure in a pump shaft bearing generally be first
detected? Perform vibration monitoring to detect failures or wait for excessive noise or
heat. There are three types of bearings commonly used: ball bearings, roller bearings,
and sleeve bearings. Regardless of the particular type of bearings used within a
system--whether it is ball bearings, a sleeve bearing, or a roller bearing--the bearings
are designed to carry the loads imposed on the shaft. Bearings must be lubricated.
Without proper lubrication, bearings will overheat and seize. Proper lubrication means
using the correct type and the correct amount of lubrication. Similar to motor bearings,
shaft bearings can be lubricated either by oil or by grease.

8. What is the purpose of the curved diffuser vanes on the inside of a pump
volute?
Generation of Centrifugal Force: The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and
then into eye (center) of a revolving device known as an impeller. When the impeller
rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the vanes outward and provides
centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is
created causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller blades are
curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force.
This force acting inside the pump is the same one that keeps water inside a bucket that
is rotating at the end of a string.

9. What would be the advantage of starting and stopping a centrifugal pump

against a closed discharge valve? Keeping the prime in the pipe and not allowing air
to fill the pump.

10. What precautions should be taken when opening and closing the discharge
valve?
Turbulent flows caused by pump discharges, elbows and swedges upstream of a valve
will also cause the discs to flutter excessively. Be careful not to create a water hammer.

11. What effect could over-lubrication of grease-packed bearings have on a pump

shaft?
Excessive friction and heat!

12. What are the three different designs of impellers in relation to shrouds that
are used on centrifugal pumps?
Semi-Closed also called Free passage (Vortex), Open and Closed.

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13. What is the proper procedure for starting a pump?
Fill the pump with liquid, crack open the discharge valve and start the motor. But, as you
would guess, it is a little more complicated than that.
We'll begin by making sure the pump is filled with liquid. There are several ways to do
that:
 Install a foot valve in the suction piping to insure the liquid will not drain from the
pump casing and suction piping. Keep in mind that these valves have a nasty
habit of leaking.
 Or you could evacuate the air in the piping system with a positive displacement
priming pump operating between the pump and a closed discharge valve. Be
sure the priming pump stuffing box is sealed with a mechanical seal and not
conventional packing because packing will let air into the priming pump suction
side. A balanced, O-ring seal would be a good choice for the priming pump
stuffing box.
 Convert the application to a self-priming pump that maintains a reservoir of liquid
at its suction.
 Fill the pump with liquid from an outside source prior to starting it.

Here is the proper way to vent a centrifugal pump after it has been initially installed, or
the system has been opened. Assuming the pump is empty of liquid and both the
suction and discharge valves are shut.
 Open the suction valve. The pump fills part way.
 Close the suction valve.
 Open the discharge valve part way. Once the pressure equalizes the air will rise
in the discharge piping.
 Open the suction valve.
 Start the pump.
 When the pump hits its operating speed open the discharge valve to its proper
setting to operate close to the BEP. (Best efficiency point)

14. What precautions should be taken before starting a water-lubricated pump?

The pump casing and suction piping must be filled with water. Bearings and stuffing
boxes should be watched closely to make sure they do not overheat or require
adjusting.

15. What factors would determine the size of well casing to use on a well?
Pump type, pump size and pumping depth. Well casings are installed in wells to prevent
the collapse of the walls of the borehole, to exclude pollutants (either surface or
subsurface) from entering the water source, and to provide a column of stored water to
the well pump.

16. What is the main concern when using a coupling on a horizontal pump?
Proper alignment of the pump to the driver.

17. Why should accurate records be kept on pump operations?

For a record of the past and a database for planning future pumping.

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18. What are the two most common speeds of a centrifugal pump?
High speed (critical) and slower speed (variable).

19. What is a close-coupled pump and what purpose do the motor bearings
serve?
Close-coupled pump has the motor and pump together without a shaft between the two.
The motor bearings will also support the impeller.

20. What should the operating pressure of seal water be in relation to the suction
pressure of a pump? An independent supply of water is needed for the seal water and
its pressure should be higher than the pump’s suction.

21. What is the main purpose of a finished water storage reservoir?

To provide sufficient amount of water to an average or equalize the daily demands on
the public water supply system. Also meeting the needs for average and peak
demands and adequate pressures throughout the system. Meeting the needs for fire
protection, industrial requirements and reserve storage.

22. What is the primary operation of drinking water storage tanks?

Fill tanks at night or during periods of low demand. Operated to design engineer’s and
manufacturer’s instructions. Normally storage tanks are designed to provide or supply
water during periods of high demand. And to maintain minimum pressures at critical
points in the distribution system.

23. Standpipe: A method of storing water and equalizing water pressure to minimize
the pulsations of water flowing in the mains, used prior to modern pumping methods,
consisting of a large vertical pipe in which a column of water rises and falls; often built
inside towers.

24. What is water hammer, how is it caused, and how can it be prevented?
A large pressure surge that damages pipes and equipment. It is caused by rapid rising
or falling of water pressures or opening and shutting of valves. A hydropneumatic tank
and careful opening of valves can limit water hammer damage.

25. Hydropneumatic tank: A method of storing water prior to distribution in a water

supply system, whereby the water system pressure is maintained between a specified
pressure range and is also called pressure tanks.

26. What is a hydro pneumatic tank and how does it operate?

These tanks store water prior to distribution in a water supply system, working with the
pumps to maintain a stable water system pressure. The system pressure is controlled
by a pressure switch set for minimum and maximum pressures – giving you a cut-in and
a cut-out pressure for the pumps. When the pumps cut-out or stop running, water
demand is met by the water volume in the piping and the tank. As water is drawn down,
the system pressure starts to drop. When it reaches the minimum system pressure, the
pump cuts back in and runs until the system pressure reaches the normal maximum
pressure.

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Coupling Section
The pump coupling serves two main purposes:

 It couples or joins the two shafts together to transfer the rotation from motor to impeller.

 It compensates for small amounts of misalignment between the pump and the motor.

Remember that any coupling is a device in motion. If you have a 4-inch diameter coupling
rotating at 1800 rpm, its outer surface is traveling about 20 mph. With that in mind, can you think
of safety considerations?

There are three commonly used types of couplings: Rigid, Flexible and V-belts.

Rigid Coupling
Rigid couplings are most commonly used on vertically mounted pumps. The rigid coupling is
usually specially keyed or constructed for joining the coupling to the motor shaft and the pump
shaft. There are two types of rigid couplings: the flanged coupling, and the split coupling.

Flexible Coupling. The flexible coupling provides the ability to compensate for small shaft
misalignments. Shafts should be aligned as close as possible, regardless. The greater the
misalignment, the shorter the life of the coupling. Bearing wear and life are also affected by
misalignment.

1. Oil Seals
2. Large Oil Sump
3. Bulls Eye Sight Glass
4. Rigid Frame Foot
5. C-Face Mounting Flange
6. Lubrication Flexibility
7. Condition Monitoring Sites

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Alignment of Flexible and Rigid Couplings
Both flexible and rigid couplings must be carefully aligned before they are connected.
Misalignment will cause excessive heat and vibration, as well as bearing wear. Usually, the
noise from the coupling will warn you of shaft misalignment problems.

Three types of shaft alignment problems are shown in the pictures below:

ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT ANGULAR AND PARALLEL PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT

Different couplings will require different alignment procedures. We will look at the general
procedures for aligning shafts.

1. Place the coupling on each shaft.

2. Arrange the units so they appear to be aligned. (Place shims under the legs of one of the
units to raise it.)
3. Check the run-out, or difference between the driver and driven unit, by rotating the shafts
by hand.
4. Turn both units so that the maximum run-out is on top.

Now you can check the units for both parallel and angular alignment. Many techniques are
used, such as: straight edge, needle deflection (dial indicators), calipers, tapered wedges, and
laser alignment.

V-Belt Drive Couplings

V-belt drives connect the pump to the motor. A pulley is mounted on the pump and motor shaft.
One or more belts are used to connect the two pulleys. Sometimes a separately mounted third
pulley is used. This idler pulley is located off centerline between the two pulleys, just enough to
allow tensioning of the belts by moving the idler pulley. An advantage of driving a pump with
belts is that various speed ratios can be achieved between the motor and the pump.

Shaft Bearings
There are three types of bearings commonly used: ball bearings, roller bearings, and sleeve
bearings. Regardless of the particular type of bearings used within a system--whether it is ball
bearings, a sleeve bearing, or a roller bearing--the bearings are designed to carry the loads
imposed on the shaft.

Bearings must be lubricated. Without proper lubrication, bearings will overheat and seize.
Proper lubrication means using the correct type and the correct amount of lubrication. Similar to
motor bearings, shaft bearings can be lubricated either by oil or by grease.

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How can we prevent the water from leaking along the shaft?
A special seal is used to prevent liquid leaking out along the shaft. There are two types of seals
commonly used:

 Packing seal
 Mechanical seal

Packing Seals
Should packing have leakage?

Leakage
During pump operation, a certain amount of
leakage around the shafts and casings
normally takes place.

This leakage must be controlled for two

reasons: (1) to prevent excessive fluid loss from the pump, and (2) to prevent air from entering
the area where the pump suction pressure is below atmospheric pressure.

The amount of leakage that can occur without limiting pump efficiency determines the type of
shaft sealing selected. Shaft sealing systems are found in every pump. They can vary from
simple packing to complicated sealing systems.

Packing is the most common and oldest method of sealing. Leakage is checked by the
compression of packing rings that causes the rings to deform and seal around the pump shaft
and casing. The packing is lubricated by liquid moving through a lantern ring in the center of the
packing. The sealing slows down the rate of leakage. It does not stop it completely, since a
certain amount of leakage is necessary during operation. Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing
conventional packing on centrifugal pumps.

Some of the reasons for the use of mechanical seals are as follows:
1. Leaking causes bearing failure by contaminating the oil with water. This is a major problem in
engine-mounted water pumps.

2. Properly installed mechanical seals eliminate leakoff on idle (vertical) pumps. This design
prevents the leak (water) from bypassing the water flinger and entering the lower bearings.
Leakoff causes two types of seal leakage:
a. Water contamination of the engine lubrication oil.
b. Loss of treated fresh water that causes scale buildup in the cooling system.

Centrifugal pumps are versatile and have many uses. This type of pump is commonly used to
pump all types of water and wastewater flows, including thin sludge.

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Lantern Rings
Lantern rings are used to supply clean water along the shaft. This helps to prevent grit and air
from reaching the area. Another component is the slinger ring. The slinger ring is an important
part of the pump because it is used to protect the bearings. Other materials can be used to
prevent this burier.

Mechanical Seals
Mechanical seals are commonly used to reduce leakage
around the pump shaft. There are many types of mechanical
seals. The photograph below illustrates the basic
components of a mechanical seal. Similar to the packing
seal, clean water is fed at a pressure greater than that of the
liquid being pumped. There is little or no leakage through the
mechanical seal. The wearing surface must be kept
extremely clean. Even fingerprints on the wearing surface
can introduce enough dirt to cause problems.

What care should be taken when storing mechanical seals?

Mechanical Seals
Wear Rings
Not all pumps have wear rings. However, when they are included, they are usually replaceable.
Wear rings can be located on the suctions side and head side of the volute. Wear rings could be
made of the same metal but of different alloys. The wear ring on the head side is usually a
harder alloy.

It’s called a “WEAR RING” and what would be the purpose?

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Mechanical Seals
Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing conventional packing as the means of controlling
leakage on rotary and positive-displacement pumps. Mechanical seals eliminate the problem of
excessive stuffing box leakage, which causes failure of pump and motor bearings and motor
windings.

Mechanical seals are ideal for pumps that operate in closed systems (such as fuel service and
air-conditioning, chilled-water, and various cooling systems). They not only conserve the fluid
being pumped, but also improve system operation.

The type of material used for the seal faces will depend upon the service of the pump. Most
water service pumps use a carbon material for one of the seal faces and ceramic (tungsten
carbide) for the other. When the seals wear out, they are simply replaced.

You should replace a mechanical seal whenever the seal is removed from the shaft for any
reason, or whenever leakage causes undesirable effects on equipment or surrounding spaces.
Do not touch a new seal on the sealing face because body acid and grease or dirt will cause the
seal to pit prematurely and leak.

Mechanical shaft seals are positioned on the shaft by stub or step sleeves. Mechanical shaft
seals must not be positioned by setscrews. Shaft sleeves are chamfered (beveled) on the
outboard ends for easy mechanical seal mounting. Mechanical shaft seals serve to ensure that
position liquid pressure is supplied to the seal faces under all conditions of operation. They also
ensure adequate circulation of the liquid at the seal faces to minimize the deposit of foreign
matter on the seal parts.

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Pump Troubleshooting Section
Some of the operating problems you may encounter with centrifugal pumps as an Operator,
together with the probable causes, are discussed in the following paragraphs.

If a centrifugal pump DOES NOT DELIVER ANY LIQUID, the trouble may be caused by (1)
insufficient priming; (2) insufficient speed of the pump; (3) excessive discharge pressure, such
as might be caused by a partially closed valve or some other obstruction in the discharge line;
(4) excessive suction lift; (5) clogged impeller passages; (6) the wrong direction of rotation (this
may occur after motor overhaul); (7) clogged suction screen (if used); (8) ruptured suction line;
or (9) loss of suction pressure.

If a centrifugal pump delivers some liquid but operates at INSUFFICIENT CAPACITY, the
trouble may be caused by (1) air leakage into the suction line; (2) air leakage into the stuffing
boxes in pumps operating at less than atmospheric pressure; (3) insufficient pump speed; (4)
excessive suction lift; (5) insufficient liquid on the suction side; (6) clogged impeller passages;
(7) excessive discharge pressure; or (8) mechanical defects, such as worn wearing rings,
impellers, stuffing box packing, or sleeves.

If a pump DOES NOT DEVELOP DESIGN DISCHARGE PRESSURE, the trouble may be
caused by (1) insufficient pump speed; (2) air or gas in the liquid being pumped; (3) mechanical
defects, such as worn wearing rings, impellers, stuffing box packing, or sleeves; or (4) reversed
rotation of the impeller (3-phase electric motor-driven pumps). If a pump WORKS FOR A
WHILE AND THEN FAILS TO DELIVER LIQUID, the trouble may be caused by (1) air leakage
into the suction line; (2) air leakage in the stuffing boxes; (3) clogged water seal passages; (4)
insufficient liquid on the suction side; or (5) excessive heat in the liquid being pumped.

If a motor-driven centrifugal pump DRAWS TOO MUCH POWER, the trouble will probably be
indicated by overheating of the motor. The basic causes may be (1) operation of the pump to
excess capacity and insufficient discharge pressure; (2) too high viscosity or specific gravity of
the liquid being pumped; or (3) misalignment, a bent shaft, excessively tight stuffing box
packing, worn wearing rings, or other mechanical defects.

VIBRATION of a centrifugal pump is often caused by (1) misalignment; (2) a bent shaft; (3) a
clogged, eroded, or otherwise unbalanced impeller; or (4) lack of rigidity in the foundation.
Insufficient suction pressure may also cause vibration, as well as noisy operation and fluctuating
discharge pressure, particularly in pumps that handle hot or volatile liquids. If the pump fails to
build up pressure when the discharge valve is opened and the pump comes up to normal
operating speed, proceed as follows:
1. Shut the pump discharge valve.
2. Secure the pump.
3. Open all valves in the pump suction line.
4. Prime the pump (fill casing with the liquid being pumped) and be sure that all air is
expelled through the air cocks on the pump casing.
5. Restart the pump. If the pump is electrically driven, be sure the pump is rotating in the correct
direction.
6. Open the discharge valve to “load” the pump. If the discharge pressure is not normal when
the pump is up to its proper speed, the suction line may be clogged, or an impeller may be
broken. It is also possible that air is being drawn into the suction line or into the casing. If any of
these conditions exist, stop the pump and continue troubleshooting according to the technical
manual for that unit.

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Maintenance of Centrifugal Pumps
When properly installed, maintained and operated, centrifugal pumps are usually trouble-free.
Some of the most common corrective maintenance actions that you may be required to perform
are discussed in the following sections.

Repacking - Lubrication of the pump packing is extremely important. The

quickest way to wear out the packing is to forget to open the water piping
to the seals or stuffing boxes. If the packing is allowed to dry out, it will
score the shaft. When operating a centrifugal pump, be sure there is
always a slight trickle of water coming out of the stuffing box or seal. How
often the packing in a centrifugal pump should be renewed depends on
several factors, such as the type of pump, condition of the shaft sleeve,
and hours in use.

To ensure the longest possible service from pump packing, make certain
the shaft or sleeve is smooth when the packing is removed from a gland.
Rapid wear of the packing will be caused by roughness of the shaft sleeve
(or shaft where no sleeve is installed). If the shaft is rough, it should be
sent to the machine shop for a finishing cut to smooth the surface. If it is
very rough, or has deep ridges in it, it will have to be renewed. It is absolutely necessary to use
the correct packing. When replacing packing, be sure the packing fits uniformly around the
stuffing box. If you have to flatten the packing with a hammer to make it fit, YOU ARE NOT
USING THE RIGHT SIZE. Pack the box loosely, and set up the packing gland lightly. Allow a
liberal leak-off for stuffing boxes that operate above atmospheric pressure.

Next, start the pump. Let it operate for about 30 minutes before you adjust the packing gland for
the desired amount of leak-off. This gives the packing time to run-in and swell. You may then
begin to adjust the packing gland. Tighten the adjusting nuts one flat at a time. Wait about 30
minutes between adjustments. Be sure to tighten the same amount on both adjusting nuts. If
you pull up the packing gland unevenly (or cocked), it will cause the packing to overheat and
score the shaft sleeves. Once you have the desired leak-off, check it regularly to make certain
that sufficient flow is maintained.

Mechanical Seals
Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing conventional packing as the means
of controlling leakage on rotary and positive-displacement pumps.
Mechanical seals eliminate the problem of excessive stuffing box leakage,
which causes failure of pump and motor bearings and motor windings.
Mechanical seals are ideal for pumps that operate in closed systems (such
as fuel service and air-conditioning, chilled-water, and various cooling
systems). They not only conserve the fluid being pumped, but also
improve system operation. The type of material used for the seal faces will
depend upon the service of the pump. Most water service pumps use a
carbon material for one of the seal faces and ceramic (tungsten carbide) for the other. When the
seals wear out, they are simply replaced.

You should replace a mechanical seal whenever the seal is removed from the shaft for any
reason, or whenever leakage causes undesirable effects on equipment or surrounding spaces.
Do not touch a new seal on the sealing face because body acid and grease or dirt will cause the
seal to pit prematurely and leak.

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Mechanical shaft seals are positioned on the shaft by stub or step sleeves. Mechanical shaft
seals must not be positioned by setscrews. Shaft sleeves are chamfered (beveled) on outboard
ends for easy mechanical seal mounting.

Mechanical shaft seals serve to ensure that liquid pressure is supplied to the seal faces under
all conditions of operation. They also ensure adequate circulation of the liquid at the seal faces
to minimize the deposit of foreign matter on the seal parts.

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Troubleshooting Table for Well/Pump Problems
1. Well pump will not start.
2. Well pump will not shut off.
3. Well pump starts and stops too frequently (excessive cycle rate).
4. Sand sediment is present in the water.
5. Well pump operates with reduced flow.
6. Well house flooded without recent precipitation.
7. Red or black water complaints.
8. Raw water appears turbid or a light tan color following rainfall.
9. Coliform tests are positive.

Possible Causes
1A. Circuit breaker or overload relay tripped.
1B. Fuse(s) burned out.
1C. No power to switch box.
1D. Short, broken or loose wire.
1E. Low voltage.
1F. Defective motor.
1G. Defective pressure switch.
2A. Defective pressure switch.
2B. Cut-off pressure setting too high.
2C. Float switch or pressure transducer not
functioning.
3A. Pressure switch settings too close.
3B. Pump foot valve leaking.
3C. Water-logged hydropneumatic tank.
4A. Problems with well screen or gravel envelope.
5A. Valve on discharge partially closed or line clogged.
5B. Well is over-pumped.
5C. Well screen clogged.
6A. Check valve not operating properly.
6B. Leakage occurring in discharge piping or valves.
7A. Water contains excessive iron (red brown) and/or manganese (black water).
7B. Complainant’s hot water needs maintenance.
8A. Surface water entering or influencing well.
9A. Sample is invalid.
9B. Sanitary protection of well has been breached.

Possible Solutions
1A. Reset breaker or manual overload relay.
1B. Check for cause and correct, replace fuse(s).
1C. Check incoming power supply. Contact power company.
1D. Check for shorts and correct, tighten terminals, replace broken wires.
1E. Check incoming line voltage. Contact power company if low.
1F. Contact electrical contractor.
1G. Check voltage of incoming electric supply with pressure switch closed. Contact power
company if voltage low. Perform maintenance on switch if voltage normal.
2A. Check switch for proper operation. Replace switch.
2B. Adjust setting.
2C. Check and replace components or cable as needed.

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3A. Adjust settings.
3B. Check for backflow. Contact well contractor.
3C. Check air volume. Add air if needed. If persistent, check air compressor, relief valve, air
lines and connections, and repair if needed.
4A. Contact well contractor.
5A. Open valve, unclog discharge line.
5B. Check static water level and compare to past readings. If significantly lower, notify well
contractor.
5C. Contact well contractor.
6A. Repair or replace check valve.
6B. Inspect and repair/replace as necessary.
7A. Test for iron and manganese at well. If levels exceed 0.3 mg/L iron or 0.005mg/L
manganese, contact regulatory agency, TA provider or water treatment contractor.
7B. Check hot water heater and flush if needed.
8A. Check well for openings that allow surface water to enter. Check area for sinkholes,
fractures, or other physical evidence of surface water intrusion. Check water turbidity. Notify
regulatory agency if >0.5 NTU. Check raw water for coliform bacteria. Notify regulatory agency
immediately if positive.
9A. Check sampling technique, sampling container, and sampling location and tap.
9B. Notify regulatory agency immediately and re-sample for re-testing.

This brush is used to dislodge debris inside well casing. Just a big toilet cleaning brush.

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Understanding Submersible Pumps
A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically
sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to
be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a
problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull fluids.
Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.

The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps operating in
a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features underwent a
continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle remained the same.
Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high rotational
speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to
pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow
pumps.

The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at
the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are lifted by
the pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length
of the shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An
optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those
forces are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.

Understanding the Operation of a Vertical Turbine Pump

The basic components of the pump are the driver, discharge head assembly, column assembly
(when used) and bowl assembly. The driver, coupling strainer (when used) are generally
shipped unassembled to prevent damage.

Installation Check List

The following checks should be made before starting actual installation to assure proper
installation and prevent delays:
1. With motor driven units, be sure the voltage and frequency on the motor nameplate agree
with the service available. Also make sure the horsepower and voltage rating of the control box
or starter agrees with the horsepower and voltage rating of the motor
2. Check the depth of the sump or caisson against the pump length to be sure there will be no
interference.
3. Check the proposed liquid level in the sump against the pump length - the bottom stage of the
pump must be submerged at all times.
4. Clean the sump and piping system before installing the pump.
5. Check the installation equipment to be sure it will safely handle the equipment.
6. Check all pump connections (bolts, nuts, etc.) for tightness. These have been properly
tightened before leaving the factory, however, some connections may have worked loose in
transit.
7. Check the coupling on the driver to make sure the shaft will fit properly.
8. Proper installation is necessary to provide maximum service from the pump. To insure proper
alignment three items are very important during installation.
A. All machined mating surfaces (such as the mating flanges of the pump and motor)
must be clean and free of burrs and nicks. These surfaces should be cleaned thoroughly

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 with a scraper, wire brush and emery cloth if necessary and any nicks or burrs removed
with a fine file.
B. Exterior strain must not be transmitted to the pump. The most common cause of
trouble in this respect is forcing the piping to mate with the pump. It is recommended that
flexible connectors be installed in the piping adjacent to the pump.
C. All threads should be checked for damage and repaired if necessary. If filing is
necessary, remove the part from the pump if possible, or arrange a rag to catch all the
filings so they do not fall into other parts of the pump. Clean all threads with a wire brush
and cleaning solvent. Ends of the shafts must be cleaned and any burrs removed since
alignment depends on the shaft ends butting squarely. Lubricate all screwed
connections with a suitable thread lubricant (an anti-galling compound such as “Anti-
Seize” should be used on stainless mating threads). The end faces of the pump shafts
must be centered in the coupling and aligned with the relief hole drilled into the side of
the coupling. To verify that the end of the shaft is centered in the coupling and aligned
with the relief hole, insert a small wire (a paper clip works well) into the hole to feel
where the shaft ends. Remove the wire before tightening the coupling and shafts.
Excess thread lubricant will purge out of the relief hole when properly aligned.

Foundation
The foundation may consist of any materials that will afford permanent, rigid support to the
discharge head and will absorb expected stresses that may be encountered in service. Verify
the foundation is flat and level.

Installation Process
Equipment and Tools
No installation should be attempted without equipment adequate for the job. The following list
covers the principal items required for an installation.
1. Mobile crane capable of hoisting and lowering the entire weight of the pump and
motor.
2. (2) Two steel clamps or elevators with bails or cable.
3. (2) Two sets of chain tongs.
4. Cable sling for attaching to the pump and motor lifting eyes.
5. Steel pipe clamp for lifting bowl assembly and column pipe.
6. Approximately 15 feet of 3/4” rope for tying shaft during installation.
7. Ordinary hand tools - pipe wrenches, end wrenches, socket set, screw drivers, Allen
wrenches, etc.
8. Wire brush, scraper, fine file, and fine emery cloth.
9. Thread compound designed for type of connection and light machinery oil.

Assembling and Installing Pump

1. Position adequate lifting equipment so it will center over the foundation opening.
2. Bowl Assembly
A. Check and measure for axial clearance or end play. While bowls are in a horizontal
position you should be able to push or pull the pump shaft indicating axial clearance.
Check all bolts for tightness. Do not lift or handle the bowl assembly by the pump shaft.
B. Carefully lift the bowl assembly and suction with a bail or clamp.
When installing a very long 6” or 8” bowl assembly, leave the bowl securely fastened to
the wooden skid that is attached for shipping until the bowl assembly is raised to a
vertical position. This will help prevent breaking the bowls or bending the shaft.

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 C. If a strainer is to be used, attach to the bowl assembly using the fasteners provided. If
a threaded strainer is to be used, attach to the bowl assembly by threading them
together.
D. Lower the bowl assembly into the well or sump. Set the clamp or holding device that
is attached to the bowls on a flat surface. This is to stabilize the bowl assembly and
reduce possibility of cross threading shaft.
3. Column Assembly
A. Plan the assembly by process before proceeding to assure proper placement of pump
components. Match each lineshaft, line shaft sleeve, bearing/retainer assembly and
bolting set to the appropriate column pipe.
B. Slide the shaft into the column pipe being careful not to damage any threads or to get
dirt into the column pipe.
C. Thread shaft coupling onto bottom end of shaft (left hand threads). Shaft coupling
must be centered so the air relief hole is located at the end of the shaft. The end faces of
the pump shafts must be centered in the coupling and aligned with the relief hole drilled
into the side of the coupling. To verify that the end of the shaft is centered in the coupling
and aligned with the relief hole, insert a small wire (a paper clip works well) into the hole
to feel where the shaft ends. Remove the wire before tightening the coupling and shafts.
Excess thread lubricant will purge out of the relief hole when properly aligned.
D. Attach hoist to the first section of column pipe. Using rope, tie the shaft and column
pipe together so that the shaft does not slip out of the column pipe. Raise the column
and shaft to a vertical position over the bowl assembly.
Do not allow the shaft to drag or bump while it is being raised. When handling the shaft
horizontally, always support in at least three places - never two.
E. Make sure the shafting faces, threads and couplings are clean. Holding lineshaft with
pipe wrench, lower lineshaft. Align lineshaft with pump shaft to prevent cross threading
and thread shaft into coupling (left hand threads). All shaft faces must butt inside
coupling or damage will result on start-up.
F. Lower the column pipe to engage with the fit circle or threads (right hand threads) on
bowl assembly. If flanged, tighten the column pipe bolts attaching the upper part of the
bowl assembly to column pipe. If threaded with pipe thongs, thread the column pipe onto
the bowl so the end of the pipe butts to the bowl.
G. Lift to allow removal of clamp holding bowl assembly in place. Carefully lower this
section into well or sump so that it rests on upper clamp.
H. Slide the bearing retainer with bushing over the shaft and insert into column coupling.
Make certain the bearing retainer ring is butted against the top end of the column pipe.
I. If threaded construction, thread the top column flange to the top column. No bearing
retainer, bearing or sleeve is included on this connection.
J. Bolt the top column flange with an o-ring or gasket to the bottom of the discharge
head.
K. Repeat this procedure for each column section. Add lineshaft bearings and retainer at
each pipe joint. If the pump is equipped with shaft sleeves, orient the shaft sleeve with
the drive hub and set screws on top. Slide the sleeve down the pump shaft until the shaft
sleeve is centered along the length of the bearing. Remove the set screws and apply
thread locking compound such as Loctite. Tighten the set screws securely against the
shaft.

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Installing Discharge Head
A. Hollow shaft driver pumps that are supplied with one piece headshaft have shaft couplings
below the stuffing box. Pumps supplied with a two piece headshaft have couplings above the
stuffing box.
B. For one piece headshaft attach the stainless steel headshaft to the lineshaft with a coupling
and tighten the shafts (left hand threads) For two piece headshaft the shaft will be installed after
driver installation.
C. Lift discharge head over shaft and lower carefully. Be certain not to bend the shaft. Fasten
the top column flange to the bottom of the head.
D. Lift entire pump and remove column clamp. Lower pump until discharge head touches the
foundation. Seat pump on foundation and level the motor mounting flange to within .001” per
foot using a machinist’s level. Shims may be used, if necessary, to compensate for foundation
irregularities.

Finger is shown pointing to a Lantern Ring. This old school method of sealing a pump
is still out there. Notice the packing on both sides of the ring. The packing joints need
to be staggered and the purpose of this device is to allow air to the Stuffing Box.

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Installation of Standard Stuffing Boxes
1. Stuffing Box
A. Slide the stuffing box over the shaft and fit into place (be sure to include the o-ring or
gasket below the stuffing box flange). Bolt securely in place using the studs and nuts
provided.
2. Packing
A. Insert four packing rings, fitting ends together so they contact face to face on the cut
end. Turn each cut piece 90O from the previous piece. Be sure each piece is set against
the piece below it.
CAUTION
Do not tamp packing tight in the stuffing box. Excessive tamping will stop the flow of fluid
through the packing. This will result in the destruction of the shaft area.
3. Packing Gland
A. Thread the two studs in the threaded holes on top of the stuffing box. Insert the
packing gland on top of the packing and pull snug (not tight). The packing gland nuts
should be tightened together to keep equal pressure on the packing.
4. Slinger
A. Attach slinger above packing gland.

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CAUTION
The stuffing box must be allowed to leak for proper operation. The proper amount of leakage
can be determined by checking the temperature of the leakage. This should be cool or just
lukewarm, not hot. Shutting off leakage flow from the packing will result in burned packing and a
scored shaft.

Installation of Optional Stuffing Boxes

A. Stuffing Box
A. Slide the stuffing box over the shaft and fit into place (be sure to include the o-ring or gasket
on the bottom
side of the stuffing box in the groove provided. Bolt securely in place using the studs and nuts.
B. Packing
a. Insert the lower lantern ring (threaded holes up) in bottom of box.
b. Insert three packing rings, fitting ends together so they contact face to face on an
angle. Turn each cut piece 90O from the previous piece. Be sure each piece is set
against the piece below it.
c. Insert the second lantern ring (threaded holes up) on top of the packing. The lantern
ring should be aligned with the grease port.
d. Insert three more packing rings on top of the lantern ring, as before.
e. Thread two studs into the holes on top of the stuffing box.
f. Insert the packing gland on top of packing, press down snug. The packing gland nuts
should be tightened together to keep equal pressure on the packing.
The packing must be allowed to leak for proper operation. The proper amount of leakage
can be determined by checking the temperature of the leakage. This should be cool or
just lukewarm, not hot.
g. Insert the grease zerk and grease with a high quality grease.
C. If high pressure bypass is necessary, remove bypass plug. Install bypass line back to suction
side of pump or drain.
D. Attach a slinger above packing gland.

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Installation of Mechanical Seals
1. General Information
A. Study all instructions before installing.
2. Equipment Preparation
A. Assembled Pumps
a. The throttle bushing housing is shipped assembled on the pump but without the seal
installed.
b. All faces of the mechanical seal housing and the throttle bushing housing must be free
from dirt and rust.
B. Unassembled Pumps
a. The mechanical seal and throttle bushing housing are packaged in the box of small
parts.
b. All faces of the mechanical seal housing, throttle bushing and head must be free from
dirt and rust.
c. Install the o-ring or gasket in the throttle bushing housing, slide throttle bushing
housing over shaft and seat it against the discharge head. Bolt securely in place using
the studs & nuts provided.
2. Seal Installation
A. Before installation of Vertical Solid Shaft Motor (VSS) or Head Shaft in Vertical Hollow
Shaft (VHS) Motor Installation.
B. Assure that shaft & seal housing are clean and free of machining and handling burrs
C. Set seal in place over pump shaft. Apply teflon tape to shaft treads and lubricate to
ease seal into place.
D. Using fasteners provided, secure seal gland to seal housing
E. In the case of VSS Motor Installation
1. Install pump shaft key and coupling half
2. Install coupling spacer and run down to full shaft thread length
3. Affix key and Motor coupling half to VSS Motor
F. Set VSS or VHS Motor in place and bolt to Discharge Head
G. In the case of VSS Motor
1. Rotate coupling spacer in reverse direction to installation in order to elevate coupling spacer
to the appropriate impeller adjustment if contact with motor coupling half.
2. Rotate motor to align motor half coupling holes with the holes in the pump coupling half.
3. Install and tighten coupling bolts (at which point pump shaft will be elevated to the appropriate
impeller adjustment.
H. In the case of VHS Motor
1. Thread shaft coupling onto pump shaft.
2. Install motor (head) shaft through opening (quill) of motor (be careful not to impact coupling
threads).
3. Hold shaft coupling and thread motor shaft into coupling.
4. Rotate motor by cooling fins until the female key slot is in alignment with the motor (Head)
shaft.
5. Install Gibb Key into slot presented by the motor (head) shaft and the motor coupling on the
top end of the motor.
6. Install adjusting nut in top end of motor (Head) shaft.
7. Tighten adjusting nut until shaft and string is elevated to appropriate impeller adjustment.

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8. Rotate adjustment nut until one of the 1/4” - 20unc holes and the motor coupling on the top
end of the motor, and one of the 5/16” holes in the adjustment nut are in alignment. (Note:
Rotate the adjustment in the direction that assures minimum vertical shaft movement.)
9. Install and tighten the 1/4” - 20unc bolt provided into the aligned bolt hole.
I. Tighten the 1/4” - 20unc Allen (grub) screws located on the mechanical seal, onto the
top shaft.
J. Remove the 1/4” - 20unc beveled head machine screws and aluminum spacer clips
and store these parts in a secure place for use upon removal of the mechanical seal.
3. Seal Removal
Reverse the above process.

Installation of Hollow Shaft Drivers

1. Clean driver mounting flange on discharge head and check for burrs or nicks on the register
and mounting face. Oil lightly.
2. Remove driver clutch.
3. See No. 10 regarding the installation of motor guide bushing, if required.
4. Lift driver and clean mounting flange, checking for burrs and nicks.
5. Center motor over pump and rotate to align mounting holes.
6. Lower carefully into place making certain that the female register on the driver mates over the
male register on the pump.
7. Bolt driver to discharge head.
8. Check driver manufacturer’s instruction manual for special instructions including lubrication
instructions and follow all “start-up” directions.
9. Electric motors should be checked for rotation at this time. Make certain the driver clutch has
been removed. Make electrical connections to the job motor and momentarily check rotation.
DRIVER MUST ROTATE COUNTER CLOCKWISE
when looking down at the top end of the motor. To change the direction of rotation on a three
phase motor, interchange any two line leads. To change direction of rotation on a two phase
motor, interchange the leads of either phase.
10. Some electric motors will be supplied with a “lower guide bushing” which is installed at the
bottom of the motor to stabilize the shaft at this point. Some motor manufacturers mount this
guide bushing before shipping while others will ship the guide bushing with instructions for field
mounting. Check the packing slip to see of a guide bushing is required,
if so, determine if the bushing is already mounted or not and proceed accordingly. Refer to the
Motor Instruction Manual.
11. Install coupling on driver being careful that it fits properly.
12. At this point, if the pump is supplied with a two piece head shaft construction, attach the
headshaft to the topshaft with a coupling and tighten the shafts (left hand threads).
13. Clean threads on top of headshaft and headshaft nut. Lubricate male threads lightly.
14. Install Gibb Key in coupling and shaft. This must be a sliding fit and may require filling and
dressing. Do not force.
15. Thread adjusting nut down on shaft until it bears against coupling. (Threads on 1-11/16” and
larger head shaft adjusting nuts are left-handed, all other are right-handed). Do not thread nut
further at this time. See impeller adjusting instructions.

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Impeller Adjustment with Hollow Shaft Drivers
Proper impeller adjustment positions the impeller inside the bowl assembly for maximum
performance. The impellers must be raised slightly to prevent dragging on the bowls. The
impellers must be down against the bowl seat when starting the impeller adjustment. When
pumps are subjected to suction pressure acting against the shaft tends to raise it. Make sure the
shaft is down when starting to adjust the impellers.

When using hollow shaft drivers, impeller adjustment is accomplished at the top of the driver by
the following procedure:

The canopy will have to be removed before beginning.

1. Install head shaft if not already in place. Refer to Installing Hollow Shaft Driver.
2. Install driver coupling in accordance with driver instruction manual and bolt into place.
3. Check shaft position lower shaft until there is a definite feel of metal contact. This indicates
the impellers are “on bottom” and in the correct starting position for impeller adjustment.
4. Thread headshaft nut down (RIGHT-HAND threads except 1-11/16” and larger sizes which
are LEFT-HAND threads) until impellers are just raised off their seat and the shaft will rotate
freely.

Initial Pump Pre-Check Start-Up Procedures

Before starting the pump the following checks should be made:
1. Rotate the pump shaft by hand to make sure the pump is free and the impellers are correctly
positioned.
2. Check that the headshaft adjusting nut is properly locked into position.
3. Check that the driver has been properly lubricated in accordance with the instructions
furnished with the driver.
4. Check the driver for proper rotation. The pump must be disconnected from the driver before
checking. The driver must rotate COUNTER CLOCKWISE when looking down at the top of the
driver.
5. Check all connections to the driver and control equipment.
6. Check that all piping connections are tight.
7. Check that all anchor bolts are tight.
8. Check that all bolting and tubing connections are tight (driver mounting bolts, flanged,
coupling bolts, gland plate bolts, seal piping, etc.)
9. On pumps equipped with a stuffing box make sure the gland nuts are only finger tight -- DO
NOT tighten packing gland before starting.
10. On pumps equipped with mechanical seals, clean fluid should be put into the seal chamber.
With pumps under suction pressure this can be accomplished by bleeding all air and vapor out
of the seal chamber and allowing the fluid to enter. With pumps not under suction pressure the
seal chamber should be flushed liberally with clean fluid to provide initial lubrication. Make sure
the mechanical seal is properly adjusted and locked into place.

OPERATION WARNING
An OSHA screen guard is furnished with all pumps having a driver stand. This screen
must be secured in place prior to pump start-up to prevent possible contact with rotating
parts.

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NOTICE
After initial start-up, pre-lubrication of the mechanical seal will usually not be required
as enough liquid will remain in the seal chamber for subsequent start-up lubrication.

Stuffing Box Adjustment

On the initial starting it is very important that the packing not be tightened too much. New
packing must be “run-in” properly to prevent damage to the shaft and shortening of the packing
life.

The stuffing box must be allowed to leak for proper operation. The proper amount of leakage
can be determined by checking the temperature of the leakage, this should be cool or lukewarm
-- NOT HOT -- usually 40 to 60 drops per minute will be adequate. When adjusting the packing
gland bring both nuts down evenly and in small steps until the leakage is reduced as required.
The nuts should only be tightened about one half turn at a time at 20 to 30 minute intervals to
allow the packing to “run-in”. Under proper operation a set of packing will last a long time.
Occasionally a new ring of packing will need to be added to keep the box fill. After adding two or
three rings of packing, or when proper adjustment cannot be achieved, the stuffing box should
be cleaned completely of all old packing and repacked.

Stuffing Box Adjustment

Open lineshaft bearings that are lubricated by the pumped fluid on short coupled units (less than
50’ long) will usually not require pre-or-post-lubrication. All open lineshaft pumps where the
static water level is more than 50’ below the discharge head should be adequately pre-
lubricated before starting the pump. These units should have a non-reverse ratchet on the driver
to prevent backspin when turning off the pump. If there is no N.R.R., post-lubrication is also
necessary.

Initial Starting
1. If the discharge line has a valve in it, it should be partially open for initial starting.
2. Start the pump and observe the operation. If there is any difficulty, excess noise or vibration,
stop the pump immediately and refer to the Troubleshooting Chart for probable cause.
3. Open the discharge valve as desired.
4. Check complete pump and driver for leaks, loose connections or improper operation.
5. If possible, the pump should be left running for approximately one half hour on the initial start-
up, this will allow the bearings, packing or seals, and other parts to “run-in” and reduce the
possibility of trouble on future starts.

NOTICE
If abrasives or debris are present upon start-up the pump should be allowed to run until the
pumpage is clean. Stopping the pump when handling large amounts of abrasives (as
sometimes present on initial starting) may lock the pump and cause more damage than if the
pump is allowed to continue operating.

CAUTION
Every effort should be made to keep abrasives out of lines, sump, etc. so that abrasives
will not enter the pump.

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Maintenance of a Vertical Turbine Pump
Periodic Inspection
A periodic inspection is recommended as the best means of preventing breakdown and keeping
maintenance costs to a minimum. Maintenance personnel should look over the whole
installation with a critical eye each time the pump is inspected -- a change in noise level,
amplitude of vibration, or performance can be an indication of impending trouble. Any deviation
in performance or operation from what is expected can be traced to some specific cause.
Determination of the cause of any misperformance or improper operation is essential to the
correction of the trouble -- whether the correction is done by the user, the dealer or reported
back to the factory. Variances from initial performance will indicate changing system conditions
or wear impending breakdown of the unit.

Monthly Inspection
A periodic monthly inspection is suggested for all units. During this inspection the pump and
driver should be checked for performance, change in noise or vibration level, loose bolts or
piping, dirt and corrosion. Clean and re-paint all areas that are rusted or corroded.

Impeller Re-Adjustment
Ordinarily impellers will not require readjustment if properly set at initial installation. Almost no
change in performance can be obtained by minor adjustment of enclosed impellers. All
adjustments of the impellers will change the mechanical seal setting. It is recommended that the
seal be loosened from the shaft until the adjustment is complete and then reset.

Pump Lubrication
Other than the stuffing box lubrication, mechanical seal, and/or lineshaft lubrication, the pump
will not require further periodic lubrication. On water pumps and sumps the suction bearing on
the bowl assembly should be repacked when repairs are made, however, no attempt should be
made to repack until repairs to the bowl assembly are necessary. Pumps that pump
hydrocarbons or have carbon or rubber bearings do not have the suction bearing packed.

Driver Lubrication
Drivers will require periodic attention. Refer to the Driver Instruction Manual for
recommendations.

General Maintenance
Maintenance of the stuffing box will consist of greasing the box when required, tightening the
packing gland occasionally as the leakage becomes excessive, and installing new packing rings
or sets as required.

Replacing Packing
Remove gland and all old packing. If the box contains a lantern ring remove this and all packing
below it using two long threaded machine screws. Inspect shaft or sleeve for score marks or
rough spots. Be sure by-pass holes (if supplied) are not plugged. Repair or replace badly worn
shaft or sleeve. If wear is minor, dress down until smooth and concentric. Clean box bore. Oil
inside and outside or replacement rings lightly and install in box, staggering joints 90 degrees.
Be sure to replace lantern ring in proper position when used. Replace gland and tighten nuts
finger tight. The packing gland must never be tightened to the point where leakage from the
packing is stopped. A small amount of leakage is required for packing lubrication.

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Start-Up Procedures with New Packing
Check to see that the by-pass line (if used) is connected and the packing gland is loose. Start
pump and allow to run for 20 to 30 minutes. Do not tighten the gland during this “run-in” period
even if leakage is excessive. If the leakage continues to be more than normal. Should the new
packing cause excess heating during “run-in” flush the shaft and packing box area with cold
water or shut the pump down and allow to cool if necessary.

Components of a Vertical Turbine Pump

Drivers
A variety of drivers may be used; however, electric motors are most common. For the purposes
of this manual all types of drivers supplied will be hollow shaft. On a hollow shaft driver the
headshaft extends through a tube in the center of the rotor and is connected to the driver by a
coupling assembly at the top of the driver.

Head Assembly
The discharge head supports the driver, column and bowl assembly as well as supplying a
discharge connection. A shaft sealing arrangement is located in the discharge head to seal the
shaft where it leaves the liquid chamber. The shaft seal will usually be a mechanical seal
assembly. However some applications require rope packing.

Column Assembly
Column assembly is of open lineshaft construction. It utilizes the fluid being pumped to lubricate
the lineshaft bearings. The column assembly will consist of a column pipe, which connects the
bowl assembly to the discharge head and carries the pumped fluid to the discharge head; shaft,
connecting the pump shaft driver; and may contain bearings if required for the particular unit.

Bowl Assemblies
The suction strainer, when supplied, is attached to the suction bell. It is used to prevent large
objects from entering the pump. The bowl assembly consists of a discharge case, impellers, a
shaft, intermediate bowls, suction bell, and bearings. The suction bell directs the flow of liquid
into the first stage impeller. The impellers are rigidly mounted to the shaft with tapered collets or
keys with lock rings. Bearings are located in the suction bell, intermediate bowls and discharge
case to support the shaft. The discharge case connects the pump to the bottom of the column
pipe.

Understanding Pump Bowl Assembly

The suction strainer, when supplied, is attached to the suction bell. It is used to prevent large
objects from entering the pump. The bowl assembly consists of a discharge case, impellers, a
shaft, intermediate bowls, suction bell, and bearings. The suction bell directs the flow of liquid
into the first stage impeller. The impellers are rigidly mounted to the shaft with tapered collets or
keys with lock rings. Bearings are located in the suction bell, intermediate bowls and discharge
case to support the shaft. The discharge case connects the pump to the bottom of the column
pipe.

Understanding Pump Drivers

A variety of drivers may be used; however, electric motors are most common. For the purposes
of this manual all types of drivers supplied will be hollow shaft. On a hollow shaft driver the
headshaft extends through a tube in the center of the rotor and is connected to the driver by a
coupling assembly at the top of the driver.

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The parts in the driver section can consist of the following:
• Motor (Driver)
• Coupling
• Motor adapter
• Belts
• Gears
The driver section need not contain all of the items listed above. As a minimum, a driver (usually
a motor) is required. The coupling, belts and gears are power transmission devices that may or
may not be required with the pump.

A coupling is a power transmission device that is used to connect the motor (driver) shaft to the
power end shaft of the pump. The primary purpose of a coupling is to transmit rotary motion and
torque from the motor to the pump. Couplings often are required to perform other secondary
functions as well. These other functions include accommodating misalignment between shafts,
transmitting axial thrust loads from one machine to another, permitting adjustment of shafts to
compensate for wear and maintaining precise alignment between connected shafts. Many times
pumps use couplings installed with a spacer. A spacer coupling allows the pump to be
disassembled without moving piping, the pump casing or motor.

Understanding Discharge Head Assembly

Head Assembly
The discharge head supports the driver, column and bowl assembly as well as supplying a
discharge connection. A shaft sealing arrangement is located in the discharge head to seal the
shaft where it leaves the liquid chamber. The shaft seal will usually be a mechanical seal
assembly. However some applications require rope packing.

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Glossary
A
Absolute Pressure: The pressure above zone absolute, i.e. the sum of atmospheric and gauge
pressure. In vacuum related work it is usually expressed in millimeters of mercury. (mmHg).

Aerodynamics: The study of the flow of gases. The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas
the change in density is directly related to the change in temperature and pressure as
expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.

Aeronautics: The mathematics and mechanics of flying objects, in particular airplanes.

Air Break: A physical separation which may be a low inlet into the indirect waste receptor from
the fixture, or device that is indirectly connected. You will most likely find an air break on waste
fixtures or on non-potable lines. You should never allow an air break on an ice machine.

Air Gap Separation: A physical separation space that is present between the discharge vessel
and the receiving vessel, for an example, a kitchen faucet.

Altitude-Control Valve: If an overflow occurs on a storage tank, the operator should first check
the altitude-control valve. Altitude-Control Valve is designed to, 1. Prevent overflows from the
storage tank or reservoir, or 2. Maintain a constant water level as long as water pressure in the
distribution system is adequate.

Angular Motion Formulas: Angular velocity can be expressed as (angular velocity = constant):

ω = θ / t (2a)

where
ω= angular velocity (rad/s)
θ = angular displacement (rad)
t = time (s)

Angular velocity can be expressed as (angular acceleration = constant):

ω = ωo + α t (2b)

where
ωo = angular velocity at time zero (rad/s)
α = angular acceleration (rad/s2)

Angular displacement can be expressed as (angular acceleration = constant):

θ = ωo t + 1/2 α t2 (2c)

Combining 2a and 2c:

ω = (ωo2 + 2 α θ)1/2

Angular acceleration can be expressed as:

α = dω / dt = d2θ / dt2 (2d)

where
dθ = change of angular displacement (rad)
dt = change in time (s)

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Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by the atmosphere at any specific location. (Sea level
pressure is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute, 1 bar = 14.5psi.)

B
Backflow Prevention: To stop or prevent the occurrence of, the unnatural act of reversing the
normal direction of the flow of liquid, gases, or solid substances back in to the public potable
(drinking) water supply. See Cross-connection control.

Backflow: To reverse the natural and normal directional flow of a liquid, gases, or solid
substances back in to the public potable (drinking) water supply. This is normally an
undesirable effect.

Backsiphonage: A liquid substance that is carried over a higher point. It is the method by which
the liquid substance may be forced by excess pressure over or into a higher point. Is a
condition in which the pressure in the distribution system is less than atmospheric pressure. In
other words, something is “sucked” into the system because the main is under a vacuum.

Bernoulli's Equation: Describes the behavior of moving fluids along a streamline. The
Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy principle
appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term
"Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity is
increased. This lowering of pressure in a constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive,
but seems less so when you consider pressure to be energy density. In the high velocity flow
through the constriction, kinetic energy must increase at the expense of pressure energy.

A special form of the Euler’s equation derived along a fluid flow streamline is often called the
Bernoulli Equation.

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For steady state incompressible flow the Euler equation becomes (1). If we integrate (1) along
the streamline it becomes (2). (2) can further be modified to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow: Equation (3) is often referred to as the head because all elements have the unit
of length.

Bernoulli's Equation Continued:

Dynamic Pressure
(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for steady state incompressible flow. If we
assume that the gravitational body force is negligible, (3) can be written as (4). Both elements in
the equation have the unit of pressure and it's common to refer the flow velocity component as
the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow (5).

Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4) can be expressed as (6). Using the
equation we see that increasing the velocity of the flow will reduce the pressure, decreasing the
velocity will increase the pressure.

This phenomena can be observed in a venturi meter where the pressure is reduced in the
constriction area and regained after. It can also be observed in a pitot tube where the
stagnation pressure is measured. The stagnation pressure is where the velocity component is
zero.

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Bernoulli's Equation Continued:
Pressurized Tank
If the tanks are pressurized so that product of gravity and height (g h) is much less than the
pressure difference divided by the density, (e4) can be transformed to (e6).
The velocity out from the tanks depends mostly on the pressure difference.

Example - outlet velocity from a pressurized tank

The outlet velocity of a pressurized tank where

p1 = 0.2 MN/m2, p2 = 0.1 MN/m2 A2/A1 = 0.01, h = 10 m

can be calculated as
V2 = [(2/(1-(0.01)2) ( (0.2 - 0.1)x106 /1x103 + 9.81 x 10)]1/2 = 19.9 m/s

Coefficient of Discharge - Friction Coefficient

Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat lower than this theoretical example. If we
introduce a friction coefficient c (coefficient of discharge), (e5) can be expressed as (e5b).
The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it
may be as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may be between 0.95 and 1.

Bingham Plastic Fluids: Bingham Plastic Fluids have a yield value which must be exceeded
before it will start to flow like a fluid. From that point the viscosity will decrease with increase of
agitation. Toothpaste, mayonnaise and tomato catsup are examples of such products.

Boundary Layer: The layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface.

Bulk Modulus and Fluid Elasticity: An introduction to and a definition of the Bulk Modulus
Elasticity commonly used to characterize the compressibility of fluids.

The Bulk Modulus Elasticity can be expressed as

E = - dp / (dV / V) (1)

where
E = bulk modulus elasticity
dp = differential change in pressure on the object
dV = differential change in volume of the object
V = initial volume of the object

The Bulk Modulus Elasticity can be alternatively expressed as

E = - dp / (dρ / ρ) (2)

where
dρ = differential change in density of the object
ρ = initial density of the object

An increase in the pressure will decrease the volume (1). A decrease in the volume will increase
the density (2).
 The SI unit of the bulk modulus elasticity is N/m2 (Pa)
 The imperial (BG) unit is lbf/in2 (psi)

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 1 lbf/in2 (psi) = 6.894 103 N/m2 (Pa)

A large Bulk Modulus indicates a relatively incompressible fluid.

Bulk Modulus for some common fluids can be found in the table below:
Imperial Units -
SI Units
Bulk Modulus - E BG
2 5 (Pa, N/m2) x 109
(psi, lbf/in ) x 10
Carbon
1.91 1.31
Tetrachloride
Ethyl Alcohol 1.54 1.06
Gasoline 1.9 1.3
Glycerin 6.56 4.52
Mercury 4.14 2.85
SAE 30 Oil 2.2 1.5
Seawater 3.39 2.35
Water 3.12 2.15

C
Capillarity: (or capillary action) The ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the
force of gravity.

The height of liquid in a tube due to capillarity can be expressed as

h = 2 σ cosθ / (ρ g r) (1)

where
h = height of liquid (ft, m)
σ = surface tension (lb/ft, N/m)
θ = contact angle
ρ = density of liquid (lb/ft3, kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/s2, 9.81 m/s2)
r = radius of tube (ft, m)

Cauchy Number: A dimensionless value useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems
where compressibility is a significant factor.
The Cauchy Number is the ratio between inertial and the compressibility force in a flow and can
be expressed as
C = ρ v2 / E (1)

where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
E = bulk modulus elasticity (N/m2)
The bulk modulus elasticity has the dimension pressure and is commonly used to characterize
the compressibility of a fluid.

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The Cauchy Number is the square root of the Mach Number
M2 = Ca (3)

where
C = Mach Number

Cavitation: Under the wrong condition, cavitation will reduce the components life time
dramatically. Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below
the vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature. According to the Bernoulli Equation
this may happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump impeller. The
vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the vapor almost
immediately collapses after evaporation when the velocity is decreased and pressure increased.
Cavitation means that cavities are forming in the liquid that we are pumping. When these
cavities form at the suction of the pump several things happen all at once: We experience a loss
in capacity. We can no longer build the same head (pressure). The efficiency drops. The
cavities or bubbles will collapse when they pass into the higher regions of pressure causing
noise, vibration, and damage to many of the components. The cavities form for five basic
reasons and it is common practice to lump all of them into the general classification of
cavitation.

This is an error because we will learn that to correct each of these conditions we must
understand why they occur and how to fix them. Here they are in no particular order:
Vaporization, Air ingestion, Internal recirculation, Flow turbulence and finally the Vane Passing
Syndrome.

Avoiding Cavitation
Cavitation can in general be avoided by:
 increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor
pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature
This can be done by:
 reengineering components initiating high speed velocities and low static pressures
 increasing the total or local static pressure in the system
 reducing the temperature of the fluid

Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed Velocity and Low Static Pressure
Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the actual
rough conditions.
 Conditions such as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by Multi Stage
Control Valves
 Difficult pumping conditions - with fluid temperatures close to the vaporization temperature -
can be handled with a special pump - working after another principle than the centrifugal
pump.

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Cavitation Continued: Increasing the Total or Local Pressure in the System
By increasing the total or local pressure in the system, the distance between the static pressure
and the vaporization pressure is increased and vaporization and cavitation may be avoided.

The ratio between static pressure and the vaporization pressure, an indication of the possibility
of vaporization, is often expressed by the Cavitation Number. Unfortunately it may not always
be possible to increase the total static pressure due to system classifications or other limitations.
Local static pressure in the component may then be increased by lowering the component in the
system. Control valves and pumps should in general be positioned in the lowest part of the
system to maximize the static head. This is common for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot
condensate (water close to 100 oC) from a condensate receiver.

Cavitation Continued: Reducing the Temperature of the Fluid

The vaporization pressure is highly dependent on the fluid temperature. Water, our most
common fluid, is an example:
Temperature Vapor Pressure
(oC) (kN/m2)
0 0.6
5 0.9
10 1.2
15 1.7
20 2.3
25 3.2
30 4.3
35 5.6
40 7.7
45 9.6
50 12.5
55 15.7
60 20
65 25
70 32.1
75 38.6
80 47.5
85 57.8
90 70
95 84.5
100 101.33

As we can see - the possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the
water temperature.

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Cavitation can be avoided by locating the components in the coldest part of the system. For
example, it is common to locate the pumps in heating systems at the "cold" return lines. The
situation is the same for control valves. Where it is possible they should be located on the cold
side of heat exchangers.

Cavitations Number: A "special edition" of the dimensionless Euler Number.

The Cavitations Number is useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems where cavitations
may occur. The Cavitations Number can be expressed as

Ca = ( pr - pv ) / 1/2 ρ v2 (1)

where
Ca = Cavitations number
pr = reference pressure
(Pa)
pv = vapor pressure of the
fluid (Pa)
ρ = density of the fluid
3
(kg/m )
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)

Centrifugal Pump: A pump

consisting of an impeller fixed on a
rotating shaft and enclosed in a
casing, having an inlet and a
discharge connection. The rotating
impeller creates pressure in the
liquid by the velocity derived from
centrifugal force.

Chezy Formula: Conduits flow

and mean velocity. The Chezy
formula can be used to calculate mean flow velocity in conduits and is expressed as

v = c (R S)1/2 (1)

where
v = mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
c = the Chezy roughness and conduit coefficient
R = hydraulic radius of the conduit (m, ft)
S = slope of the conduit (m/m, ft/ft)

In general the Chezy coefficient - c - is a function of the flow Reynolds Number - Re - and the
relative roughness - ε/R - of the channel.
ε is the characteristic height of the roughness elements on the channel boundary.

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Coanda Effect: The tendency of a stream of fluid to stay attached to a convex surface, rather
than follow a straight line in its original direction.

Colebrook Equation: The friction coefficients used to calculate pressure loss (or major loss) in
ducts, tubes and pipes can be calculated with the Colebrook equation.

1 / λ1/2 = -2 log ( (2.51 / (Re λ1/2) ) + ( (k / dh) / 3.72) ) (1)

where
λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
Re = Reynolds Number
k = roughness of duct, pipe or tube surface (m, ft)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)

The Colebrook equation is only valid at turbulent flow conditions.

Note that the friction coefficient is involved on both sides of the equation and that the equation
must be solved by iteration.

The Colebrook equation is generic and can be used to calculate the friction coefficients in
different kinds of fluid flows - air ventilation ducts, pipes and tubes with water or oil, compressed
air and much more.

Common Pressure Measuring Devices: The Strain Gauge is a common measuring device used
for a variety of changes such as head. As the pressure in the system changes, the diaphragm
expands which changes the length of the wire attached. This change of length of the wire
changes the Resistance of the wire, which is then converted to head. Float mechanisms,
diaphragm elements, bubbler tubes, and direct electronic sensors are common types of level
sensors.

Compressible Flow: We know that fluids are classified as Incompressible and Compressible
fluids. Incompressible fluids do not undergo significant changes in density as they flow. In
general, liquids are incompressible; water being an excellent example. In contrast compressible
fluids do undergo density changes. Gases are generally compressible; air being the most
common compressible fluid we can find. Compressibility of gases leads to many interesting
features such as shocks, which are absent for incompressible fluids. Gas dynamics is the
discipline that studies the flow of compressible fluids and forms an important branch of Fluid
Mechanics. In this book we give a broad introduction to the basics of compressible fluid flow.

In a compressible flow the compressibility of the fluid must be taken into account. The Ideal Gas
Law - For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change in
temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law. Properties of Gas Mixtures -
Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass,
the individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The
Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Compression and Expansion of Gases: If the compression or expansion takes place under
constant temperature conditions - the process is called isothermal. The isothermal process can
on the basis of the Ideal Gas Law be expressed as:

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 p / ρ = constant (1)

where
p = absolute pressure
ρ = density

Confined Space Entry: Entry into a confined space requires that all entrants wear a harness
and safety line. If an operator is working inside a storage tank and suddenly faints or has a
serious problem, there should be two people outside standing by to remove the injured operator.

Conservation Laws: The conservation laws states that particular measurable properties of an
isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves: Conservation of energy
(including mass). Fluid Mechanics and Conservation of Mass - The law of conservation of mass
states that mass can neither be created or destroyed.

Contaminant: Any natural or man-made physical, chemical, biological, or radiological

substance or matter in water, which is at a level that may have an adverse effect on public
health, and which is known or anticipated to occur in public water systems.

Contamination: To make something bad; to pollute or infect something. To reduce the quality
of the potable (drinking) water and create an actual hazard to the water supply by poisoning or
through spread of diseases.

Corrosion: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete surfaces in a
destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or excessive water
velocity through piping or heat exchangers.

Cross-Contamination: The mixing of two unlike qualities of water. For example, the mixing of
good water with a polluting substance like a chemical.

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D
Darcy-Weisbach Equation: The pressure loss (or major loss) in a pipe, tube or duct can be
expressed with the D'Arcy-Weisbach equation:

∆p = λ (l / dh) (ρ v2 / 2) (1)

where
∆p = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2, lbf/ft2)
λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
l = length of duct or pipe (m, ft)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)

Note! Be aware that there are two alternative friction coefficients present in the literature. One is
1/4 of the other and (1) must be multiplied with four to achieve the correct result. This is
important to verify when selecting friction coefficients from Moody diagrams.

Density: Is a physical property of matter, as each element and compound has a unique density
associated with it.

Density defined in a qualitative manner as the measure of the relative "heaviness" of objects
with a constant volume. For example: A rock is obviously more dense than a crumpled piece of
paper of the same size. A Styrofoam cup is less dense than a ceramic cup. Density may also
refer to how closely "packed" or "crowded" the material appears to be - again refer to the
Styrofoam vs. ceramic cup. Take a look at the two boxes below.

Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the same mass, which box would weigh
more? Why?

The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume. This property of matter is called
density. The density of a material helps to distinguish it from other materials. Since mass is
usually expressed in grams and volume in cubic centimeters, density is expressed in
grams/cubic centimeter. We can calculate density using the formula:

Density= Mass/Volume

The density can be expressed as

ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (1)

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 where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)

The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people
often use pounds per cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a
measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by
32.2 for a rough value in pounds. The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed
inside the substance. Density is a physical property constant at a given temperature and density
can help to identify a substance.

Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:

An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml. (milliliter).

The density can be calculated as

ρ = [18.5 (g) / 1000 (g/kg)] / [23.4 (ml) / 1000 (ml/l) 1000 (l/m3) ]
= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)
= 790 kg/m3

If we look up densities of some common substances, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol,
has a density of 790 kg/m3. Our unknown liquid may likely be ethyl alcohol!

Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume

The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 . Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!

m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3)

= 766.2 kg

Dilatant Fluids: Shear Thickening Fluids or Dilatant Fluids increase their viscosity with
agitation. Some of these liquids can become almost solid within a pump or pipe line. With
agitation, cream becomes butter and Candy compounds, clay slurries and similar heavily filled
liquids do the same thing.

Disinfect: To kill and inhibit growth of harmful bacterial and viruses in drinking water.

Disinfection: The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, and other parasites.

Distribution System Water Quality: Can be adversely affected by improperly constructed or

poorly located blowoffs of vacuum/air relief valves. Air relief valves in the distribution system
lines must be placed in locations that cannot be flooded. This is to prevent water contamination.
The common customer complaint of Milky Water or Entrained Air is sometimes solved by the
installation of air relief valves. The venting of air is not a major concern when checking water
levels in a storage tank. If the vent line on a ground level storage tank is closed or clogged up,
a vacuum will develop in the tank may happen to the tank when the water level begins to lower.

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Drag Coefficient: Used to express the drag of an object in moving fluid. Any object moving
through a fluid will experience a drag - the net force in direction of flow due to the pressure and
shear stress forces on the surface of the object.

The drag force can be expressed as:

Fd = cd 1/2 ρ v2 A (1)

where
Fd = drag force (N)
cd = drag coefficient
ρ = density of fluid
v = flow velocity
A = characteristic frontal area of the body

The drag coefficient is a function of several parameters as shape of the body, Reynolds Number
for the flow, Froude number, Mach Number and Roughness of the Surface.
The characteristic frontal area - A - depends on the body.

Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis
of liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance
to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive or frictional properties of a fluid. The
resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide by
another.

Dynamic Pressure: Dynamic pressure is the component of fluid pressure that represents a
fluids kinetic energy. The dynamic pressure is a defined property of a moving flow of gas or
liquid and can be expressed as

pd = 1/2 ρ v2 (1)

where
pd = dynamic pressure (Pa)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
v = velocity (m/s)

Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is an important property
in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. The viscosity is the fluid
resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive or frictional fluid property.
The resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to
slide by another.

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.

The knowledge of viscosity is needed for proper design of required temperatures for storage,
pumping or injection of fluids.

Common used units for viscosity are

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 CentiPoises (cp) = CentiStokes (cSt) × Density
 SSU1 = Centistokes (cSt) × 4.55
 Degree Engler1 × 7.45 = Centistokes (cSt)
 Seconds Redwood1 × 0.2469 = Centistokes (cSt)
1
centistokes greater than 50

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity - known as dynamic (or absolute) and
kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity: The tangential force per unit area required to move one
horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart
by the fluid. The shearing stress between the layers of non-turbulent fluid moving in straight
parallel lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as:

The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like

τ = μ dc/dy (1)

where
τ = shearing stress
μ = dynamic viscosity

Equation (1) is known as the Newton’s Law of Friction.

In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s or kg/m s where
 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m s
The dynamic viscosity is also often expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second)
system as g/cm.s, dyne.s/cm2 or poise (p) where
 1 poise = dyne s/cm2 = g/cm s = 1/10 Pa s

For practical use the Poise is to large and its usual divided by 100 into the smaller unit called
the centiPoise (cP) where
 1 p = 100 cP

Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

E
E. Coli, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water
quality analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered
evidence of water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but
do not necessarily cause disease themselves.

Elevation Head: The energy possessed per unit weight of a fluid because of its elevation. 1
foot of water will produce .433 pounds of pressure head.

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Energy: The ability to do work. Energy can exist in one of several forms, such as heat, light,
mechanical, electrical, or chemical. Energy can be transferred to different forms. It also can
exist in one of two states, either potential or kinetic.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line: The hydraulic grade and the energy line are graphical
forms of the Bernoulli equation. For steady, in viscid, incompressible flow the total energy
remains constant along a stream line as expressed through the Bernoulli

Equation:
p + 1/2 ρ v2 + γ h = constant along a streamline (1)

where
p = static pressure (relative to the moving fluid)
ρ = density
γ = specific weight
v = flow velocity
g = acceleration of gravity
h = elevation height
Each term of this equation has the dimension force per unit area - psi, lb/ft2 or N/m2.

The Head
By dividing each term with the specific weight - γ = ρ g - (1) can be transformed to express the
"head":
p / γ + v2 / 2 g + h = constant along a streamline = H (2)
where
H = the total head

Each term of this equation has the dimension length - ft, m.

The Total Head

(2) states that the sum of pressure head - p / γ -, velocity head - v2 / 2 g - and elevation head
- h - is constant along the stream line. This constant can be called the total head - H -.

The total head in a flow can be measured by the stagnation pressure using a pitot tube.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line Continued:

The Piezometric Head
The sum of pressure head - p / γ - and elevation head - h - is called the piezometric head. The
piezometric head in a flow can be measured through an flat opening parallel to the flow.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line Continued:

The Energy Line
The Energy Line is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid and can be
expressed as:

EL = H = p / γ + v2 / 2 g + h = constant along a streamline (3)

where
EL = Energy Line

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For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses) or components (minor losses)
the energy line would be at a constant level. In the practical world the energy line decreases
along the flow due to the losses.

A turbine in the flow will reduce the energy line and a pump or fan will increase the energy line.

The Hydraulic Grade Line

The Hydraulic Grade Line is a line that represent the total head available to the fluid minus the
velocity head and can be expressed as:

HGL = p / γ + h (4)

where
HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line

The hydraulic grade line lies one velocity head below the energy line.

Entrance Length and Developed Flow: Fluids need some length to develop the velocity profile
after entering the pipe or after passing through components such as bends, valves, pumps, and
turbines or similar.

The Entrance Length: The entrance length can be expressed with the dimensionless Entrance
Length Number:

El = le / d (1)

where
El = Entrance Length Number
le = length to fully developed velocity profile
d = tube or duct diameter

The Entrance Length Number for Laminar Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for laminar flow can be
expressed as:

Ellaminar = 0.06 Re (2)

where
Re = Reynolds Number

The Entrance Length Number for Turbulent Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for turbulent flow can be
expressed as:

Elturbulent = 4.4 Re1/6 (3)

Entropy in Compressible Gas Flow: Calculating entropy in compressible gas flow

Entropy change in compressible gas flow can be expressed as

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 ds = cv ln(T2 / T1) + R ln(ρ1 / ρ2) (1)
or
ds = cp ln(T2 / T1) - R ln(p2 / p1) (2)

where
ds = entropy change
cv = specific heat capacity at a constant volume process
cp = specific heat capacity at a constant pressure process
T = absolute temperature
R = individual gas constant
ρ = density of gas
p = absolute pressure

Equation of Continuity: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass can be neither
created nor destroyed. Using the Mass Conservation Law on a steady flow process - flow
where the flow rate doesn't change over time - through a control volume where the stored mass
in the control volume doesn't change - implements that inflow equals outflow. This statement is
called the Equation of Continuity. Common application where the Equation of Continuity
can be used are pipes, tubes and ducts with flowing fluids and gases, rivers, overall processes
as power plants, diaries, logistics in general, roads, computer networks and semiconductor
technology and more.

The Equation of Continuity and can be expressed as:

m = ρi1 vi1 Ai1 + ρi2 vi2 Ai2 +..+ ρin vin Aim
= ρo1 vo1 Ao1 + ρo2 vo2 Ao2 +..+ ρom vom Aom (1)

where
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
v = speed (m/s)
A = area (m2)
With uniform density equation (1) can be modified to
q = vi1 Ai1 + vi2 Ai2 +..+ vin Aim
= vo1 Ao1 + vo2 Ao2 +..+ vom Aom (2)

where
q = flow rate (m3/s)
ρi1 = ρi2 = . . = ρin = ρo1 = ρo2 = . .= ρom

Example - Equation of Continuity

10 m3/h of water flows through a pipe of 100 mm inside diameter. The pipe is reduced to an
inside dimension of 80 mm. Using equation (2) the velocity in the 100 mm pipe can be
calculated as
(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v100 (3.14 x 0.1 (m) x 0.1 (m) / 4)
or
v100 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 x 0.1 (m) x 0.1 (m) / 4)
= 0.35 m/s
Using equation (2) the velocity in the 80 mm pipe can be calculated
(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v80 (3.14 x 0.08 (m) x 0.08 (m) / 4)

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 or
v100 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 x 0.08 (m) x 0.08 (m) / 4)
= 0.55 m/s

Equation of Mechanical Energy: The Energy Equation is a statement of the first law of
thermodynamics. The energy equation involves energy, heat transfer and work. With certain
limitations the mechanical energy equation can be compared to the Bernoulli Equation and
transferred to the Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Mass.

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan can be written in terms of energy per
unit mass:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin + wshaft = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wloss (1)

where
p = static pressure
ρ = density
v = flow velocity
g = acceleration of gravity
h = elevation height
wshaft = net shaft energy inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar
wloss = loss due to friction
The energy equation is often used for incompressible flow problems and is called the
Mechanical Energy Equation or the Extended Bernoulli Equation.

The mechanical energy equation for a turbine can be written as:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wshaft + wloss (2)

where
wshaft = net shaft energy out per unit mass for a turbine or similar

Equation (1) and (2) dimensions are

energy per unit mass (ft2/s2 = ft lb/slug or m2/s2 = N m/kg)

Efficiency
According to (1) a larger amount of loss - wloss - result in more shaft work required for the same
rise of output energy. The efficiency of a pump or fan process can be expressed as:

η = (wshaft - wloss) / wshaft (3)

The efficiency of a turbine process can be expressed as:

η = wshaft/ (wshaft + wloss) (4)

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Volume

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy
per unit volume by multiplying (1) with fluid density - ρ:

pin + ρ vin2 / 2 + γ hin + ρ wshaft = pout + ρ vout2 / 2 + γ hout + wloss (5)

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 where
γ = ρ g = specific weight

The dimensions of equation (5) are

energy per unit volume (ft.lb/ft3 = lb/ft2 or N.m/m3 = N/m2)

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight involves Heads
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy
per unit weight by dividing with gravity - g:

pin / γ + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / γ + vout2 / 2 g + hout + hloss (6)

where
γ = ρ g = specific weight
hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar
hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction

The dimensions of equation (6) are

energy per unit weight (ft.lb/lb = ft or N.m/N = m)

Head is the energy per unit weight.

hshaft can also be expressed as:

hshaft = wshaft / g = Wshaft / m g = Wshaft / γ Q (7)

where
Wshaft = shaft power
m = mass flow rate
Q = volume flow rate

Example - Pumping Water

Water is pumped from an open tank at level zero to an open tank at level 10 ft. The pump adds
four horsepowers to the water when pumping 2 ft3/s.
Since vin = vout = 0, pin = pout = 0 and hin = 0 - equation (6) can be modified to:

hshaft = hout + hloss

or
hloss = hshaft - hout (8)

Equation (7) gives:

hshaft = Wshaft / γ Q = (4 hp)(550 ft.lb/s/hp) / (62.4 lb/ft3)(2 ft3/s) = 17.6 ft

 specific weight of water 62.4 lb/ft3
 1 hp (English horse power) = 550 ft. lb/s

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Combined with (8):
hloss = (17.6 ft ) - (10 ft) = 7.6 ft

The pump efficiency can be calculated from (3) modified for head:
η = ((17.6 ft) - (7.6 ft)) / (17.6 ft)= 0.58

Equations in Fluid Mechanics: Common fluid mechanics equations - Bernoulli, conservation

of energy, conservation of mass, pressure, Navier-Stokes, ideal gas law, Euler equations,
Laplace equations, Darcy-Weisbach Equation and the following:
The Bernoulli Equation
 The Bernoulli Equation - A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for
solving problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the
sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point.
Conservation laws
 The conservation laws states that particular measurable properties of an isolated physical
system does not change as the system evolves.
 Conservation of energy (including mass)
 Fluid Mechanics and Conservation of Mass - The law of conservation of mass states that
mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
 The Continuity Equation - The Continuity Equation is a statement that mass is conserved.
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
 Pressure Loss and Head Loss due to Friction in Ducts and Tubes - Major loss - head loss or
pressure loss - due to friction in pipes and ducts.
Euler Equations
 In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible, inviscid fluid.
They correspond to the Navier-Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they are
usually written in the form shown here because this emphasizes the fact that they directly
represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.
Laplace's Equation
 The Laplace Equation describes the behavior of gravitational, electric, and fluid potentials.
Ideal Gas Law
 The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas, the change in density is directly related to
the change in temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.
 Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the
ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the individual gas constant or the density.
 The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The Individual and Universal Gas Constant is
common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
Navier-Stokes Equations
 The motion of a non-turbulent, Newtonian fluid is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations.
The equation can be used to model turbulent flow, where the fluid parameters are
interpreted as time-averaged values.
Mechanical Energy Equation
 The Mechanical Energy Equation - The mechanical energy equation in Terms of Energy per
Unit Mass, in Terms of Energy per Unit Volume and in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight
involves Heads.

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Pressure
 Static Pressure and Pressure Head in a Fluid - Pressure and pressure head in a static fluid.

Euler Equations: In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible,
inviscid fluid. They correspond to the Navier-Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they
are usually written in the form shown here because this emphasizes the fact that they directly
represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.

Euler Number: The Euler numbers, also called the secant numbers or zig numbers, are defined
for by

where the hyperbolic secant and sec is the secant. Euler numbers give the number of
odd alternating permutations and are related to Genocchi numbers. The base e of the natural
logarithm is sometimes known as Euler's number. A different sort of Euler number, the Euler
number of a finite complex , is defined by

This Euler number is a topological invariant. To confuse matters further, the Euler characteristic
is sometimes also called the "Euler number," and numbers produced by the prime-generating
polynomial are sometimes called "Euler numbers" (Flannery and Flannery 2000, p.
47).

F
Fecal Coliform: A group of bacteria that may indicate the presence of human or animal fecal
matter in water.

Filtration: A series of processes that physically remove particles from water.

Flood Rim: The point of an object where the water would run over the edge of something and
begin to cause a flood. See Air Break.

Fluids: A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress regardless of the magnitude of the applied stress. It is a subset of the phases of
matter and includes liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. Fluids are also
divided into liquids and gases. Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by their
container) while gases do not.

The distinction between solids and fluids is not so obvious. The distinction is made by
evaluating the viscosity of the matter: for example silly putty can be considered either a solid or
a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed. Fluids share the properties of
not resisting deformation and the ability to flow (also described as their ability to take on the
shape of their containers).

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These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static
equilibrium. While in a solid, stress is a function of strain, in a fluid, stress is a function of rate of
strain. A consequence of this behavior is Pascal's law which entails the important role of
pressure in characterizing a fluid's state. Based on how the stress depends on the rate of strain
and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as: Newtonian fluids: where stress is directly
proportional to rate of strain, and Non-Newtonian fluids : where stress is proportional to rate of
strain, its higher powers and derivatives (basically everything other than Newtonian fluid).

The behavior of fluids can be described by a set of partial differential equations, which are
based on the conservation of mass, linear and angular momentum (Navier-Stokes equations)
and energy. The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is subdivided into fluid dynamics and
fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion or not. Fluid Related Information: The
Bernoulli Equation - A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for solving
problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of
pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point. Equations in
Fluid Mechanics - Continuity, Euler, Bernoulli, Dynamic and Total Pressure. Laminar,
Transitional or Turbulent Flow? - It is important to know if the fluid flow is laminar, transitional or
turbulent when calculating heat transfer or pressure and head loss.

Friction Head: The head required to overcome the friction at the interior surface of a conductor
and between fluid particles in motion. It varies with flow, size, type and conditions of conductors
and fittings, and the fluid characteristics.

G
Gas: A gas is one of the four major phases of matter (after solid and liquid, and followed by
plasma) that subsequently appear as solid material when they are subjected to increasingly
higher temperatures. Thus, as energy in the form of heat is added, a solid (e.g., ice) will first
melt to become a liquid (e.g., water), which will then boil or evaporate to become a gas (e.g.,
water vapor). In some circumstances, a solid (e.g., "dry ice") can directly turn into a gas: this is
called sublimation. If the gas is further heated, its atoms or molecules can become (wholly or
partially) ionized, turning the gas into a plasma. Relater Gas Information: The Ideal Gas Law -
For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change in temperature
and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law. Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care
must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the
individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The
Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Gauge Pressure: Pressure differential above or below ambient atmospheric pressure.

H
Hazardous Atmosphere: An atmosphere which by reason of being explosive, flammable,
poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen deficient, toxic, or otherwise harmful, may
cause death, illness, or injury.

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Hazen-Williams Factor: Hazen-Williams factor for some common piping materials. Hazen-
Williams coefficients are used in the Hazen-Williams equation for friction loss calculation in
ducts and pipes.

Hazen-Williams Equation - Calculating Friction Head Loss in Water Pipes

Friction head loss (ft H2O per 100 ft pipe) in water pipes can be obtained by using the empirical
Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy-Weisbach equation with the Moody diagram are
considered to be the most accurate model for estimating frictional head loss in steady pipe flow.
Since the approach requires a not so efficient trial and error solution, an alternative empirical
head loss calculation that does not require the trial and error solutions, as the Hazen-Williams
equation, may be preferred:

f = 0.2083 (100/c)1.852 q1.852 / dh4.8655 (1)

where
f = friction head loss in feet of water per 100 feet of pipe (fth20/100 ft pipe)
c = Hazen-Williams roughness constant
q = volume flow (gal/min)
dh = inside hydraulic diameter (inches)

Note that the Hazen-Williams formula is empirical and lacks physical basis. Be aware that the
roughness constants are based on "normal" condition with approximately 1 m/s (3 ft/sec).

The Hazen-Williams formula is not the only empirical formula available. Manning's formula is
common for gravity driven flows in open channels.

The flow velocity may be calculated as:

v = 0.4087 q / dh2

where
v = flow velocity (ft/s)

The Hazen-Williams formula can be assumed to be relatively accurate for piping systems where
the Reynolds Number is above 105 (turbulent flow).
 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m
 1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm
 1 gal (US)/min =6.30888x10-5 m3/s = 0.0227 m3/h = 0.0631 dm3(liter)/s = 2.228x10-3 ft3/s =
0.1337 ft3/min = 0.8327 Imperial gal (UK)/min

Note! The Hazen-Williams formula gives accurate head loss due to friction for fluids with
kinematic viscosity of approximately 1.1 cSt. More about fluids and kinematic viscosity.

The results for the formula are acceptable for cold water at 60o F (15.6o C) with kinematic
viscosity 1.13 cSt. For hot water with a lower kinematic viscosity (0.55 cSt at 130o F (54.4o C))
the error will be significant. Since the Hazen Williams method is only valid for water flowing at
ordinary temperatures between 40 to 75o F, the Darcy Weisbach method should be used for
other liquids or gases.

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Head: The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point expressed in linear units. Head
if often used to indicate gauge pressure. Pressure is equal to the height times the density of the
liquid. The measure of the pressure of water expressed in feet of height of water. 1 psi = 2.31 feet
of water. There are various types of heads of water depending upon what is being measured.
Static (water at rest) and Residual (water at flow conditions).

Hydraulics: Hydraulics is a branch of science and engineering concerned with the use of
liquids to perform mechanical tasks.

Hydrodynamics: Hydrodynamics is the fluid dynamics applied to liquids, such as water,

alcohol, and oil.

I
Ideal Gas: The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly
related to the change in temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.
Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal
gas law, calculating the mass, the individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and
Universal Gas Constant - The Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid
mechanics and thermodynamics.

Isentropic Compression/Expansion Process: If the compression or expansion takes place

under constant volume conditions - the process is called isentropic. The isentropic process on
the basis of the Ideal Gas Law can be expressed as:

p / ρk = constant (2)

where
k = cp / cv - the ratio of specific heats - the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure - cp -
to the specific heat at constant volume - cv

Irrigation: Water that is especially furnished to help provide and sustain the life of growing
plants. It comes from ditches. It is sometimes treated with herbicides and pesticides to prevent
the growth of weeds and the development of bugs in a lawn and a garden.

K
Kinematic Viscosity: The ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in which
no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a
fluid with its mass density as

ν=μ/ρ (2)

where
ν = kinematic viscosity
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity
ρ = density

In the SI-system the theoretical unit is m2/s or commonly used Stoke (St) where
 1 St = 10-4 m2/s

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Since the Stoke is an unpractical large unit, it is usual divided by 100 to give the unit called
Centistokes (cSt) where
1 St = 100 cSt
1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s

Since the specific gravity of water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) is almost one - 1, the kinematic viscosity of
water at 68.4oF is for all practical purposes 1.0 cSt.

Kinetic Energy: The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its motion. The energy terms
that are used to describe the operation of a pump are pressure and head.

Knudsen Number: Used by modelers who wish to express a non-dimensionless speed.

L
Laminar Flow: The resistance to flow in a liquid can be characterized in terms of the viscosity
of the fluid if the flow is smooth. In the case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is
a layer or lamina which moves with the plate, and a layer which is essentially stationary if it is
next to a stationary plate. There is a gradient of velocity as you move from the stationary to the
moving plate, and the liquid tends to move in layers with successively higher speed. This is
called laminar flow, or sometimes "streamlined" flow. Viscous resistance to flow can be modeled
for laminar flow, but if the lamina break up into turbulence, it is very difficult to characterize the
fluid flow.

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The common application of laminar flow would be in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through
a tube or pipe. In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a maximum
along the centerline of the vessel. The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be calculated by
dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to them. Laminar,
Transitional or Turbulent Flow? - It is important to know if the fluid flow is laminar, transitional or
turbulent when calculating heat transfer or pressure and head loss.

Laplace's Equation: Describes the behavior of gravitational, electric, and fluid potentials.

The scalar form of Laplace's equation is the partial differential equation

(1)
where is the Laplacian.
Note that the operator is commonly written as by mathematicians (Krantz 1999, p. 16).
Laplace's equation is a special case of the Helmholtz differential equation
(2)

with , or Poisson's equation

(3)
with .

The vector Laplace's equation is given by

(4)

A function which satisfies Laplace's equation is said to be harmonic. A solution to Laplace's

equation has the property that the average value over a spherical surface is equal to the value
at the center of the sphere (Gauss's harmonic function theorem). Solutions have no local
maxima or minima. Because Laplace's equation is linear, the superposition of any two solutions
is also a solution.

Lift (Force): Lift consists of the sum of all the aerodynamic forces normal to the direction of the
external airflow.

Liquids: An in-between state of matter. They can be found in between the solid and gas states.
They don't have to be made up of the same compounds. If you have a variety of materials in a
liquid, it is called a solution. One characteristic of a liquid is that it will fill up the shape of a
container. If you pour some water in a cup, it will fill up the bottom of the cup first and then fill
the rest. The water will also take the shape of
the cup. It fills the bottom first because of
gravity. The top part of a liquid will usually
have a flat surface. That flat surface is because
of gravity too. Putting an ice cube (solid) into a
cup will leave you with a cube in the middle of
the cup; the shape won't change until the ice
becomes a liquid.

Another trait of liquids is that they are difficult to

compress.

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When you compress something, you take a certain amount and force it into a smaller space.
Solids are very difficult to compress and gases are very easy. Liquids are in the middle but tend
to be difficult. When you compress something, you force the atoms closer together. When
pressure go up, substances are compressed. Liquids already have their atoms close together,
so they are hard to compress. Many shock absorbers in cars compress liquids in tubes.

A special force keeps liquids together. Solids are stuck together and you have to force them
apart. Gases bounce everywhere and they try to spread themselves out. Liquids actually want
to stick together. There will always be the occasional evaporation where extra energy gets a
molecule excited and the molecule leaves the system. Overall, liquids have cohesive (sticky)
forces at work that hold the molecules together. Related Liquid Information: Equations in Fluid
Mechanics - Continuity, Euler, Bernoulli, Dynamic and Total Pressure

M
Mach Number: When an object travels through a medium, then its Mach number is the ratio of
the object's speed to the speed of sound in that medium.

Magnetic Flow Meter: Inspection of magnetic flow meter instrumentation should include
checking for corrosion or insulation deterioration.

Manning Formula for Gravity Flow: Manning's equation can be used to calculate cross-
sectional average velocity flow in open channels

v = kn/n R2/3 S1/2 (1)

where
v = cross-sectional average velocity (ft/s, m/s)
kn = 1.486 for English units and kn = 1.0 for SI units
A = cross sectional area of flow (ft2, m2)
n = Manning coefficient of roughness
R = hydraulic radius (ft, m)
S = slope of pipe (ft/ft, m/m)

The volume flow in the channel can be calculated as

q = A v = A kn/n R2/3 S1/2 (2)

where
q = volume flow (ft3/s, m3/s)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2, m2)

Maximum Contamination Levels or (MCLs): The maximum allowable level of a contaminant

that federal or state regulations allow in a public water system. If the MCL is exceeded, the
water system must treat the water so that it meets the MCL. Or provide adequate backflow
protection.

Mechanical Seal: A mechanical device used to control leakage from the stuffing box of a pump.
Usually made of two flat surfaces, one of which rotates on the shaft. The two flat surfaces are of
such tolerances as to prevent the passage of water between them.

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Mg/L: milligrams per liter

Microbe, Microbial: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that causes
disease.

Microbial Contaminants: Microscopic organisms present in untreated water that can cause
waterborne diseases.

ML: milliliter

N
Navier-Stokes Equations: The motion of a non-turbulent, Newtonian fluid is governed by the
Navier-Stokes equation. The equation can be used to model turbulent flow, where the fluid
parameters are interpreted as time-averaged values.

Newtonian Fluid: Newtonian fluid (named for Isaac Newton) is a fluid that flows like water—its
shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of shear. The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity. Water is Newtonian,
because it continues to exemplify fluid properties no matter how fast it is stirred or mixed.

Contrast this with a non-Newtonian fluid, in which stirring can leave a "hole" behind (that
gradually fills up over time - this behavior is seen in materials such as pudding, or to a less
rigorous extent, sand), or cause the fluid to become thinner, the drop in viscosity causing it to
flow more (this is seen in non-drip paints). For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition,
depends only on temperature and pressure (and also the chemical composition of the fluid if the
fluid is not a pure substance), not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible and
viscosity is constant across the fluid, the equation governing the shear stress. Related
Newtonian Information: A Fluid is Newtonian if viscosity is constant applied to shear force.
Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity - An introduction to dynamic, absolute and
kinematic viscosity and how to convert between CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler.

Newton's Third Law: Newton's third law describes the forces acting on objects interacting with
each other. Newton's third law can be expressed as

 "If one object exerts a force F on another object, then the second object exerts an equal but
opposite force F on the first object"

Force is a convenient abstraction to represent mentally the pushing and pulling interaction
between objects.

It is common to express forces as vectors with magnitude, direction and point of application.
The net effect of two or more forces acting on the same point is the vector sum of the forces.

Non-Newtonian Fluid: Non-Newtonian fluid viscosity changes with the applied shear force.

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O
Oxidizing: The process of breaking down organic wastes into simpler elemental forms or by
products. Also used to separate combined chlorine and convert it into free chlorine.

P
Pascal’s Law: A pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal intensity
throughout the fluid.

Pathogens: Disease-causing pathogens; waterborne pathogens. A pathogen is a bacterium,

virus or parasite that causes or is capable of causing disease. Pathogens may contaminate
water and cause waterborne disease.
pCi/L- picocuries per liter: A curie is the amount of radiation released by a set amount of a
certain compound. A picocurie is one quadrillionth of a curie.

pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the mid-point
or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the point of greatest acid
activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the scale with 14 as the point of
greatest basic activity. pH (Power of Hydroxyl Ion Activity).

Pipeline Appurtenances: Pressure reducers, bends, valves, regulators (which are a type of
valve), etc.

Peak Demand: The maximum momentary load placed on a water treatment plant, pumping
station or distribution system is the Peak Demand.

Pipe Velocities: For calculating fluid pipe velocity.

Imperial units
A fluids flow velocity in pipes can be calculated with Imperial or American units as
v = 0.4085 q / d2 (1)

where
v = velocity (ft/s)
q = volume flow (US gal. /min)
d = pipe inside diameter (inches)

SI units
A fluids flow velocity in pipes can be calculated with SI units as
v = 1.274 q / d2 (2)

where
v = velocity (m/s)
q = volume flow (m3/s)
d = pipe inside diameter (m)

Pollution: To make something unclean or impure. Some states will have a definition of pollution
that relates to non-health related water problems, like taste and odors. See Contaminated.

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Positive Flow Report-back Signal: When a pump receives a signal to start, a light will
typically be illuminated on the control panel indicating that the pump is running. In order to be
sure that the pump is actually pumping water, a Positive flow report-back signal should be
installed on the control panel.

Potable: Good water which is safe for drinking or cooking purposes. Non-Potable: A liquid or
water that is not approved for drinking.

Potential Energy: The energy that a body has by virtue of its position or state enabling it to do
work.

PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.

Prandtl Number: The Prandtl Number is a dimensionless number approximating the ratio of
momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity and can be expressed as

Pr = v / α (1)
where
Pr = Prandtl's number
v = kinematic viscosity (Pa s)
α = thermal diffusivity (W/m K)

The Prandtl number can alternatively be expressed as

Pr = μ cp / k (2)

where
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (kg/m s, cP)
cp = specific heat capacity (J/kg K, Btu/(lb oF))
k = thermal conductivity (W/m K, Btu/(h ft2 oF/ft))
The Prandtl Number is often used in heat transfer and free and forced convection calculations.

Pressure: An introduction to pressure - the definition and presentation of common units as psi
and Pa and the relationship between them.

The pressure in a fluid is defined as

"the normal force per unit area exerted on an imaginary or real plane surface in a fluid or a gas"

The equation for pressure can expressed as:

p = F / A (1)

where
p = pressure [lb/in2 (psi) or lb/ft2 (psf), N/m2 or kg/ms2 (Pa)]
F = force [1), N]
A = area [in2 or ft2, m2]
1)
In the English Engineering System special care must be taken for the force unit. The basic
unit for mass is the pound mass (lbm) and the unit for the force is the pound (lb) or pound force
(lbf).

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Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure - pa - is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure
that would occur at absolute vacuum.

Gauge Pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the
surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure and can be
expressed as
pg = pa - po (2)

where
pg = gauge pressure
po = atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the surrounding air. It varies with temperature and
altitude above sea level.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

The Standard Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is used as a reference for gas densities and
volumes. The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273oK (0oC) and is
1.01325 bar or 101325 Pa (absolute). The temperature of 293oK (20oC) is also used.

In imperial units the Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 14.696 psi.

 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)= 760 mmHg =10.33 mH2O = 760 torr
= 29.92 in Hg = 1013 mbar = 1.0332 kgf/cm2 = 33.90 ftH2O

Pressure Head: The height to which liquid can be raised by a given pressure.

Pressure Regulation Valves: Control water pressure and operate by restricting flows. They
are used to deliver water from a high pressure to a low-pressure system. The pressure
downstream from the valve regulates the amount of flow. Usually, these valves are of the globe
design and have a spring-loaded diaphragm that sets the size of the opening.

Pressure Units: Since 1 Pa is a small pressure unit, the unit hectopascal (hPa) is widely used,
especially in meteorology. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is commonly used designing technical
applications like HVAC systems, piping systems and similar.
 1 hectopascal = 100 pascal = 1 millibar
 1 kilopascal = 1000 pascal
Some Pressure Levels
 10 Pa - The pressure at a depth of 1 mm of water
 1 kPa - Approximately the pressure exerted by a 10 g mass on a 1 cm2 area
 10 kPa - The pressure at a depth of 1 m of water, or
the drop in air pressure when going from sea level to 1000 m elevation
 10 MPa - A "high pressure" washer forces the water out of the nozzles at this pressure
 10 GPa - This pressure forms diamonds
Some Alternative Units of Pressure
 1 bar - 100,000 Pa
 1 millibar - 100 Pa

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 1 atmosphere - 101,325 Pa
 1 mm Hg - 133 Pa
 1 inch Hg - 3,386 Pa
A torr (torr) is named after Torricelli and is the pressure produced by a column of mercury 1 mm
high equals to 1/760th of an atmosphere. 1 atm = 760 torr = 14.696 psi

Pounds per square inch (psi) was common in U.K. but has now been replaced in almost every
country except in the U.S. by the SI units. The Normal atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi,
meaning that a column of air on one square inch in area rising from the Earth's atmosphere to
space weighs 14.696 pounds.

The bar (bar) is common in the industry. One bar is 100,000 Pa, and for most practical
purposes can be approximated to one atmosphere even if
1 Bar = 0.9869 atm

There are 1,000 millibar (mbar) in one bar, a unit common in meteorology.
1 millibar = 0.001 bar = 0.750 torr = 100 Pa

R
Residual Disinfection/Protection: A required level of disinfectant that remains in treated water
to ensure disinfection protection and prevent recontamination throughout the distribution system
(i.e., pipes).

Reynolds Number: The Reynolds number is used to determine whether a flow is laminar or
turbulent. The Reynolds Number is a non-dimensional parameter defined by the ratio of
dynamic pressure (ρ u2) and shearing stress (μ u / L) - and can be expressed as
Re = (ρ u2) / (μ u / L)
=ρuL/μ
= u L / ν (1)

where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3 )
u = velocity (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

Richardson Number: A dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of potential to kinetic
energy.

S
Sanitizer: A chemical which disinfects (kills bacteria), kills algae and oxidizes organic matter.

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Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS, SSU): Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS) is used to
measure viscosity. The efflux time is Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters
of a petroleum product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer,
under carefully controlled temperature and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This
method has largely been replaced by the kinematic viscosity method. Saybolt Universal
Seconds is also called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt
Seconds Furol).

Kinematic viscosity versus dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed as

ν = 4.63 μ / SG (3)
where
ν = kinematic viscosity (SSU)
μ = dynamic or absolute viscosity (cP)

Scale: Crust of calcium carbonate, the result of unbalanced pool water. Hard insoluble minerals
deposited (usually calcium bicarbonate) which forms on pool and spa surfaces and clog filters,
heaters and pumps. Scale is caused by high calcium hardness and/or high pH. You will often
find major scale deposits inside a backflow prevention assembly.

Shock: Also known as superchlorination or break point chlorination. Ridding a pool of organic
waste through oxidization by the addition of significant quantities of a halogen.

Shock Wave: A shock wave is a strong pressure wave produced by explosions or other
phenomena that create violent changes in pressure.

Solder: A fusible alloy used to join metallic parts. Solder for potable water pipes shall be lead-
free.

Sound Barrier: The sound barrier is the apparent physical boundary stopping large objects
from becoming supersonic.

Specific Gravity: The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of
density of the material to the density of water at a specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be
expressed as

SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)

where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)

It is common to use the density of water at 4o C (39oF) as a reference - at this point the density
of water is at the highest. Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the
metric SI system as in the imperial English system (BG). At the reference point the Specific
Gravity has same numerically value as density.

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Example - Specific Gravity
If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic millimeter, 7.85 kilograms per liter, or
7.85 metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron is:
SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3
= 7.85
(the density of water is 1000 kg/m3)

Specific Weight: Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
 Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the
difference between weight and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as

γ = ρ g (2)

where
γ = specific weight (kN/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are kN/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is
under normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.

Example - Specific Weight Water

Specific weight for water at 60 oF is 62.4 lb/ft3 in imperial units and 9.80 kN/m3 in SI-units.

Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials

Specific Weight - γ
Product Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.80

Static Head: The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point

Static Pressure: The pressure in a fluid at rest.

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids: The pressure indicates the normal force per
unit area at a given point acting on a given plane. Since there is no shearing stresses present in
a fluid at rest - the pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.

For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction depends only
on the specific weight of the fluid.

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How pressure changes with elevation can be expressed as
dp = - γ dz (1)

where
dp = change in pressure
dz = change in height
γ = specific weight

The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative - the pressure decrease upwards.

Specific Weight: Specific Weight can be expressed as:

γ = ρ g (2)

where
γ = specific weight
g = acceleration of gravity

In general the specific weight - γ - is constant for fluids. For gases the specific weight - γ - varies
with the elevation.

Static Pressure in a Fluid: For an incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure difference
between two elevations can be expressed as:

p2 - p1 = - γ (z2 - z1) (3)

where
p2 = pressure at level 2
p1 = pressure at level 1
z2 = level 2
z1 = level 1
(3) can be transformed to:
p1 - p2 = γ (z2 - z1) (4)
or
p1 - p2 = γ h (5)

where
h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the depth down from location z2.
or
p1 = γ h + p2 (6)

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids Continued:

The Pressure Head
(6) can be transformed to:
h = (p2 - p1) / γ (6)
h express the pressure head - the height of a column of fluid of specific weight - γ - required to
give a pressure difference of (p2 - p1).

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Example - Pressure Head
A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury
when specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).

Streamline - Stream Function: A streamline is the path that an imaginary particle would follow
if it was embedded in the flow.

Strouhal Number: A quantity describing oscillating flow mechanisms. The Strouhal Number is
a dimensionless value useful for analyzing oscillating, unsteady fluid flow dynamics problems.

The Strouhal Number can be expressed as

St = ω l / v (1)

where
St = Strouhal Number
ω = oscillation frequency
l = characteristic length
v = flow velocity

The Strouhal Number represents a measure of the ratio of inertial forces due to the
unsteadiness of the flow or local acceleration to the inertial forces due to changes in velocity
from one point to another in the flow field.

The vortices observed behind a stone in a river, or measured behind the obstruction in a vortex
flow meter, illustrate these principles.

Stuffing Box: That portion of the pump which houses the packing or mechanical seal.

Submerged: To cover with water or liquid substance.

Supersonic Flow: Flow with speed above the speed of sound, 1,225 km/h at sea level, is said
to be supersonic.

Surface Tension: Surface tension is a force within the surface layer of a liquid that causes the
layer to behave as an elastic sheet. The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the surface do not
have other like molecules on all sides of them and consequently they cohere more strongly to
those directly associated with them on the surface. This forms a surface "film" which makes it
more difficult to move an object through the surface than to move it when it is completely
submersed. Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes required to
break a film of length 1 cm. Equivalently, it can be stated as surface energy in ergs per square
centimeter. Water at 20°C has a surface tension of 72.8 dynes/cm compared to 22.3 for ethyl
alcohol and 465 for mercury.

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Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm or N/m.
Surface Tension
Liquid
N/m dynes/cm
Ethyl Alcohol 0.0223 22.3
Mercury 0.465 465
o
Water 20 C 0.0728 72.75
o
Water 100 C 0.0599 58.9

Surface tension is the energy required to stretch a unit change of a surface area. Surface
tension will form a drop of liquid to a sphere since the sphere offers the smallest area for a
definite volume.

Surface tension can be defined as

σ = Fs / l (1)

where
σ = surface tension (N/m)
Fs = stretching force (N)
l = unit length (m)

Alternative Units
Alternatively, surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, which is
 the force in dynes required to break a film of length 1 cm
or as surface energy J/m2 or alternatively ergs per square centimeter.
 1 dynes/cm = 0.001 N/m = 0.0000685 lbf/ft = 0.571 10-5 lbf/in = 0.0022 poundal/ft = 0.00018
poundal/in = 1.0 mN/m = 0.001 J/m2 = 1.0 erg/cm2 = 0.00010197 kgf/m
Common Imperial units used are lb/ft and lb/in.
Water surface tension at different temperatures can be taken from the table below:
Surface Tension
Temperature
o -σ-
( C)
(N/m)
0 0.0757
10 0.0742
20 0.0728
30 0.0712
40 0.0696
50 0.0679
60 0.0662
70 0.0644
80 0.0626
90 0.0608
100 0.0588

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Surface Tension of some common Fluids
 benzene : 0.0289 (N/m)
 diethyl ether : 0.0728 (N/m)
 carbon tetrachloride : 0.027 (N/m)
 chloroform : 0.0271 (N/m)
 ethanol : 0.0221 (N/m)
 ethylene glycol : 0.0477 (N/m)
 glycerol : 0.064 (N/m)
 mercury : 0.425 (N/m)
 methanol : 0.0227 (N/m)
 propanol : 0.0237 (N/m)
 toluene : 0.0284 (N/m)
 water at 20oC : 0.0729 (N/m)

Surge Tanks: Surge tanks can be used to control Water Hammer. A limitation of
hydropneumatic tanks is that they do not provide much storage to meet peak demands during
power outages and you have very limited time to do repairs on equipment.

T
Telemetering Systems: The following are common pressure sensing devices: Helical Sensor,
Bourdon Tube, and Bellows Sensor. The most frequent problem that affects a liquid pressure-
sensing device is air accumulation at the sensor. A diaphragm element being used as a level
sensor would be used in conjunction with a pressure sensor. Devices must often transmit more
than one signal. You can use several types of systems including: Polling, Scanning and
Multiplexing. Transmitting equipment requires installation where temperature will not exceed
130 degrees F.

Thixotropic Fluids: Shear Thinning Fluids or Thixotropic Fluids reduce their viscosity as
agitation or pressure is increased at a constant temperature. Ketchup and mayonnaise are
examples of thixotropic materials. They appear thick or viscous but are possible to pump quite
easily.

Transonic: Flow with speed at velocities just below and above the speed of sound is said to be
transonic.

Turbidity: A measure of the cloudiness of water caused by suspended particles.

U
U-Tube Manometer: Pressure measuring devices using liquid columns in vertical or inclined
tubes are called manometers. One of the most common is the water filled u-tube manometer
used to measure pressure difference in pitot or orifices located in the airflow in air handling or
ventilation systems.

V
Valve: A device that opens and closes to regulate the flow of liquids. Faucets, hose bibs, and
Ball are examples of valves.

Vane: That portion of an impeller which throws the water toward the volute.

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Vapor Pressure: For a particular substance at any given temperature there is a pressure at
which the vapor of that substance is in equilibrium with its liquid or solid forms.

Velocity Head: The vertical distance a liquid must fall to acquire the velocity with which it flows
through the piping system. For a given quantity of flow, the velocity head will vary indirectly as
the pipe diameter varies.

Venturi: A system for speeding the flow of the fluid, by constricting it in a cone-
shaped tube. Venturi are used to measure the speed of a fluid, by measuring the
pressure changes from one point to another along the venture. A venturi can also be
used to inject a liquid or a gas into another liquid. A pump forces the liquid flow
through a tube connected to:
 A venturi to increase the speed of the fluid (restriction of the pipe diameter)
 A short piece of tube connected to the gas source
 A second venturi that decrease the speed of the fluid (the pipe diameter increase again)
 After the first venturi the pressure in the pipe is lower, so the gas is sucked in the pipe.
Then the mixture enters the second venturi and slow down. At the end of the system a
mixture of gas and liquid appears and the pressure rise again to its normal level in the
pipe.
 This technique is used for ozone injection in water.

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 The newest injector design causes complete mixing of injected materials (air, ozone or
chemicals), eliminating the need for other in-line mixers. Venturi injectors have no moving parts
and are maintenance free. They operate effectively over a wide range of pressures (from 1 to
250 psi) and require only a minimum pressure difference to initiate the vacuum at the suction
part. Venturis are often built in thermoplastics (PVC, PE, PVDF), stainless steel or other metals.

The cavitation effect at the injection chamber provides an instantaneous mixing, creating
thousands of very tiny bubbles of gas in the liquid. The small bubbles provide and increased gas
exposure to the liquid surface area, increasing the effectiveness of the process (i.e. ozonation).

Vibration: A force that is present on construction sites and must be considered. The vibrations
caused by backhoes, dump trucks, compactors and traffic on job sites can be substantial.

Viscosity: Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow. Fluids
resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of layers
with differing velocities within them. Formally, viscosity (represented by the symbol η "eta") is
the ratio of the shearing stress (F/A) to the velocity gradient (∆vx/∆z or dvx/dz) in a fluid.
F ∆v F dv
η = ( ) ÷ ( x ) or η = ( ) ÷ ( x )
A ∆z A dz

The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation, states that the resulting
shear of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its
viscosity. The similarity to Newton's second law of motion (F = ma) should be apparent.
F ∆v F dv
= η x or =η x
A ∆z A dz

⇕ ⇕

∆v dv
F=m or F = m
∆t dt
The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal second [Pa·s], which has no special name. Despite its self-
proclaimed title as an international system, the International System of Units has had very little
international impact on viscosity. The pascal second is rarely used in scientific and technical
publications today. The most common unit of viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter
[dyne·s/cm2], which is given the name poise [P] after the French physiologist Jean Louis
Poiseuille (1799-1869). Ten poise equal one pascal second [Pa·s] making the centipoise [cP]
and millipascal second [mPa·s] identical.

1 pascal second = 10 poise = 1,000 millipascal second

1 centipoise = 1 millipascal second

There are actually two quantities that are called viscosity. The quantity defined above is
sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute viscosity, or simple viscosity to distinguish it from
the other quantity, but is usually just called viscosity. The other quantity called kinematic
viscosity (represented by the symbol ν "nu") is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to its density.
η
ν=
ρ
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid under the influence of gravity. It is

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frequently measured using a device called a capillary viscometer -- basically a graduated can
with a narrow tube at the bottom. When two fluids of equal volume are placed in identical
capillary viscometers and allowed to flow under the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid takes
longer than a less viscous fluid to flow through the tube. Capillary viscometers are discussed in
more detail later in this section. The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is the square meter per
second [m2/s], which has no special name. This unit is so large that it is rarely used. A more
common unit of kinematic viscosity is the square centimeter per second [cm2/s], which is given
the name stoke [St] after the English scientist George Stoke. This unit is also a bit too large and
so the most common unit is probably the square millimeter per second [mm2/s] or centistoke
[cSt].

Viscosity and Reference Temperatures: The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature

dependent and for either dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful, the reference
temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is
100oC. For a distillate fluid the reference temperature is 40oC.
 For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with higher temperature.
 For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher temperature.

Volute: The spiral-shaped casing surrounding a pump impeller that collects the liquid
discharged by the impeller.

Vorticity: Vorticity is defined as the circulation per unit area at a point in the flow field.

Vortex: A vortex is a whirlpool in the water.

W
Water Freezing: The effects of water freezing in storage tanks can be minimized by alternating
water levels in the tank.

Water Storage Facility Inspection: During an inspection of your water storage facility, you
should inspect the Cathodic protection system including checking the anode’s condition and the
connections. The concentration of polyphosphates that is used for corrosion control in storage
tanks is typically 5 mg/L or less. External corrosion of steel water storage facilities can be
reduced with Zinc or aluminum coatings. All storage facilities should be regularly sampled to
determine the quality of water that enters and leaves the facility. One tool or piece of measuring
equipment is the Jackson turbidimeter, which is a method to measure cloudiness in water.

Wave Drag: Wave drag refers to a sudden and very powerful drag that appears on aircrafts
flying at high-subsonic speeds.

Water Purveyor: The individuals or organization responsible to help provide, supply, and
furnish quality water to a community.

Water Works: All of the pipes, pumps, reservoirs, dams and buildings that make up a water
system.

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Waterborne Diseases: A disease, caused by a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or other
microorganism, capable of being transmitted by water (e.g., typhoid fever, cholera, amoebic
dysentery, gastroenteritis).

Weber Number: A dimensionless value useful for analyzing fluid flows where there is an
interface between two different fluids. Since the Weber Number represents an index of the
inertial force to the surface tension force acting on a fluid element, it can be useful analyzing
thin films flows and the formation of droplets and bubbles.

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Appendixes and Charts

Density of Common Liquids

The density of some common liquids can be found in the table below:
Temperature Density
Liquid -t- -ρ-
(oC) (kg/m3)
Acetic Acid 25 1049
Acetone 25 785
Acetonitrile 20 782
Alcohol, ethyl 25 785
Alcohol, methyl 25 787
Alcohol, propyl 25 780
Ammonia (aqua) 25 823
Aniline 25 1019
Automobile oils 15 880 - 940
Beer (varies) 10 1010
Benzene 25 874
Benzyl 15 1230
Brine 15 1230
Bromine 25 3120
Butyric Acid 20 959
Butane 25 599
n-Butyl Acetate 20 880
n-Butyl Alcohol 20 810
n-Butylhloride 20 886
Caproic acid 25 921
Carbolic acid 15 956
Carbon disulfide 25 1261
Carbon tetrachloride 25 1584
Carene 25 857
Castor oil 25 956
Chloride 25 1560
Chlorobenzene 20 1106
Chloroform 20 1489
Chloroform 25 1465
Citric acid 25 1660
Coconut oil 15 924
Cotton seed oil 15 926
Cresol 25 1024
Creosote 15 1067
o o
Crude oil, 48 API 60 F 790

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 Crude oil, 40o API 60oF 825
o
Crude oil, 35.6 API 60oF 847
o o
Crude oil, 32.6 API 60 F 862
o
Crude oil, California 60 F 915
Crude oil, Mexican 60oF 973
o
Crude oil, Texas 60 F 873
Cumene 25 860
Cyclohexane 20 779
Cyclopentane 20 745
Decane 25 726
Diesel fuel oil 20 to 60 15 820 - 950
Diethyl ether 20 714
o-Dichlorobenzene 20 1306
Dichloromethane 20 1326
Diethylene glycol 15 1120
Dichloromethane 20 1326
Dimethyl Acetamide 20 942
N,N-Dimethylformamide 20 949
Dimethyl Sulfoxide 20 1100
Dodecane 25 755
Ethane -89 570
Ether 25 73
Ethylamine 16 681
Ethyl Acetate 20 901
Ethyl Alcohol 20 789
Ethyl Ether 20 713
Ethylene Dichloride 20 1253
Ethylene glycol 25 1097
Fluorine refrigerant R-12 25 1311
Formaldehyde 45 812
Formic acid 10%oncentration 20 1025
Formic acid 80%oncentration 20 1221
Freon - 11 21 1490
Freon - 21 21 1370
o
Fuel oil 60 F 890
Furan 25 1416
Furforol 25 1155
o
Gasoline, natural 60 F 711
Gasoline, Vehicle 60oF 737
o
Gas oils 60 F 890
o
Glucose 60 F 1350 - 1440
Glycerin 25 1259

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 Glycerol 25 1126
Heptane 25 676
Hexane 25 655
Hexanol 25 811
Hexene 25 671
Hydrazine 25 795
Iodine 25 4927
Ionene 25 932
Isobutyl Alcohol 20 802
Iso-Octane 20 692
Isopropyl Alcohol 20 785
Isopropyl Myristate 20 853
o
Kerosene 60 F 817
Linolenic Acid 25 897
Linseed oil 25 929
Methane -164 465
Methanol 20 791
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone 20 888
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 20 801
Methyl n-Propyl Ketone 20 808
Methyl t-Butyl Ether 20 741
N-Methylpyrrolidone 20 1030
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 20 805
Milk 15 1020 - 1050
Naphtha 15 665
Naphtha, wood 25 960
Napthalene 25 820
Ocimene 25 798
Octane 15 918
Olive oil 20 800 - 920
Oxygen (liquid) -183 1140
Palmitic Acid 25 851
Pentane 20 626
Pentane 25 625
Petroleum Ether 20 640
Petrol, natural 60oF 711
o
Petrol, Vehicle 60 F 737
Phenol 25 1072
Phosgene 0 1378
Phytadiene 25 823
Pinene 25 857
Propane -40 583

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 Propane, R-290 25 494
Propanol 25 804
Propylenearbonate 20 1201
Propylene 25 514
Propylene glycol 25 965
Pyridine 25 979
Pyrrole 25 966
Rape seed oil 20 920
Resorcinol 25 1269
Rosin oil 15 980
Sea water 25 1025
Silane 25 718
Silicone oil 760
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic
15 1250
soda)
Sorbaldehyde 25 895
Soya bean oil 15 924 - 928
Stearic Acid 25 891
Sulfuric Acid 95%onc. 20 1839
Sugar solution 68 brix 15 1338
Sunflower oil 20 920
Styrene 25 903
Terpinene 25 847
Tetrahydrofuran 20 888
Toluene 20 867
Toluene 25 862
Triethylamine 20 728
Trifluoroacetic Acid 20 1489
Turpentine 25 868
Water - pure 4 1000
Water - sea 77oF 1022
Whale oil 15 925
o-Xylene 20 880
1 kg/m = 0.001 g/cm = 0.0005780 oz/in = 0.16036 oz/gal (Imperial) = 0.1335 oz/gal (U.S.) = 0.0624 lb/ft3 =
3 3 3

0.000036127 lb/in3 = 1.6856 lb/yd3 = 0.010022 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.008345 lb/gal (U.S) = 0.0007525 ton/yd3

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Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity Units Converting Table
The table below can be used to convert between common dynamic or absolute viscosity units.
Multiply by Convert to
Poise
Poiseuille (dyne s/ cm2
Convert from centiPoise kg / m h kgf s / m2
(Pa s) =
g / cm s)
Poiseuille
1 10 103 3.63 103 0.102
(Pa s)
Poise
(dyne s / cm2
0.1 1 100 360 0.0102
=
g / cm s)
centiPoise 0.001 0.01 1 3.6 0.00012
-4
kg / m h 2.78 10 0.00278 0.0278 1 2.83 10-5
kgf s / m2 9.81 98.1 9.81 103 3.53 104 1
2 3 4 6
lbf s / inch 6.89 10 6.89 10 6.89 10 2.48 107 703
lbf s / ft2 47.9 479 4.79 104 1.72 105 0.0488
2 5 6 8 8
lbf h / ft 1.72 10 1.72 10 1.72 10 6.21 10 1.76 104
3 3
lb / ft s 1.49 14.9 1.49 10 5.36 10 0.152
-4
lb / ft h 4.13 10 0.00413 0.413 1.49 4.22 10-5
Multiply by Convert to
2 2
Convert from lbf s / inch lbf s / ft lbf h / ft2 lb / ft s lb / ft h
Poiseuille -4 -6
1.45 10 0.0209 5.8 10 0.672 2.42 103
(Pa s)
Poise
(dyne s / cm2
1.45 10-5 0.00209 5.8 10-7 0.0672 242
=
g / cm s)
centiPoise 1.45 10-7 2.9 10-5 5.8 10-9 0.000672 2.42
-8 -6 -9
kg / m h 4.03 10 5.8 10 1.61 10 0.000187 0.672
2 -5
kgf s / m 0.00142 20.5 5.69 10 6.59 2.37 104
2 3
lbf s / inch 1 144 0.04 4.63 10 1.67 107
lbf s / ft2 0.00694 1 0.000278 32.2 1.16 105
lbf h / ft2 25 3.6 103 1 1.16 105 4.17 108
-6
lb / ft s 0.000216 0.0311 8.63 10 1 3.6 103
lb / ft h 6 10-8 1.16 105 2.4 10-9 0.000278 1

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Friction Loss Chart

The table below can be used to indicate the friction loss - feet of liquid per 100 feet of pipe - in
standard schedule 40 steel pipes.
Flow Rate Kinematic Viscosity - SSU
Pipe
Size 200 400 800 1500
31 100
(inches) (gpm) (l/s) (~Vegetable (~SAE (~Tomato (~SAE
(Water) (~Cream)
oil) 10 oil) juice) 30 oil)
1/2 3 0.19 10.0 25.7 54.4 108.0 218.0 411.0
3 0.19 2.5 8.5 17.5 35.5 71.0 131.0
3/4
5 0.32 6.3 14.1 29.3 59.0 117.0 219.0
3 0.19 0.8 3.2 6.6 13.4 26.6 50.0
5 0.32 1.9 5.3 11.0 22.4 44.0 83.0
1 10 0.63 6.9 11.2 22.4 45.0 89.0 165.0
15 0.95 14.6 26.0 34.0 67.0 137.0
20 1.26 25.1 46 46.0 90.0 180.0
5 0.32 0.5 1.8 3.7 7.6 14.8 26.0
1 1/4 10 0.63 1.8 3.6 7.5 14.9 30.0 55.0
15 0.95 3.7 6.4 11.3 22.4 45.0 84.0
10 0.63 0.8 1.9 4.2 8.1 16.5 31.0
15 0.95 1.7 2.8 6.2 12.4 25.0 46.0
1 1/2 20 1.26 2.9 5.3 8.1 16.2 33.0 61.0
30 1.9 6.3 11.6 12.2 24.3 50.0 91.0
40 2.5 10.8 19.6 20.8 32.0 65.0 121.0
20 1.26 0.9 1.5 3.0 6.0 11.9 22.4
30 1.9 1.8 3.2 4.4 9.0 17.8 33.0
2 40 2.5 3.1 5.8 5.8 11.8 24.0 44.0
60 3.8 6.6 11.6 13.4 17.8 36.0 67.0
80 5.0 1.6 3.0 3.2 4.8 9.7 18.3
30 1.9 0.8 1.4 2.2 4.4 8.8 16.6
40 2.5 1.3 2.5 3.0 5.8 11.8 22.2
2 1/2 60 3.8 2.7 5.1 5.5 8.8 17.8 34.0
80 5.0 4.7 8.3 9.7 11.8 24.0 44.0
100 6.3 7.1 12.2 14.1 14.8 29.0 55.0
60 3.8 0.9 1.8 1.8 3.7 7.3 13.8
100 6.3 2.4 4.4 5.1 6.2 12.1 23.0
125 7.9 3.6 6.5 7.8 8.1 15.3 29.0
3
150 9.5 5.1 9.2 10.4 11.5 18.4 35.0
175 11.0 6.9 11.7 13.8 15.8 21.4 40.0
200 12.6 8.9 15.0 17.8 20.3 25.0 46.0
80 5.0 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.7 3.3 6.2
4 100 6.3 0.6 1.2 1.3 2.1 4.1 7.8
125 7.9 0.9 1.8 2.1 2.6 5.2 9.8

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 150 9.5 1.3 2.4 2.9 3.1 6.2 11.5
175 11.0 1.8 3.2 4.0 4.0 7.4 13.7
200 12.6 2.3 4.2 5.1 5.1 8.3 15.5
250 15.8 3.5 6.0 7.4 8.0 10.2 19.4
125 7.9 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.52 1.0 1.9
150 9.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.2 2.3
175 11.0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.4 2.6
6 200 12.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.6 3.0
250 15.8 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.0 2.1 3.7
300 18.9 1.1 8.5 10.0 11.6 12.4 23.0
400 25.2 1.1 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 6.0
250 15.8 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.2
8 300 18.9 0.3 1.2 1.4 1.5 2.5 4.6
400 25.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.1 2.0
300 18.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.5
10
400 25.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8

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Hazen-Williams Coefficients
Hazen-Williams factor for some common piping materials. Hazen-Williams coefficients are used in the Hazen-
Williams equation for friction loss calculation in ducts and pipes. Coefficients for some common materials used
in ducts and pipes can be found in the table below:

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 Hazen-Williams Coefficient
Material
-C-
Asbestos Cement 140
Brass 130 - 140
Brick sewer 100
Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP) 130
Cast-Iron 10 years old 107 - 113
Cast-Iron 20 years old 89 - 100
Cast-Iron 30 years old 75 - 90
Cast-Iron 40 years old 64-83
Cast-Iron, asphalt coated 100
Cast-Iron, cement lined 140
Cast-Iron, bituminous lined 140
Cast-Iron, wrought plain 100
Concrete 100 - 140
Copper or Brass 130 - 140
Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP) 140
Fiber 140
Galvanized iron 120
Glass 130
Lead 130 - 140
Plastic 130 - 150
Polyethylene, PE, PEH 150
PVC, CPVC 150
Smooth Pipes 140
Steel new unlined 140 - 150
Steel
Steel, welded and seamless 100
Steel, interior riveted, no
100
projecting rivets
Steel, projecting girth rivets 100
Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted 90 - 100
Steel, corrugated 60
Tin 130
Vitrified Clays 110
Wood Stave 110 - 120

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Pressure Head
A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury
When specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).
Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:
Velocity Head Water
(ft/sec) (ft)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525
1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd.

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Thermal Properties of Water

Absolute Specific Specific

Temperature Density Specific Heat
pressure volume entropy
-t- -ρ- - cp -
-p- -v- -e-
(oC) (kg/m3) (kJ/kgK)
(kN/m2) 3
(m /kgx10 )-3
(kJ/kgK)
0 0.6 1000 100 4.217 0
5 0.9 1000 100 4.204 0.075
10 1.2 1000 100 4.193 0.150
15 1.7 999 100 4.186 0.223
20 2.3 998 100 4.182 0.296
25 3.2 997 100 4.181 0.367
30 4.3 996 100 4.179 0.438
35 5.6 994 101 4.178 0.505
40 7.7 991 101 4.179 0.581
45 9.6 990 101 4.181 0.637
50 12.5 988 101 4.182 0.707
55 15.7 986 101 4.183 0.767
60 20.0 980 102 4.185 0.832
65 25.0 979 102 4.188 0.893
70 31.3 978 102 4.190 0.966
75 38.6 975 103 4.194 1.016
80 47.5 971 103 4.197 1.076
85 57.8 969 103 4.203 1.134
90 70.0 962 104 4.205 1.192
95 84.5 962 104 4.213 1.250
100 101.33 962 104 4.216 1.307
105 121 955 105 4.226 1.382
110 143 951 105 4.233 1.418
115 169 947 106 4.240 1.473
120 199 943 106 4.240 1.527
125 228 939 106 4.254 1.565
130 270 935 107 4.270 1.635
135 313 931 107 4.280 1.687
140 361 926 108 4.290 1.739
145 416 922 108 4.300 1.790
150 477 918 109 4.310 1.842
155 543 912 110 4.335 1.892
160 618 907 110 4.350 1.942
165 701 902 111 4.364 1.992
170 792 897 111 4.380 2.041
175 890 893 112 4.389 2.090
180 1000 887 113 4.420 2.138

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 185 1120 882 113 4.444 2.187
190 1260 876 114 4.460 2.236
195 1400 870 115 4.404 2.282
200 1550 863 116 4.497 2.329
220
225 2550 834 120 4.648 2.569
240
250 3990 800 125 4.867 2.797
260
275 5950 756 132 5.202 3.022
300 8600 714 140 5.769 3.256
325 12130 654 153 6.861 3.501
350 16540 575 174 10.10 3.781
360 18680 526 190 14.60 3.921

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Viscosity Converting Chart
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear or flow, and is a measure of the fluid’s adhesive/
cohesive or frictional properties. This arises because of the internal molecular friction within the
fluid producing the frictional drag effect. There are two related measures of fluid viscosity which
are known as dynamic and kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity is also termed "absolute viscosity" and is the tangential force per unit area
required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained
a unit distance apart by the fluid.
Centipoise Saybolt
(CPS) Poise Centistokes Stokes Seconds
Millipascal (P) (cSt) (S) Universal
(mPas) (SSU)
1 0.01 1 0.01 31
2 0.02 2 0.02 34
4 0.04 4 0.04 38
7 0.07 7 0.07 47
10 0.1 10 0.1 60
15 0.15 15 0.15 80
20 0.2 20 0.2 100
25 0.24 25 0.24 130
30 0.3 30 0.3 160
40 0.4 40 0.4 210
50 0.5 50 0.5 260
60 0.6 60 0.6 320
70 0.7 70 0.7 370
80 0.8 80 0.8 430
90 0.9 90 0.9 480
100 1 100 1 530
120 1.2 120 1.2 580
140 1.4 140 1.4 690
160 1.6 160 1.6 790
180 1.8 180 1.8 900
200 2 200 2 1000
220 2.2 220 2.2 1100
240 2.4 240 2.4 1200
260 2.6 260 2.6 1280
280 2.8 280 2.8 1380
300 3 300 3 1475
320 3.2 320 3.2 1530

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 340 3.4 340 3.4 1630
360 3.6 360 3.6 1730
380 3.8 380 3.8 1850
400 4 400 4 1950
420 4.2 420 4.2 2050
440 4.4 440 4.4 2160
460 4.6 460 4.6 2270
480 4.8 480 4.8 2380
500 5 500 5 2480
550 5.5 550 5.5 2660
600 6 600 6 2900
700 7 700 7 3380
800 8 800 8 3880
900 9 900 9 4300
1000 10 1000 10 4600
1100 11 1100 11 5200
1200 12 1200 12 5620
1300 13 1300 13 6100
1400 14 1400 14 6480
1500 15 1500 15 7000
1600 16 1600 16 7500
1700 17 1700 17 8000
1800 18 1800 18 8500
1900 19 1900 19 9000
2000 20 2000 20 9400
2100 21 2100 21 9850
2200 22 2200 22 10300
2300 23 2300 23 10750
2400 24 2400 24 11200

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Various Flow Section Channels and their Geometric Relationships:
Area, wetted perimeter and hydraulic diameter for some common geometric sections like
 rectangular channels
 trapezoidal channels
 triangular channels
 circular channels.

Rectangular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
A = b h (1)

where
A = flow area (m2, in2)
b = width of channel (m, in)
h = height of flow (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
P = b + 2 h (1b)

where
P = wetted perimeter (m, in)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
Rh = b h / (b + 2 y) (1c)

where
Rh = hydraulic radius (m, in)

Trapezoidal Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
A = (a + z h) h (2)

where
z = see figure above (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
P = a + 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (2b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
Rh = (a + z h) h / a + 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (2c)

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Triangular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a triangular channel can be expressed as
A = z h2 (3)
where
z = see figure above (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a triangular channel can be expressed as
P = 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (3b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a triangular channel can be expressed as
Rh = z h / 2 (1 + z2)1/2 (3c)

Circular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a circular channel can be expressed as
A = D2/4 (α - sin(2 α)/2) (4)

where
D = diameter of channel
α = cos-1(1 - h/r)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a circular channel can be expressed as
P = α D (4b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a circular channel can be expressed as
Rh = D/8 [1 - sin(2 α) / (2 α)] (4c)

Velocity Head: Velocity head can be expressed as

h = v2/2g (1)

where
v = velocity (ft, m)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.174 ft/s2, 9.81 m/s2)

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Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:
Velocity Velocity Head
-v- - v2/2g -
(ft/sec) (ft Water)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525

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Some Commonly used Thermal Properties for Water
 Density at 4 oC - 1,000 kg/m3, 62.43 Lbs./Cu.Ft., 8.33 Lbs./Gal., 0.1337 Cu.Ft./Gal.
 Freezing temperature - 0 oC
 Boiling temperature - 100 oC
 Latent heat of melting - 334 kJ/kg
 Latent heat of evaporation - 2,270 kJ/kg
 Critical temperature - 380 - 386 oC
 Critical pressure - 23.520 kN/m2
 Specific heat capacity water - 4.187 kJ/kgK
 Specific heat capacity ice - 2.108 kJ/kgK
 Specific heat capacity water vapor - 1.996 kJ/kgK
 Thermal expansion from 4 oC to 100 oC - 4.2x10-2
Bulk modulus elasticity - 2,068,500 kN/m2

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Reynolds Number
Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds Number.

The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial
velocity gradient (i.e., shear.) It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared
to the inertia effect. The Reynolds number is proportional to inertial force divided by viscous
force.

A definition of the Reynolds’ Number:

The flow is
 laminar if Re < 2300
 transient if 2300 < Re < 4000
 turbulent if 4000 < Re

The table below shows Reynolds Number for one liter of water flowing through pipes of different
dimensions:
Pipe Size
(inches) 1 1? 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 18
(mm) 25 40 50 75 100 150 200 250 300 450
Reynolds
number
with 835 550 420 280 210 140 105 85 70 46
one (1)
liter/min
Reynolds
number
with 3800 2500 1900 1270 950 630 475 380 320 210
one (1)
gal/min

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Linear Motion Formulas
Velocity can be expressed as (velocity = constant):

v = s / t (1a)

where
v = velocity (m/s, ft/s)
s = linear displacement (m, ft)
t = time (s)

Velocity can be expressed as (acceleration = constant):

v = V0 + a t (1b)

where
V0 = linear velocity at time zero (m/s, ft/s)

Linear displacement can be expressed as (acceleration = constant):

s = V0 t + 1/2 a t2 (1c)

Combining 1a and 1c to express velocity

v = (V02 + 2 a s)1/2 (1d)

Velocity can be expressed as (velocity variable)

v = ds / dt (1f)

where
ds = change of displacement (m, ft)
dt = change in time (s)

Acceleration can be expressed as

a = dv / dt (1g)

where
dv = change in velocity (m/s, ft/s)

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Water - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water in Imperial Units (BG units):
Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature
Viscosity Viscosity
-t-
-µ- -ν-
(oF)
10-5 (lbs./ft2) 10-5 (ft2/s)
32 3.732 1.924
40 3.228 1.664
50 2.730 1.407
60 2.344 1.210
70 2.034 1.052
80 1.791 0.926
90 1.500 0.823
100 1.423 0.738
120 1.164 0.607
140 0.974 0.511
160 0.832 0.439
180 0.721 0.383
200 0.634 0.339
212 0.589 0.317

Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water in SI Units:

Kinematic
Temperature Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity
-t- -µ-
-ν-
(oC) 10-3 (N.s/m2)
10-6 (m2/s)
0 1.787 1.787
5 1.519 1.519
10 1.307 1.307
20 1.002 1.004
30 0.798 0.801
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.553
60 0.467 0.475
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.355 0.365
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.294

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Water and Speed of Sound
Speed of sound in water at temperatures between 32 - 212oF (0-100oC) - imperial and SI units
Speed of Sound in Water - in imperial units (BG units)
Temperature Speed of Sound
-t- -c-
(oF) (ft/s)
32 4,603
40 4,672
50 4,748
60 4,814
70 4,871
80 4,919
90 4,960
100 4,995
120 5,049
140 5,091
160 5,101
180 5,095
200 5,089
212 5,062

Speed of Sound in Water - in SI units

Temperature Speed of Sound
-t- -c-
(oC) (m/s)
0 1,403
5 1,427
10 1,447
20 1,481
30 1,507
40 1,526
50 1,541
60 1,552
70 1,555
80 1,555
90 1,550
100 1,543

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References
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Ganot's Physics, 14th Edition, N.Y., 1893 translated by Atkinson, pp. 907 and 908. (Section
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Patrick, Dale R; Fardo, Stephen W., Rotating Electrical Machines and Power Systems (2nd
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Wayne Saslow. Electricity, Magnetism and Light. Thomson Learning Inc., 2002.

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Math Conversion Factors and Practical Exercise
If you are poor at math, come to a TLC review class.
1 PSI = 2.31 Feet of Water LENGTH
1 Foot of Water = .433 PSI 12 Inches = 1 Foot
1.13 Feet of Water = 1 Inch of Mercury 3 Feet = 1 Yard
454 Grams = 1 Pound 5,280 Feet = 1 Mile
2.54 CM =Inch
1 Gallon of Water = 8.34 Pounds AREA
1 mg/L = 1 PPM 144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
17.1 mg/L = 1 Grain/Gallon 43,560 Square Feet = 1 Acre
1% = 10,000 mg/L VOLUME
694 Gallons per Minute = MGD 1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
1.55 Cubic Feet per Second = 1 MGD 3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
60 Seconds = 1 Minute 231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
1440 Minutes = 1 Day 7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of Water
.746 kW = 1 Horsepower 62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of Water

Dimensions
SQUARE: Area (sq. ft) = Length X Width
Volume (cu.ft.) = Length (ft) X Width (ft) X Height (ft)

CIRCLE: Area (sq.ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft)

CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. ft) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)

PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length = ? To obtain gallons multiply by 7.48

SPHERE: (3.14) (Diameter)3 Circumference = 3.14 X Diameter

(6)

General Conversions
Multiply —> to get
to get <— Divide
cc/min 1 mL/min
3
cfm (ft /min) 28.31 L/min
3
cfm (ft /min) 1.699 m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr) 472 mL/min
cfh (ft3/hr) 0.125 GPM
GPH 63.1 mL/min
GPH 0.134 cfh
GPM 0.227 m3/hr
GPM 3.785 L/min
oz/min 29.57 mL/min

POUNDS PER DAY= Flow (MG) X Concentration (mg/L) X 8.34

AKA Solids Applied Formula = Flow X Dose X 8.34

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PERCENT EFFICIENCY = In – Out X 100
In
0
TEMPERATURE: F = (0C X 9/5) + 32 9/5 =1.8
0
C = (0F - 32) X 5/9 5/9 = .555

CONCENTRATION: Conc. (A) X Volume (A) = Conc. (B) X Volume (B)

FLOW RATE (Q): Q = A X V (Quantity = Area X Velocity)

FLOW RATE (gpm): Flow Rate (gpm) = 2.83 (Diameter, in)2 (Distance, in)
Height, in
% SLOPE = Rise (feet) X 100
Run (feet)

ACTUAL LEAKAGE = Leak Rate (GPD)

Length (mi.) X Diameter (in)

VELOCITY = Distance (ft)

Time (Sec)

N = Manning’s Coefficient of Roughness

R = Hydraulic Radius (ft.)
S = Slope of Sewer (ft/ft.)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Cross Sectional Area of Flow (ft)

Wetted pipe Perimeter (ft)

WATER HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960

BRAKE HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Efficiency

MOTOR HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Eff. X Motor Eff.

MEAN OR AVERAGE = Sum of the Values

Number of Values

TOTAL HEAD (ft) = Suction Lift (ft) X Discharge Head (ft)

SURFACE LOADING RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)

(gal/min/sq.ft.) Surface Area (sq. ft)

MIXTURE = (Volume 1, gal) (Strength 1, %) + (Volume 2, gal) (Strength 2,%)

STRENGTH (%) (Volume 1, gal) + (Volume 2, gal)

DETENTION TIME (hrs.) = Volume of Basin (gals) X 24 hrs.

Flow (GPD)

SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100

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 Run (ft) Run (ft)

POPULATION EQUIVALENT (PE):

1 PE = .17 Pounds of BOD per Day
1 PE = .20 Pounds of Solids per Day
1 PE = 100 Gallons per Day

LEAKAGE (GPD/inch) = Leakage of Water per Day (GPD)

Sewer Diameter (inch)

CHLORINE DEMAND (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Q = Allowable time for decrease in pressure from 3.5 PSU to 2.5 PSI
q = As below

Q = (0.022) (d12L1)/Q q = [ 0.085] [(d12L1)/(d1L1)]

q

Q = 2.0 cfm air loss

 = .0030 cfm air loss per square foot of internal pipe surface
 = Pipe diameter (inches)
L = Pipe Length (feet)

V = 1.486 R 2/3 S 1/2


V = Velocity (ft./sec.)
 = Pipe Roughness
R = Hydraulic Radius (ft)
S= Slope (ft/ft)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Flow Area (ft. 2)

Wetted Perimeter (ft.)

WIDTH OF TRENCH (ft) = Base (ft) + (2 Sides) X Depth (ft 2)

Slope

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We welcome you to complete the assignment in Microsoft Word. You can
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You can download the assignment in Microsoft Word from TLC’s website
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