the revised and updated

language
of graphic
design

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 la
© 2011, 2018 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.

Revised edition published 2018

Paperback edition published 2012
First published in 2011 by Rockport Publishers, an imprint of The Quarto Group,
100 Cummings Center, Suite 265-D, Beverly, MA 01915, USA.
T (978) 282-9590 F (978) 283-2742 QuartoKnows.com

d
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-1-63159-617-9

Digital edition published in 2018

eISBN: 978-1-63159-618-6

Originally found under the following Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Poulin, Richard
The language of graphic design : an illustrated handbook for
understanding fundaemental design principles / Richard Poulin.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
IBSN 13: 978-1-59253-676-4
ISBN 10: 1-59253-676-X
1. Graphic arts. 2. Design. I Title.
NC997.P63 2011
741.6--dc22
2010049318
CIP

Design: Poulin + Moris Inc.

Printed in China

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 the r e v i s e d a n d u p d at e d

language
of graphic
design
An Illustrated Handbook
for Understanding Fundamental
Design Principles

Richard Poulin

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 Introduction 6 1 Point 20 1

2 Line 28 1

3 Shape 38 1

4 Form 48 1

5 Light 56 1

6 Color 66 1

7 Texture 80 1

8 Scale 90 1

9 Movement 100 2

10 Space 110 2

11 Balance 120 2

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 contents
12 Symmetry 130 23 Image 234

13 Asymmetry 138 24 Pattern 244

14 Tension 148 25 Typography 254

15 Closure 158 26 Grid 268

16 Expression 166 Glossary 278

Bibliography 280

17 Abstraction 176 Index 284

Contributors 294

18 Tone 186 About the Author 296

Dedication 296

19 Contrast 196 Acknowledgments 296

Image Resources 296

20 Figure–Ground 206 Colophon 296

21 Frame 216

22 Proportion 226

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 lan·guage \'lan-gwij, -wij\ n A
the language of graphic design

1 a: the words, their pronunciation, and le

th
the methods of combining them used c
a
and understood by a community y
2 b: form or manner of verbal expression; th
a
specif: style
n
p
a
v
H
in
to
n
y

y
m

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 introduction
As a graphic designer, you are constantly being challenged by
learning and visually communicating something new and different
that can influence your understanding of graphic design or visual
communications in the context of the real world. To effectively
apply the discipline of graphic design, as well as have it evolve as
you grow as a creative individual, you first have to fully embrace
n; that graphic design is a unique visual language with its own
alphabet, lexicon (vocabulary), and syntax (sentence structure).
For you to become adept in this visual language, you first
need to be able to refer to a set of fundamental elements and
principles time and time again so you can become more comfort-
able and versatile with speaking in this new and exciting
vernacular. The Language of Graphic Design: An Illustrated
Handbook for Understanding Fundamental Design Principles is
intended to provide you with the knowledge, skills, and insights
to create design solutions that inform, inspire, and reinforce your 6

newly heightened sense of visually communicating and to enhance

your visual literacy in graphic design.
7

As with any new language—written, oral, or visual—that

you are attempting to understand, you first have to learn the funda-
mentals of that language—its ABC’s so to speak—including its

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 AS
ide
ove
str
the
lay
pho
ph
cus
See
Se
23:
Typ
inf
fun
and

BR
Toro
Tor
definitions, functions, and uses so that you can ultimately commu-
the language of graphic design

nicate in nuanced and varied ways depending on what you want

to say and who your audience may be. Your success as a graphic
design student, as well as a
“It’s not what you look at that matters,
it’s what you see.” practicing graphic designer, is
HENRY DAVID THOREAU (AMERICAN, 1817–1862) Author, Naturalist ultimately dependent upon an
in-depth understanding of the
fundamental elements and principles of graphic design defined
in this illustrated handbook.
Design elements—such as point, line, shape, form, light,
color, frame, image, and typography—are a graphic designer’s basic
vocabulary. Design principles, such as movement, balance,
symmetry, asymmetry, tension, expression, contrast, proportion,
and grid are a graphic designer’s basic framework for using design
elements in an effective manner to create memorable and mean-
ingful visual messages in graphic design.
When you speak or write, you never think of that action as
an unusual act. The reason for this is that you are taught at a very
young age the fundamental requirements needed to speak and
write in an accessible and universal language. The same cannot
be said for the language of graphic design. However, as you were

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 ASICS Tiger’s new brand
identity is inspired by
overlapping postings on the
streets and applied through
the use of over-scaled,
layered compositions of bold
photographic images and a
custom sans serif typeface.
See Chapter 8: Scale, Chapter
23: Image, and Chapter 25:
Typography for detailed
information on each of these
fundamental design elements
and principles.

BRUCE MAU DESIGN

Toronto, ON, CA
-

Bold intersecting lines and a Color, Chapter 9: Movement,

vibrant color palette coupled and Chapter 23: Image for
9

with dramatic four-color pho- detailed information on each

tography and typography are of these fundamental design
used to create a striking, ki- elements and principles.
netic image that immediately
communicates movement POULIN + MORRIS INC.
in this promotional poster New York, NY, USA
for the Gibney Dance Spring
Benefit in New York City. See
Chapter 2: Line, Chapter 6:

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 ta
s
g

n
is
le
th
d
th
e
s
d
o

th
This book jacket series for a Line, Chapter 4: Form, Chap- th
collection of Mostafa ter 6: Color, Chapter 8: Scale,
Mastoor's short stories
reflects a sensitive balance of
Chapter 24: Pattern, and
Chapter 25: Typography for o
form and pattern by relying detailed information on each
upon a combination of pure
linear graphic elements,
of these fundamental design
elements and principles.
a
intense colors, extreme scale
change, opposing compo- STUDIO ABBASI e
sitional axes, and Arabic Tehran, IR
calligraphic letter-forms to
create a strong, visual impact a
for the reader. See Chapter 2:

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 taught the basic skill sets of spelling, grammar and sentence
structure, you can also be taught the same basic principles of

Introduction
graphic design and visual communications.
Like its first edition released in 2011, the organization of this
newly updated, second edition of The Language of Graphic Design
is based on the building blocks of Western language—the 26
letters of our standard alphabet. Each of the book’s 26 chapters
thoroughly explore a fundamental element and principle of graphic
design with an in-depth, illustrated overview of what they are, why
they are important, and how to use them effectively. Additionally,
each chapter is supplemented with a narrative and visual
sidebar that references a key historical benchmark in graphic
design history that further illustrates each fundamental element
or principle.
“The challenge is for the graphic designer to turn data
Another important into information and information into messages of meaning.”
thread found throughout KATHERINE M COY (AMERICAN, B. 1945) Educator, Graphic Designer
C 10

this handbook is based

on one of my convictions as an educator. On its most basic level
11

a graphic designer is a visual interpreter, however you can’t be an

effective visual interpreter and communicator without first having
an extensive and thorough understanding and respect for narrative

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 Th
asy
gro
att
de
dev
the
of t
ma
col
ph
pho
ap
app
tiv
to t

form. I have always reinforced the value of the written word to my

the language of graphic design

graphic design students. Words should never be taken for granted,

therefore, I insist that my students always refer to a dictionary to
remind themselves of the meaning of words (familiar or not). This
conviction is further reinforced by beginning each chapter with the
dictionary definition of that fundamental element or principle. I
believe this strengthens their understanding of what they ultimate-
ly need to interpret
“Creativity . . . involves the power to originate, to break
away from the existing ways of looking at things, to move visually. With this
freely in the realm of the imagination, to create and handbook, I hope
recreate worlds fully in ’one’s mind—while supervising all to achieve the same
this with a critical inner eye.”
OLIVER SACKS (BRITISH, 1933–2015) Author, Educator, Neurologist
with you—the reader.
When collectively
considered, these 26
fundamentals allow you to visually communicate in a more acces-
sible, universal visual language, and have you become a more ef-
fective and successful graphic designer and visual communicator.
When you do not rely on these fundamental design elements and
principles, your work will be ineffective, non-communicative, and
will not resonate with an audience.

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 This book jacket uses Chapter 6: Color, Chapter 13:
asymmetry and figure- Asymmetry, Chapter 18: Tone,
ground as psychological, Chapter 20: Figure-Ground,
attention-getting visual and Chapter 23: Image for
devices which communicate detailed information on each
the raw, emotional tension of these fundamental design
of the novel Suspicion’s elements and principles.
main narrative. A dark tonal
color palette for the duotone POULIN + MORRIS INC.
photographic image that New York, NY, USA
appears in alternating posi-
tive and negative forms adds
to this visual tension. See

.
y

12

The design principle of typographic forms that fundamental design elements

contrast is used in this page communicate the essence and principles.
13

spread from a poetry book and symbolism in each line

that celebrates the narrative of the poem. Here, contrast SYLWIA CISEK, Student
themes of Maya Angelou’s is intuitively relied upon RICHARD POULIN,
On the Pulse of Morning to create an emotional and Instructor
inaugural poem as an meaningful visual experience SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS,
effective and prominent for the reader. See Chapter New York, NY, USA
visual characteristic evident 8: Scale, Chapter 10: Space,
in scale, space, photographic Chapter 19: Contrast, Chapter
imagery, and typography. 23: Image, and Chapter 25:
Dramatic photographic imag- Typography for detailed
ery is paired with impactful information on each of these

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 This self-portrait poster uses these various relationships
radial balance to organize and within her network of family
convey levels of personal re- and friends. See Chapter 6:
lationships that the designer Color and Chapter 11: Balance
has with her family and for detailed information on
friends. Each concentric circle each of these fundamental
is radiating from a central, design elements and
common focal point; the in- principles.
ner circle is the most intimate
set of relationships with the MICHELLE KWON, Student
outermost circle identifying RICHARD POULIN,
people that the designer has Instructor
limited contact with. Color SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS,
coding further assists the New York, NY, USA
reader in understanding
the language of graphic design

th
g
y
o
th
o
re
r
T
It
th
o
g
e
fr
S
This brand identity’s logo- program elements are equally s
type and custom sans serif effective in large-scale
typeface for JFK Terminal 4
communicates a friendly
environments as well as
small-scale print and digital m
visual character through the applications. See Chapter 2:
use of linear-based letter-
forms, a vibrant color palette,
Line, Chapter 6: Color, Chap-
ter 23: Image, and Chapter
d
and illustrative images 25: Typography for detailed
consistently composed on information on each of these
a bright white background. fundamental design elements
From wall murals and digital and principles.
directories to retail corridor
wall and gate graphics, BASE DESIGN
New York, NY, USA

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 Over the past thirty years as an educator, I have found that
there is a constant void of relevant and meaningful resources for

Introduction
graphic design students and
“The hardest thing to see
young practitioners entering is what is in front of your eyes.”
our profession. Unfortunately, GOETHE (GERMAN, 1749–1832) Author

there has been a limited number

of reference books on essential information and inspirational
resources on the basic tenets of graphic design fundamentals.
This updated and revised edition goes beyond the student experience.
It includes work of graphic design students and design practitioners
that have come to the forefront of their profession since the release
of the first edition with new insights, approaches, and solutions in
graphic design. They also represent the extent and breadth of our
ever-expanding global educational and professional communities
from countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Brussels,
Spain, Iran, Serbia, and the United States. By examining both 14

ally student and professional work, this illustrated handbook is a more

meaningful, memorable, and inspiring reference tool for novice
15

all
2:
p- design students and young designers starting their careers.
d
se
nts

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 Over-scaled, bold letterforms Chapter 25: Typography for
set in an asymmetrical layout detailed information on each
are compositional elements of these fundamental design
and principles used for this elements and principles.
celebratory poster on the de-
sign of Eurostile (1962)—one HAEUN KIM, Student
of Aldo Novarese’s (Italian, RICHARD POULIN,
1920–1998) most popular Instructor
and successful sans serif SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS,
geometric typefaces. See New York, NY, USA
Chapter 13: Asymmetry and
the language of graphic design

p
d
a
m

L
U
p
a

Ah
is u
fra
lon
exh
NP
sec
a st
s
and
of s
nar
cap
ima
im

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 Starting with your education and continuing throughout your
professional career, you will refer to these basic tenets of graphic

Introduction
design defined in this handbook time and time again for guidance
and valuable inspiration when considering designing meaningful,
memorable, and communicative work.
My goal for the first edition and second editions of The
Language of Graphic Design: An Illustrated Handbook for
Understanding Fundamental Design Principles is for it to be the
primary resource and reference that you will refer to time and time
again for essential information, inspiration, and guidance.

16

A hierarchical grid system features NPR milestones

is used as the compositional integrated with a timeline
17

framework for this 75-foot- highlighting public radio,

long, permanent, interactive world, and radio broadcast
exhibition entitled This is history. See Chapter 26: Grid
NPR. It is organized in five for detailed information on
sections, each dedicated to each of this fundamental
a story significant to NPR design principle.
and its listeners, consisting
of section titles, subheads, POULIN + MORRIS INC.
narrative text, pull quotes, New York, NY, USA
captions, and photographic
images. Its upper portion

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 Hoefler fonts (from top With a library of more than Museum; and can also be seen
to bottom, left to right: 1,500 typefaces designed for on Twitter and at Tiffany &
Surveyor 2001, Landmark print, web, office, and mobile Co., on HBO and Netflix, on
1999, Idlewild 2012, environments, Hoefler & Co. every can of Coca-Cola, and
Ideal Sans 2011, Forza 2010, fonts are now ubiquitous on every iPhone. See Chapter
Vitesse 2010, Tungsten 2009, in our visual landscape. 25: Typography for detailed
Sentinel 2009, Gotham They have designed original information on each of this
2002) are among some of the typefaces for Esquire, Martha fundamental design element.
most recognizable typefaces Stewart Living, Harper’s
that continually reflect a Bazaar, Rolling Stone, Sports HOEFLER & CO.
strong visual integrity to Illustrated, Nike, the New New York, NY, USA
craft, historical context, York Times Magazine, and
and a universal vernacular. the Solomon R. Guggenheim

The fundamental design approach to typographic and The

Th
principle of expression is narrative form, and further MORGAN O’BRIEN, Student ser
clearly the primary means of reinforce the powerful RICHARD POULIN, rap
communication used in this message in this provocative Instructor tex
poster celebrating the design and powerful poster. See SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS, lea
philosophy of renowned Chapter 6: Color, Chapter 8: New York, NY, USA me
British graphic designer, art Scale, Chapter 9: Movement, pag
director, typographer, and Chapter 10: Space, Chapter rea
educator Neville Brody (b. 16: Expression, and Chapter thi
1957). Color, scale, space, 25: Typography for detailed Its
movement, and typography information on each of these pro
are also effectively used to fundamental design elements and
reflect his highly innovative and principles. pre

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een This book jacket for El of the cover. See Chapter
coronel no tiene quien le 12: Symmetry, Chapter 23:
n escriba (No One Writes to the Image, and Chapter 25:
d Colonel and Other Stories), Typography for detailed
ter by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, information on each of these
d conveys a refined visual fundamental design elements
s character that captures the and principles.
nt. unique perspective and voice
of the author. Its unusual, DANIEL RODRIQUEZ,
eye-catching textural image Student
and fluid script typography is RICHARD POULIN,
composed on a symmetrical Instructor
axis that further strengthens SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS,
the overall composition New York, NY, USA

Introduction

The consistent use of sans Proportion, Chapter 25:

serif Neo-Grotesque typog- Typography, and Chapter
raphy in continuous narrative 26: Grid for detailed infor-
text with proportional mation on each of these
leading and a justified align- fundamental design elements
ment, coupled with a rigorous and principles.
page grid, provides optimum
readability and legibility for TRIBORO
this publication titled Labor. Brooklyn, NY, USA
Its unusual, extreme vertical
proportion adds to its distinct
and memorable physical
presence. See Chapter 22:

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 point \'point\ n

1
the language of graphic design

4 a: a geometric element that has zero

dimensions and a location determinable
by an ordered set of coordinates

“A
el
e
PA

It
I
g
g

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 1 point
A point is the fundamental
“An idea is a point of departure and no more. As soon as you
elaborate it, it becomes transformed by thought.” building block of all visual 20
PABLO PICASSO (SPANISH, 1881–1973) Painter, Sculptor
communication design
elements and principles.
21

It is also the simplest and purest of all geometric elements in a

graphic designer’s vocabulary and used as an essential element in
geometry, physics, vector graphics, and other related fields.

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 Paris Diderot Université’s
logotype is literally based
on an “X marks the spot”
graphic representation or,
providing a much stronger
and cohesive unity to the
overall message.
1
in this case, the intersection CATHERINE ZASK
of two visual elements or Paris, FR AE
lines creating a singular PE
point. Additionally, the dots Mu
of the lowercase i’s in the
words Paris and Diderot are
shared to create a visual
focal point and integration
between the two words,

Definitions Pe
the language of graphic design

A point has many definitions. It is often con- tr

sidered within the framework of Euclidean de
geometry, where it is one of the fundamental ea
objects. Euclid (Greek, c. 300 BCE), creator in
of modern geometry, originally defined the de
point vaguely, as “that which has no part.” in
It is an abstract phenomenon indicat- fir
ing a precise location; however, it cannot be vi
seen or felt. It is a location or place without an
area. In typography, a point is a period. It is th
a dot character such as a full stop, decimal
point, or radix point. It is also the smallest ar
(continued on page 24) na
th
Da
sig
si
ev
te
Da
te
th
th
No
N
of
Ge
G
fa
m
an

on
ob
The website for Olin, a fluid, kinetic movements st
landscape architecture, urban of the site’s interface, further re
design, and planning firm, conveying Olin as an organic,
relies solely upon varied living entity. an
size points, or dots, as the M
primary navigational tools PENTAGRAM Le
for accessing specific New York, NY, USA
information, such as profile, M
project types, and news on Gr
G
the firm. It also visually th
symbolizes the macrocosm
and microcosm of the
organization through the Ge
G

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 1910
AEG Lamp Poster
PETER BEHRENS
Munich, DE

P e t e r B e h r e n s (1868–1940) was a electrical utility and industrial producer,

true visionary and the first Renaissance hired Behrens as its new artistic consultant.
designer of the modern age, moving with It was at aeg that he created a unified brand
ease from one discipline to another—paint- for every aspect of the company’s visual
ing, architecture, product design, furniture environment—office buildings, factories,
design, and graphic design. His creative and visual communication materials.
interests were boundless. Behrens was the A primary example of Behrens’s design
first to pursue a seamless integration of philosophy at aeg was a promotional
visual communications and architecture poster advertising aeg’s newest product in
and was an inspiration to the founders of 1910—a technologically advanced lamp or
the modernist movement. lightbulb. The design of the poster is clearly
As a young man, he worked as a fine based on fundamental modernist design
artist, illustrator, and bookbinder in his elements and principles. Its orthogonal
native Hamburg. In 1899, Behrens became graphic composition is organized with

and the AEG Brand

Peter Behrens
the second member of the recently created an articulated grid and comprises basic
Darmstadt Artists’ Colony, where he de- geometric shapes—a continuous frame
signed and built his own house as well as or square, a circle, and an equilateral
everything inside it—from furniture and triangle. The triangle provides a focal
textiles to paintings and pottery. While at location for the lightbulb and a simplified,
Darmstadt, he realized that he was more in- abstract dot pattern represents brilliance
terested in simplified geometric forms than and illumination. The pattern and lines
the more organic and curvilinear forms of framing and dividing the composition of
the current Jugendstil (New Art) or Art the poster, as well as the outline of the
Nouveau. In the early 1900s, he became one circle and triangle, are all composed of a
of the leaders of architectural reform in series of dots or points, which symbolize
Germany and one of the first architects of and communicate light.
factories and office buildings utilizing a In defining his approach, he stated,
modernist materials palette of brick, steel, “Design is not about decorating functional
and glass. forms—it is about creating forms that
As a teacher, his ideas and teachings accord with the character of the object and
on design for industry, as well as everyday that show new technologies to advantage.” 22
objects and products, influenced a group of His visionary approach not only influ-
students that would ultimately alter the di- enced the entire aeg corporate culture, it
her rection of twentieth-century architecture became the first seminal example of cor-
23

ic,
and design worldwide, including Ludwig porate identity and branding that would
Mies van der Rohe (German, 1886–1969), inevitably become a primary force within
Le Corbusier (Swiss, 1887–1965), Adolf the design professions in the later part of
Meyer (German, 1843–1942), and Walter the twentieth century.
Gropius (German, 1883–1969), founder of
the Bauhaus school in Dessau, Germany.
In 1907, Allegemein Elektricitäts-
Gesellschaft (aeg), Germany’s largest

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 This book cover for The and jarring focal point to an
Verificationist uses a otherwise restrained graphic
diminuitive-scaled, universal cover composition.
symbol of man as a visual
metaphor that supports the JOHN GALL
book’s title and main New York, NY, USA
character—a middle-aged
psychotherapist in the midst
of a midlife crisis. The head
of the symbol—a point repre-
sented in a larger scale—is
divorced and distant from its
body, creating an immediate

unit of measurement, being a subdivision of

the language of graphic design

the larger pica—one point is equal to 0.0148 so

inches, 1/72 of an inch, whereby twelve (12) co
points equals one pica. It also describes the to
weight or thickness of paper stock. sp
wi
Visual Characteristics ar
In visual communications, a point takes the fo
form of a visible mark or dot. It can stand
alone, identified solely by its own presence, an
or become an integrated element of a larger wh
collective whole. A point can be realized in ap
many ways and take on many graphic forms. ca
A series of points can create a line. A mass of
points can create shape, form, texture, tone,
and pattern. Although it is a visible mark, it
has no mass. It is a design element that has
a location in space but has no extension. It is
defined by its position in space with a pair of
x- and y-coordinates.
Every shape or mass with a recogniz-
able center is also a point, no matter what its
size. A point simultaneously radiates inward
and outward. An infinite set of points is also
a line. Any two points can be connected by a
straight line. A plane or shape with a center
is a closed form and can also be described as
a point. Even when its size is increased, it still
retains its essential identity as a point.

Point—or dot—is shown in a intense color fields, all add to

variety of different forms, the visual celebration of this
scales, and configurations artist’s work.
throughout this monograph
brochure on the work of SANG LEE JIN, Student
Japanese avant-garde artist TRACY BOYCHUK, Instructor
Yayoi Kusama. Dot matrix SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
letterforms, die-cut circles, New York, NY, USA
varying-scale dot patterns,
dot-patterned images,
and linear dotted frames
juxtaposed with black and
white, as well as saturated,

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 This assignment requires square and then composed becoming more at ease with
sophomore students to in a 3 X 3-inch (7.6 X 7.6 cm) using a camera, and compos-
consider fundamental design nine-square layout, further ing photographic images
elements—in this case, point— communicating the student’s with software such as Camera
found in their environment analysis of relationships in Raw, Adobe Photoshop, and
and in everyday objects. With form, color, texture, scale, Adobe Bridge.
photography they explore and contrast between the
their surroundings and various images. This NEIL AGUINALDO, Student
document examples of point assignment increases their ANNABELLE GOULD,
found in surprising and understanding of fundamen- Instructor
intriguing situations. The tal design elements, their UNIVERSITY
final images are cropped to awareness of the natural OF WASHINGTON
a 3 X 3-inch (7.6 X 7.6 cm) and built environment, them Seattle, WA, USA

1
f Conventional offset printing is also
8 solely based on a point, since it is the single

Point
common denominator for creating color,
e tone, value, gradients, and halftones. A
spatial point describes a specific object
within a given space that consists of volume,
area, length, or any other higher dimensional
form. It is an object with zero dimensions.
While it can be defined in many ways
and take on a variety of visual realities,
er when used in a meaningful scale and in an
appropriate context, a point can communi-
s. cate a multitude of visual meanings.
of
e,

is
of

ts
d
o
a
r
as
till
ill

24

A free-form mass of brand and mission of the

minuscule, graphic points is institution and can be found SUSSMAN/PREJZA
25

the primary visual element in the building’s architecture, & COMPANY

of this identity program for exhibition design, graphic Los Angeles, CA, USA
the Museum of the African identity, collateral materials,
Diaspora (MoAD), a first- and environmental graphics.
voice museum that explores Here, the museum’s acronym
and celebrates the history, and logotype comprise
culture, and contributions thousands of points, further
of the people of the African reinforcing that the MoAD
Diaspora around the world. is about the individual's own
These graphic points, in this unique experiences.
context, communicate the

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 This simple, iconic eclipse further reinforces this This information-based as primary identification
logotype represents summer message, and creates an poster, titled The Shape of elements for specific auto CHRISTINA VAN VLECK
as well as the elements of eye-catching and memorable Globalization: World Auto types, manufacturers, brands, Lexington, MA, USA
risk and mystery found visual for the festival. Industry, designed for the and subsidiaries. Adjacent
in the diverse work of the U.S. Department of Energy, and overlapping circles
performing artists appearing MONNET DESIGN documents the designer’s communicate statistical data
at this independent theater Toronto, ONT, CA analysis of the global auto relating to the collaborative
and arts festival in Toronto, manufacturing industry partnerships between two or
Ontario. An organizational and its impact on sales and more automakers. Color is
grid of different suns based use throughout the world. used as a codification for
on a common graphic point The poster is composed of the six primary countries that
and juxtaposed on an intense, a series of points—dots and produce automobiles and
neon-yellow background circles of varying scale, used trucks worldwide.
the language of graphic design

The
Th
L'O
des
int
as i
cou
str
aS
fac
201
20
of t
one
on
the

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 This visual identity system for the project logotype,
for Huasen Architecture posters, exhibition catalog, SENSE TEAM
Company’s exhibition, invitations, and shopping Shenzhen, CN
titled Seeds of the Cities, bags. In some situations,
relies solely on perforated these dot-based characters
letterforms derived from a are composed as a visual
series of LED indicator continuum, similar to a
displays found throughout typical LED zipper display,
the traveling exhibition. where the information is
These dot-based characters literally traveling from one
and symbols are either surface to another.
printed or literally punched
through various paper stocks

1 Point
26

The branding program for firm's name, reinforces its

L'Observatoire, a lighting singular clarity and focus.
27

design studio, relies on the

interplay of light and shadow TRIBORO
as its primary graphic theme New York, NY, USA
coupled with the fine line
stroke and pure geometry of
a Sans Serif Geometric type-
face, Larseit (Nico Inosanto,
2013). The logotype's use
of two different scale points,
one for an apostrophe and
the other for the O of the

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 line \'l n\ n

2
the language of graphic design

1: the path traced by a moving point

2: a thin, continuous mark, as that
made by a pen, pencil, or brush applied
to a surface

“T
m
in
W

A
c
a

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 2 line
One of the most basic and
“The geometric line is an invisible thing. It is the track
made by the moving point . . . Here, the leap out of the static
pervasive visual elements
into the dynamic occurs.”
28

WASSILY KANDINSKY (RUSSIAN, 1866–1944) Painter

of a graphic designer’s
visual vocabulary is a line.
29

A line’s functions are limitless. It can join, organize, divide, direct,

construct, and move other graphic objects. A line can be read as
a positive mark or a negative gap. Lines can be actual or implied.

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 This branding program for
The Aldrich Contemporary
Art Museum uses an angled,
chevron-like line as a youth-
SAGMEISTER & WALSH
New York, NY, USA
1
ful, energetic, authentic,
and fun graphic element for Zur
Zu
the museumgoer. It literally JO
follows the profile of the Zur
Zu
museum building's roofline
and is used in a variety of
color palettes, patterns, and
functions throughout print
and digital media.

Jo
the language of graphic design

19
to
ob
te
se
ex
st
pu
th

th
tio
in
They can be realized as edges or boundaries de
to objects as well as contours to shapes and of
forms. A line can lead the reader’s eye as an
well as provide movement and energy to any
composition. When used properly, a line us
can improve readability, immediacy, and the sq
ultimate meaning of any visual message. an
sc
Historical References sa
We are taught “a line is the shortest distance wh
w
between two points.” Although this fact is m
true, we have never been taught to appreci- m
ate the other inherent characteristics and pr
qualities of a line. Since man felt the need to
(continued on page 32) po
of
Al
W
Kinetic, fluid lines used in history of playwrights-in- wa
this logotype and environ- residence. They also create C+G PARTNERS LLC ie
mental graphics program play a cloud of signatures that New York, NY, USA
multiple roles. First, they serves a myriad of uses such st
convey Signature Theatre as a frame, backdrop, and of
Company’s brand and mission even as a container to hold di
to provide a venue for an photographs or artwork.
evolving series of diverse The relationship between in
voices and visions in the the logotype’s linear ele- sp
theater. The logotype’s linear ments and the vibrant color fin
composition is constructed palette used in various ap-
of layered, handwritten plications creates a dynamic ov
signatures of the company’s and memorable identity. so

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 1955
Zurich Tonhalle Concert Poster
JOSEF MÜLLER-BROCKMANN
Zurich, CH

J o s e f M ü l l e r - B r o c k m a n n (1914– in two directions across the poster. This

1996), designer, writer, artist, and educa- approach supported Müller-Brockmann’s
tor, was one of the pioneers of functional, interpretive view that visual form is com-
objective graphic design and the Swiss In- parable to nonrepresentational structures
ternational Typographic Style. His poster and mathematical systems found in all
series for the Zurich Tonhalle is a seminal musical composition. Here, the structural
example of this modernist, constructivist and compositional framework of lines ex-
style and set the standard for the use of presses the true nature of the composer’s
pure geometry, mathematical systems, and music. At the time, it was said that Josef
the grid in visual communications. Müller-Brockmann was a musician compos-
During the 1950s, he explored various ing without an instrument.
theories of nonrepresentational abstrac- All of his work can be analyzed in a
tion, visual metaphor, subjective graphic similar manner. A precise mathematical
interpretation, and constructive graphic plan, logically constructed, is always em-

and the Zurich Tonhalle Posters

Josef Müller-Brockmann
design based on the sole use of elements ployed. Every element has a reason for its
of pure geometry without illustration, nu- size, placement, and position.
ance, or embellishment. In reviewing the poster series, legend-
Each poster in the Tonhalle series ary graphic designer Paul Rand (American,
uses geometric elements such as circles, 1914–1996) said, “They reveal an artist at
squares, arcs, and lines as visual metaphor work, as well as one who fathoms the world
and is visually orchestrated with rhythm, of communication, the particular audience
scale, and repetition. Müller-Brockmann for a particular function. These posters are
said that these posters were “designed in comfortable in the worlds of art and music.
which the proportions of the formal ele- They do not try to imitate musical notation,
ments and their immediate spaces are al- but they evoke the very sounds of music by
most always related to certain numerical visual equivalents.”
progressions logically followed out.” Müller-Brockmann’s integration of
For example, the Zurich Tonhalle typography and pure geometry illustrates
poster he designed that features the work a timeless relationship between image and
of Igor Stravinsky (Russian, 1882–1971), music—vocabulary and message.
Alban Berg (Austrian, 1885–1935), and 30
Wolfgang Fortner (German, 1907–1987)
was based on a series of photographic stud-
ies he had been working on earlier. One
31

study was composed of intersecting lines

of varied thickness and lengths, where the
dimensions of each line were determined
in relationship to each adjacent line. These
spatial relationships were also used in de-
fining the spaces between each line. The
overall composition is angled by 45 degrees
so that each line appears to move diagonally

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 The exhibition Brno Echo: grammar of modern orna- stylistic visual languages
Ornament and Crime from ment, connecting everything throughout the last century.
Adolf Loos to Now is a lively from the Wiener Werkstätte The exhibition’s graphic
dialogue between historical to pop art and current identity is based on the B
and contemporary design variants of retro-futurism. designed for the original
on “modern ornament.” Here, geometric striping Brno Biennial identity.
Adolf Loos’s 1910 manifesto and concentric forms are a These posters utilize this
“Ornament and Crime” serves type of ornamentation that line-composed letterform to
as the conceptual foundation is acceptably modern. This, create “BRNO ECHO.”
for this exhibition, which in turn, leads the viewer
looks at the recurrence through an archaeology of PENTAGRAM
of lines and patterns that concentric striping that links New York, NY, USA
constitute a fundamental early modernism with other

visually communicate his day-to-day visually represent them. As an elemental

experiences by making marks on cave walls, geometric form, a line always has length,
he has unconsciously relied upon line. This but never breadth. When this proportional
fact is evident in cave paintings in southern relationship occurs, a line inevitably becomes
France, burial messages in Egyptian hiero- a plane or surface.
glyphics, inscriptions on Roman tribunal The primary function of a line in visual
arches, and medieval crests adorning castle communications is to connect or separate
walls. Line has always been a fundamental other elements in a composition. Its inherent
element of our visual communications palette. nature is directional. When it is articulated
In reexamining these historical references, as a smooth gesture, the eye follows it in
we can further identify the numerous and an easy and unconscious manner; when it
varied functions given to line. is rough or irregular, it impedes movement,
thereby slowing the eye’s connection with it.
Character and Meaning Lines create boundaries and ultimately
A line is composed of a number of points define shape and form. They are inherently
located next to one another in one direction; dynamic gestures as opposed to points that
the number of points can be infinite or there are always static. Lines communicate move-
can be two endpoints—a beginning point ment because they move in two directions.
This promotional poster for Japanese overtones, was and an endpoint—or a vector. Its path defines Man created line as the simplest means Th
Thi
Design UK, one component used to brand the event and the quality and character of the resulting line. to visually communicate. We see lines as tio
of a comprehensive public appeared on collateral print dra
awareness and branding materials and websites. It can be straight, meander, or curve across boundaries in objects and are initially taught ren
program for the British itself or it can follow the precise arc of a to draw lines as a way to communicate naïve bru
Embassy in Tokyo, is based FORM circle segment. The end result gives specific shapes and forms. the
on an abstract Union Jack London, UK do
doc
created from red and white character and meaning to each line. pro
illuminated neon tubes A line is elemental in visual communi- Tone and Message gen
attached to a blue back- cations. It is also a fundamental element of A line communicates division, organization,
ground. The resulting linear
construction, symbolically geometry. Without it, the circle, square, emphasis, sequence, and hierarchy. These
British with futuristic and triangle would not exist, nor could we inherent functions can change in tone and

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 2 Line
es

nt

t..

t
- 32

ns This logotype and promo- This logotype for the

tional poster use a series of TAKASHI KUSUI, Student restaurant Txikito Cocina
33

dramatic calligraphic lines JI LEE, Instructor Vasca, featuring cuisine from

htt rendered in bold, kinetic SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS the Basque region of Spain,
e brushstrokes to represent New York, NY, USA is based on curvilinear
the Asian influences of this wrought-iron signs found
documentary film festival’s throughout the region and
program offerings to the was reproduced in gold leaf
general public. on its entrance doors.
,
LOUISE FILI LTD.
New York, NY, USA

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 The Prix Émile Hermès as the relationship between
focuses on young European craftsmanship and the end
designers and rewards them product. The logotype cap-
for their creative and tures the spirit of function,
innovative contributions to craft, and innovation through
the functionality of designed the use of line, letterform,
objects. The awards program and metaphor.
is named in honor of Charles-
Émile Hermès (French, CATHERINE ZASK
1831–1876), a creative Paris, FR
visionary and pioneer who
recognized the value of form
and function in design as well

message through the tool used to articulate

the language of graphic design

a line. Lines are expressive. They can be

long, short, thick, thin, smooth, or irregular
and can convey a wide range of emotions.
A straight line is mechanical and cold; a
curvilinear line is natural and approachable;
a thin line is soft and restrained; a bold line
communicates strength and power. If a line
is drawn with a brush, it conveys a more fluid
and undisciplined message as opposed to a
line created with a mechanical pen that con-
veys precision and a disciplined message.
Another aspect of line quality is deter-
mined by the tool that makes it; for example,
the sketched quality of a charcoal pencil line,
the precision of a line drawn with a digital ve
pen tool, or the organic quality of a line an
brushed with ink. Again, history confirms this ac
to be true. From the naïve nature of a line an
drawn by a finger or a branch from a tree, to zo
a metal scribe or a calligraphic pen nib, the su
communicative nature of a line has evolved
over time at the same pace as humankind’s “co
“c
reliance on different tools and technologies. th
dif
di
Graphic Forms str
The orientation and position of a line can do
also further influence a visual message. A jux
ju
horizontal line is calm, quiet, and serene; a m

This assignment requires square and then composed becoming more at ease with Th
Thi
sophomore students to in a 3 X 3-inch (7.6 X 7.6 cm) using a camera, and compos- cis
cise
consider fundamental design nine-square layout, further ing photographic images and
elements—in this case, line— communicating the with software such as Camera req
found in their environment student's analysis of relation- Raw, Adobe Photoshop, and ana
and everyday objects. With ships in form, color, texture, Adobe Bridge. pre
photography they explore scale, and contrast between the
their surroundings and the various images. This AMBER JOEHNK, Student pla
document examples of line assignment increases their ANNABELLE GOULD, Eac
found in surprising and understanding of fundamen- Instructor and
intriguing situations. The tal design elements; their UNIVERSITY tha
final images are cropped to awareness of the natural OF WASHINGTON his
a 3 X 3-inch (7.6 X 7.6 cm) and built environment; them Seattle, WA, USA a lo

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 The identity and collateral
material for a fund-raising ROGERS ECKERSLEY
event, Safe Horizon, was DESIGN (RED)
based on work contributed New York, NY, USA
by a number of artists who
created their own interpreta-
tions of the word safety.
The majority of art was based
on line, as well as form,
texture, and pattern created
by line. The art was displayed
and auctioned at the event.

2
e

Line
id
d

n--

-
e,
e,
vertical line communicates strength, height,
and aspiration. Vertical lines appear more
his active and communicate a more powerful
and immediate message than a series of hori-
o zontal lines. Diagonal lines are much more
suggestive, energetic, and dynamic.
While we have always been told to
“color within the lines,” we should consider
s.. that lines can be realized in a variety of
different graphic forms. They can be
straight, curvilinear, thin, thick, solid, and
dotted. Multiple lines, whether parallel or
juxtaposed at right angles, create texture,
movement, tension, pattern, tone, value,

This poster is from an exer- the verge of breaking is a

cise, “Visual Storytelling metaphor for the main char- MIKIHIRO KOBAYASHI,
and Narrative Form,” and acters of the play undergoing Student
requires a student to read, extreme challenges in their RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
analyze, and visually inter- lives. The purity of the image, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
pret the narrative themes of as well as the supporting New York, NY, USA
the Pulitzer Prize–winning typography, allows the line
play Angels in America. to be emotional, provocative,
Each student conceptualizes and highly communicative.
and photographs imagery
that visually communicates
his or her point of view. Here
a loose, frayed thread on

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 Th
Thi
for
Re
Rev
Be
Bea
Afr
Co
spe
dat
her
Th
The
of a
chr
key
the language of graphic design

perspective, and structure. The graphi-

cal articulation of a line also impacts its Th
presence, subtle or obvious, on any given Li
surface. Shaded lines recede as they change co
from thick to thin, creating a subtle illusion co
of space. The thicker the line, the more it pu
comes forward or advances. to
Another way to think of line is as an pa
edge. When it is given this function, it ca
allows the eye to perceive an object from its qu
background. We immediately understand line of
as edge when a horizontal line distinguishes ca
land from sea or land from sky. A linear edge an
can exist along the side of any straight
or curved shape or as the result of shapes lin
sharing the same edge. m
A line can also be implied, meaning us
it occurs as the result of an alignment of em
This dramatic three-dimen- ascending focal point to shapes, edges, or even points. Implying the sp
sional, textural wall mural this two-story, double-height existence of a line in this way can be very tio
for PMP Limited Melbourne office reception space.
is composed of horizontal engaging for the viewer. Implying lines can all
lines dimensionalized in an EMERYSTUDIO activate a compositional space. fo
abstract manner symbolizing Melbourne, VIC, AU
the activities of this media
production and magazine
distribution company.
Spectrum-colored up-lighting
and an exaggerated bas-relief
of each horizontal band
further create a spatial and

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 This information graphic development as well as her This brand identity's logo- scale environmental graphics
for the New York Times Book own life, ultimately arriving type and custom sans serif as well as in small-scale print
Review’s The House at Sugar at a symbolic star or home. typography for JFK Terminal and digital applications.
Beach: In Search of a Lost The graphic composition is 4 in New York City is solely
African Childhood, by Helene based on the Liberian flag based on line and effectively BASE DESIGN
Cooper, visually highlights and shows the circuitous paired with vibrant colors on New York, NY, USA
specific developments and route that the reader will a bright white background
dates found throughout travel when reading her book. in a variety of scale applica-
her emotional memoir. tions—from wall murals
The graphic is composed JULIA HOFFMANN and digital directories to
of a serpentine bold stripe, New York, NY, USA retail corridor walls and gate
chronologically identifying graphics. Program elements
key dates in her country’s are equally effective in large-

The Quality of a Line

Lines have a variety of functions in visual
e communications. They can serve as the
contour of an object or human figure or exist
purely to serve themselves as elements used
to separate information, lead the eye in a
particular direction, or imply alignment. Lines
can also become textures or patterns. The
s quality of a line can communicate the nature
ne of what is being described; for example, deli-
s cate, precise, angular, architectural, chemical,
ge anatomical, fluid, or awkward.
One of the most prevalent uses of
line is in print material, such as newspapers,
magazines, and publications. Here, lines are
used to organize information, separate and 36
emphasize content, and direct the eye to
specific areas of interest. In all of these situa-
tions, line is used to improve readability,
37

allow easy access to information, and rein-

force the immediacy of any visual message.

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 shape \'shāp\ n

3
the language of graphic design

1: spatial form or contour, or

the characteristic surface
configuration of a thing; an outline
or a contour; see form

“Th
“T
JE

o
b
A

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 3 shape
“The object of art is to give life a shape.”From ancient glyphs to
JEAN ANOUILH (FRENCH, 1910–1987) Dramatist
contemporary symbols, 38

shape is one of the

fundamental elements
39

of a graphic designer’s vocabulary. Generally, shape is defined by

boundary and mass. It refers to a contour or an outline of a form.
A plane or shape is a point or dot that has become too large to

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 1
The
Th
VL
(ST
(S
Mo

Vl
V
G
kn
So
re
of

in
Sc
St
fr
th
M
St
retain its pure identity due to its weight or fo
mass, even if it still has a flat appearance. Ar
When this transformation occurs, a dot ex
becomes a shape. an
A shape is a graphic, two-dimensional m
plane that appears to be flat and is defined co
by an enclosing, contour line, as well as by ar
color, value, texture, or typography. It is the Ro
external outline of a plane that results from no
a line that starts at one point and continues (1
back to its beginning, creating an enclosed
space or shape. It is composed of width di
and height but never depth. It is a line with th
breadth. Shapes are used to define layouts, m
create patterns, and compose countless an
elements in a composition. Ho
H
in
Basic Characteristics de
Examples of basic shapes are the circle, The playful and unconven- the museum’s acronym to ad
square, and triangle. All other complex tional shapes for the Museum constantly evolve and change ve
of Arts and Design (MAD) from application to applica-
shapes, such as an oval, rectangle, trapezoid, identity program are reminis- tion, furthering the eclectic
pentagon, hexagon, and octagon, are cent of forms evident in the nature and public message of fil
derived from these three elemental shapes. building’s original interior this institution’s mission. er
architecture, and represent
A shape can be solid or outline, opaque or the museum’s unique home, PENTAGRAM un
transparent, smooth or textured. expanded collections, and New York, NY, USA ad
Shapes are either geometric, organic, diverse program offerings. A po
broad and visually diverse set
or random. Their overall configurations can of colors, textures, materials, up
(continued on page 42) forms, and images allows ni

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 1928
The Sold Appetite Poster
VLADIMIR AND GEORGII STENBERG
(STENBERG BROTHERS)
Moscow, RUS

Vladimir Stenberg (1899–1982) and from the film or an image of the featured
Georgii Stenberg (1900–1933), also star of the film—to gain public attention.
known as the Stenberg brothers, were The Stenbergs were at their prime dur-
Soviet artists and designers who came to ing this revolutionary period of politics,
renown following the Russian Revolution propaganda, and artistic experimentation
of 1917. in Russia. They started to experiment with
After an initial interest in engineer- collage, photomontage, and assemblage, as
ing, the Stenbergs attended the Stoganov well as portions of photographic images
School of Applied Art (later renamed the and preprinted paper created by others.
State Free Art Workshops) in Moscow They realized a new approach and meth-
from 1917 to 1922, where they designed odology for creating imagery and compo-
the decorations and posters for the first sitions that were no longer connected to
May Day celebration of 1918. In 1919, the conventional realism.
Stenbergs, along with a group of comrades, While the visual characteristics of

Film Poster
and the Russian Avant-Garde
The Stenberg Brothers
founded the obmokhu (the Society of Young their posters included perspective, texture,
Artists) and participated in its first group scale, contrast, and movement, as well as an
exhibition in May of 1919. During the 1920s innovative use of color, pattern, and typog-
and ’30s, they were well established and raphy, shape was a primary compositional
members of the avant-garde community, element used in all of their work. Whether
collaborating with other Russian artists, its scale is exaggerated, its graphic form
architects, and writers such as Alexandr distorted, or its visual composition jarring,
Rodchenko (1891–1956), Varvara Stepa- shape, when used by the Stenbergs, created
nova (1894–1958), and Kasimir Malevich identity and visual immediacy, as well as
(1878–1935). reinforced a poster’s story. Their posters
They worked in a wide range of me- were groundbreaking, abstract studies of
dia, initially as sculptors and then as line, plane, and shape composed in space
theater designers, architects, and drafts- and reflected a kinship to Suprematist
men, designing everything from clothing painting, Russian Constructivism, and the
and furniture to costumes and stage sets. work of El Lissitzky (1890–1941), Vladi-
However, their greatest achievement was mir Mayakovsky (1893–1930), and Wassily
in graphic design, particularly with the Kandinsky (1866–1944). 40
design of mass-produced posters used to The majority of their posters, radi-
advertise a new and powerful form of uni- cal even by contemporary standards, were
ge versal communication—film. produced within a nine-year period from
41

-
c In the early 1900s, the commercial 1924 to 1933, the year of Georgii’s untimely
of film poster provided artists and design- death at age 33. Vladimir continued to de-
ers, such as the Stenbergs, with new and sign film posters and organized the decora-
uncharted approaches for communicating tions of Moscow’s Red Square for the May
a diverse range of visual themes. Up to this Day celebration of 1947.
point in time, film posters usually relied
upon a narrow point of view for commu-
nicating their story—either a single scene

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 The soft inviting shape of
this four-sided wine label for
Terrazzo Prosecco provides
an appropriate frame and
background for its delicate,
linear border, as well as for its
symmetrical typography and
fluid script lettering of the
wine name.

LOUISE FILI LTD.

New York, NY, USA
the language of graphic design

determine their inherent message and mean-

ing. For example, a soft, curvilinear shape
may appear warm and welcoming, whereas
a sharp, angular shape may appear cold and
threatening.
Straight lines and angular corners cre-
ate rectilinear, geometric shapes. Curvilinear
lines create amorphous, organic shapes.
Circles, squares, triangles, and rectangles are
geometric shapes that are crisp and math-
ematically precise with straight lines and con-
sistent, curved profiles. A natural or organic
shape can either be irregular or regular.

The pairing of these two pure the human connection of the

geometric shapes provides visual and performing artists
a strong visual counterpoint represented in this program.
for this identity for the
University of Kentucky’s Arts POULIN + MORRIS INC.
in HealthCare program. The New York, NY, USA
dynamic juxtaposition of
these shapes fully depends
upon the visual clarity of
the square representing the
institution, combined with
the imperfect dots of the
concentric circles symbolizing

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 Three thick, sturdy, and the shape of this logotype, it
bold custom letterforms are is immediately understood
composed as one shape to as three separate and distinct
communicate the strength letterforms with an unmis-
and power of New York takable visual characteristic
City’s branding and identity that is durable, forceful,
program. Used alone or and strong.
collectively as a visual texture
and pattern, this unique WOLFF OLINS
mark is designed as one New York, NY, USA
continuous shape, organized
in a variety of compositional
configurations. Because of

3 Shape
n-

ar

re

n-
c

he A bold, six-sided, vertically studio’s aesthetic, is rooted

ts
sts proportioned shape functions in centuries of type founding,
m. as a distinctive frame and and reminiscent of historical
containment for logotype board and flag signs found in
of Darden Studio, a type the area.
foundry housed in a historic
building in downtown MUCCA DESIGN
Brooklyn, New York. Framed New York, NY, USA
on a black field and outlined
with a white hairline, this
shape communicating
a strong sense of craft
and artismanship in the

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 the language of graphic design

Ca
C
Th
wi
an

G
Th
ric
Th
re
co
or
ge
sh
sm

O
Sh
This poster series for the containing typographic liv
Cleveland International Film information and visual us
Festival relies upon unusual, textures for added nuance
random, free-form shapes and character. us
representing the festival’s
attendees. Overscale, bold, TWIST CREATIVE INC. Ra
black shapes set against Cleveland, OH, USA
vibrant color backgrounds Sh
strengthen the overall tio
identity of these memorable se
and eye-catching profiles.
They are further married or
with smaller dynamic shapes

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 The stylized, machinelike, letterform, reinforcing a level
curved shape of this M of detail and precision in the
letterform represents Mac firm’s identity and secondary
Industries, a precision descriptive line.
machining and fabrication
company. This is further INFINITE SCALE DESIGN
conveyed with a corner of the Salt Lake City, UT, USA
M separated and set apart
from the body of the letter
functioning as a dotted i.
This dynamic void creates
a visual intersection within
the stylized shape of the

3 Shape
Categories of Shape
There are three categories of shape, each
with its own unique visual characteristics
and criteria:

Geometric
The most recognizable shapes are geomet-
ric: circles, squares, rectangles, and triangles.
They are based on mathematical formulas
relating to point, line, and plane. Their
contours are always regularized, angular,
or hard edged. We are most familiar with
geometric shapes because they are the first
shapes we tend to encounter when we are
small children.

Organic 44
Shapes created or derived from nature and
living organisms are organic. These shapes, The amorphous, free-form
used more freely than geometric shapes, are shape of a stylized window,
45

projected back in space and

usually irregular and soft. framed with soft corners,
symbolizes a youthful appeal
Random for this Seattle-based
boutique realtor named
Shapes created from invention and imagina- Funky Lofts.
tion are random and have no sense of order,
semblance, or relationship to geometric or URBAN INFLUENCE
DESIGN STUDIO
organic shapes. Seattle, WA, USA

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 These letterforms are uncon- visual element to further The
Th
ventional not only in their unify the varying shapes and the
shape, but also in their subtle meaning of the logotype. com
variations in profile, propor- of t
tion, counter, and stroke WINK ide
thickness. Reinforced with Minneapolis, MN, USA str
nonalignment to a common cou
baseline and a pronounced org
dot over the letter i, the sha
active and lyrical typographic sam
statement is unique and Tho
Th
memorable. Color is also used
as an alternating, pulsating

Sh
the language of graphic design

Th
us
tw
ha
fo
ch
fo

dim
di
wi

fu
gr
It
sp
fig
of

The visual strength, imme- shape, as well as the design

diacy, and simplicity of a pure philosophy and career of the
geometric-shaped letterform designer, Ivan Chermayeff
is the central focal point (American, 1932–2017).
and singular message of
this lecture-series poster. A PISCATELLO DESIGN
large-scale, sans serif, white CENTER
C centered within the vertical New York, NY, USA
composition of this poster
and contrasted against a
dramatic black background
further reinforces the purity
and beauty of this geometric

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 The fluid black profile of This promotional poster Vase-Bird inspired the
the letter T and star ligature MARKATOS MOORE was part of a series that was random, half animal, half ALFALFA STUDIO LLC
combined with the purity San Francisco, CA, USA developed by Scholastic, object, and hybrid shapes New York, NY, USA
of the circular seal for this Target, and AIGA to help evident in this poster.
identity program creates a educators introduce design These playful, whimsical
strong visual integrity. The to their K–8 curriculums. letterforms are further
counterpoint between an The pro-bono project invited strengthened by an intense
organic and geometric-based designers to “respond” to an two-color palette, a strong
shape become one and the art piece by creating a poster figure–ground relationship,
same with the firm name of that celebrates its themes or and an unusual overall
Thomas & Star. formal elements. The dual texture that is engaging to
nature of Picasso’s painted the viewer.
terra-cotta piece titled

3
Shape versus Form
The terms shape and form are commonly

Shape
used interchangeably; however, they have
two separate and distinct meanings. A shape
has a two-dimensional character, whereas a
form is perceived to have a three-dimensional
character. Other terms commonly used for
form are mass and volume.
A form, mass, or volume is a three-
dimensional shape because it has height,
width, and depth.
In compositional terms, a shape
functions as a figurative element in or on a
ground, surrounding background, or space.
It is a positive element within a negative
space. This is a fundamental principle of
figure-ground and an integral characteristic
of balance in a visual composition.

46

The traditional, cruciform

shape of this symmetrical
47

medallion is derived from

ornamental architectural
features of the Old Police
Headquarters building
in downtown San Diego, a
renovated, mixed-use real
estate development.

URBAN INFLUENCE
DESIGN STUDIO
Seattle, WA, USA

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 form \'fȯrm\ n

4
the language of graphic design

1 a: the shape and structure

of something as distinguished from
its material, or the shape
and structure of an object

“A
GU

a
o
In
I

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 4 form
“Art is nothing without form.” Basic forms are derived
GUSTAVE FLAUBERT (FRENCH, 1821–1880) Novelist, Playwright
from basic shapes—a 48

square becomes a cube, a

circle becomes a sphere,
49

a triangle becomes a pyramid. The terms shape and form are

often confused with one another as if they meant the same thing.
In chapter 3, criteria and characteristics that define shape were

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 The CNN Grill was a “wired
hub of political activity” for
journalists, operatives, and
celebrities during national
COLLINS
New York, NY, USA
1
political conventions. Bold,
illuminated geometric forms Alu
and typography, coupled TA
with patriotic colors, created Tok
a strong and memorable
identity for this temporary
gathering venue.

explained. Form is achieved by integrating Ta

the language of graphic design

depth or volume to the equation of shape. sc

It is a three-dimensional element of design pl
that encloses volume. It has height, width, th
and depth. For example, a two-dimensional on
triangle is defined as a shape; however, a pu
three-dimensional pyramid is defined as a lin
form. Cubes, spheres, ellipses, pyramids, pl
cones, and cylinders are all examples of te
geometric forms. ho
Form is always composed of multiple an
surfaces and edges. It is a volume or empty
space created by other fundamental design th
elements—points, lines, and shapes. id
pr
m
gr
tio
tw
co
fo
Ci
al
ar

fir
co
al
fo
pl
er
Ig
The paper slit of this cover The pop art, cartoonlike te
for Camera Work magazine visual character of this dialog FORM “O
creates a three-dimensional, box creates a dynamic and London, UK
concave surface on a two- playful three-dimensional its
dimensional plane that is form for the containment it
further strengthened by the of “Pop Justice,” a logotype el
asymmetrical placement of for one of England’s popular
typography on the cover. blogs. Vibrant, analogous on
colors and bold letterforms, ar
MENDE DESIGN sans their counters, further
San Francisco, CA, USA create visual impact without
overpowering the logotype’s wr
spatial depth and volume. wo

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 1983
Aluminum Alphabet Series
TAKENOBU IGARASHI
Tokyo, JP

4
Takenobu Igarashi (b. 1944), a Japanese by extending their two-dimensional char-
sculptor and designer, has continually ex- acteristics into a three-dimensional world.

Form
plored the fusion of two-dimensional and Letterforms can also be considered as simple
three-dimensional form. His work is based graphic compositions of basic geometric
on a language of basic elements—point, the elements—circles, squares, and triangles.
purest element of design; line, which de- Within these compositions are hidden
lineates locations and boundaries between possibilities for developing a greater set of
planes; shape, realized flat or dimensional; shapes and forms.
texture, visual or tactile; and grid, whose Igarashi’s approach for this series was
horizontal and vertical axes provide order to conceive letterforms as solid volumes
and logic to a composition. divided into positive and negative spaces. A
Although the majority of his work for three-dimensional composition is realized
the last thirty years has been in graphic when the form of the letter is extended in
identity, environmental graphics, and both its positive and negative directions; in

Aluminum Alphabet Series

and the
Takenobu Igarashi
product design, his exploration and experi- other words, by generating spatial tensions
mentation with letterform and isometric in both directions. He states, “This is one
grids has brought him international atten- example of my attempt to find a geometric
tion and recognition. In the early 1980s, his solution between meaning and aesthetic
two-dimensional, isometric alphabets, first form. Based on a 5-millimeter [1/4 inch]
conceived as a series of poster calendars three-dimensional grid system, the twenty-
for the Museum of Modern Art in New York six letters of the alphabet from A to Z were
City, quickly evolved into three-dimensional created by adding and subtracting on the
alphabetic structures that Igarashi called x-, y-, and z-axes.”
architectural alphabets. The Aluminum Alphabet Series is a
The Aluminum Alphabet Series, the unique, groundbreaking result of taking a
first to involve typographic sculptures, conceptual, spatial, and mathematical view
comprises twenty-six three-dimensional, of letterforms and revealing some of the
aluminum letterforms. Each sculptural many possibilities of shape and form. It is
form consists of a series of aluminum the ultimate study in letterform, material,
plates of varying thickness joined togeth- detailing, visual interpretation, and three-
er by flat-head aluminum fasteners. Here, dimensional form. 50
Igarashi uses letterform to explore the po-
tential of three-dimensional form. He says,
“One of the charms of the Roman letter is
51

its simple form. The wonderful thing is that

it is created with the minimum number of
elements; the standard structure is based
on the circle, square, and triangle, which
are the fundamentals of formation.”
Letterforms are basically symbols or signs
written on paper in a flat, two-dimensional
world. Design of letterforms can be varied

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 In this cover for Metropolis Ty
magazine, the juxtaposi-
tion of three-dimensional
forms—a pinwheel and a Iso
person’s hand—on a two-
dimensional representation
of the same form creates a
visually dynamic, engaging,
and memorable cover.

COLLINS
New York, NY, USA

Types of Forms
the language of graphic design

Forms can be real or illusory. Real, three-

Pic
dimensional form contains actual volume or
physical weight while illusory, two-dimen-
sional form is perceptual. Real forms are
three-dimensional such as objects, sculpture,
architecture, and packaging. Illusory forms Ty
are illusions of three-dimensional shapes in
two-dimensional spaces and can be realized O
three-dimensionally by using several graphic
conventions to achieve illusory results.

Projections
Representing several surfaces or planes of a
two-dimensional form all at once is one way
to visually represent a three-dimensional
form without it receding in space or in scale.
The most common types of projections are
as follows: Pic

Isometric
An isometric projection is the easiest of pro-
jection methods where three visible surfaces
of a form have equal emphasis. All axes are
simultaneously rotated away from the picture
plane and kept at the same angle of projec-
tion (30 degrees from the picture plane),
all lines are equally foreshortened, and the
angles between lines are always 120 degrees.

These three marks represent these marks reinforce a

the breadth and spirit of the visual interplay between
Smithsonian's Cooper- two-dimensional and three-
Hewitt National Design dimensional forms.
Week, an annual education
initiative. Their design WINK
implies a three-dimensional Minneapolis, MN, USA Ho
volume or environment
that contains iconic forms
of furniture, lighting, and
related functional objects.
The figure-ground relation-
ships evident in each of Pic

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 Types of Projections

Isometric Plan Oblique (30˚–60˚) Plan Oblique (45˚–45˚)

120˚ 90˚ 90˚

4
30˚ 30˚ 60˚ 30˚ 45˚ 45˚

Form
Picture Plane
r

e,
Types of Perspective

d One-Point Two-Point
c

a
y

e.

Picture Plane

o-
s

re
-

s.

52
53

VP VP VP

Horizon Line

Picture Plane VP = Vanishing Point

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 This assignment explores
the visual relationships CASSANDRA BARBOE,
between typographic form Student
and architectural form. HENRIETTA CONDAK,
This student based her Instructor
photographic exploration SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
and analysis on the angles New York, NY, USA
and geometry found in
Daniel Liebskind's Denver
Art Museum building and in
the typeface, Futura (Paul
Renner, 1927).

Axonometric (or Plan Oblique)

An axonometric, or plan oblique, projection
is a parallel projection of a form, viewed from
a skewed direction, to reveal more than one
of its sides in the same picture plane.
In isometric and axonometric projec-
tions, all vertical lines remain vertical and all
parallel lines remain parallel.

Spatial Depth
Three-dimensional space and depth can also
be achieved when one surface of a form is
overlapped and partially obscured by another
form. One- and two-point perspective draw-
ings exemplify creation of a form’s spatial
depth with two-dimensional shapes overlap-
ping on a two-dimensional picture plane.
(See diagrams on page 53.)

Tone and Shading

Form can also be visually indicated through
tone, shade, and texture. The surfaces of a
form curving or facing away from a directed
light source appear darker than surfaces
facing a directed light source. This effect
suggests the rounding of a two-dimensional
shape into a three-dimensional form.

This poster for a hypothetical This promotional poster announce each lecture. Each
architectural exhibition YU RONG, Student series for the McGill School photographic composition ATELIER PASTILLE ROSE
explores underground KATHRIN BLATTER, of Architecture uses form as is unique, adding a strong Montreal, QUE, CA
architectural spaces such as Instructor a primary vehicle for com- visual dynamic to the poster
a bomb shelter, paired with ACADEMY OF ART municating an emblematic series. An organizational grid
the word "calm." This theme UNIVERSITY element in architecture. Each for narrative, informational
is further emphasized with San Francisco, CA, USA lecturer’s name is printed text is used consistently on
the use of large-scale three- on a colored strip of paper all posters and is a contrast-
dimensional letterforms that and folded to evoke an archi- ing juxtaposition to each
provide depth, volume, and tectural form. These paper free-form, three-dimensional
shadow, strengthening these strips were photographed photographic composition.
unique forms and the identity together to announce the
of the poster. series, and individually to

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 The primary visual element the diversity of music
of this promotional poster performances scheduled for
celebrating the anniversary the anniversary season.
of Casa da Musica, Portugal’s
world-renowned concert hall, SAGMEISTER & WALSH
TS
S relies upon its unique and New York, NY, USA
unconventional symbol—a
stylized, trapezoidal form
derived from the building’s
architecture. It is fragmented
by facet and color, further
implying a three-dimensional
appearance and communicating

4
n

Form
om
m
e

so
o

her
er
w-

54
55

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 light \'l t\ n

5
the language of graphic design

1 a: something that makes vision

possible

“Li
AN

n
ti
ri
r

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 5 light
Light is a constant source
“Light is the ultimate messenger of the universe.”
ANONYMOUS
of kinetic energy, ever 56

changing on the infinite

continuum of day into
57

night. It is also an essential design element in visual communica-

tion because it fundamentally allows us to “see” and visually expe-
rience our world as we know it. In visual communications, light

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 This dramatic book cover
relies solely upon extreme
contrast, subtle color, and
intense light to bring a
In each of these covers, x-ray
images of flowers accentuate
the texture, linear structure,
beauty, and illuminated
elements also reinforce the
visual and narrative themes
of each composition.
1
strong focal point to the eye brilliance of each cropped TAKAKO SAEGUSA, Student
in a photographic portrait image, as well as the pure MICHAEL IAN KAYE, bau
of Martin Heidegger human emotions of each Instructor HE
(German, 1889–1976) and opera libretto. Pure, bright, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS Ber
Be
his seminal book entitled saturated colors paired with New York, NY, USA
Introduction to Philosophy. asymmetrical placement
of symmetrically composed
CASA REX labels containing serif type
São Paulo, BR and decorative bordered line

can be used to express a sensation of light, H

a source of light or illumination, a represen- ne
tation of it, or an awareness of it on design pa
elements in a graphic composition.
Technically, light is defined as an elec- he
tromagnetic radiation of wavelengths that on
are visible to the human eye. It also refers to ni
other wavelengths that are not detectable by
the eye such as ultraviolet (UV) and infrared. at
ie
Historical References 18
In the fifth century, the Greeks recognized Na
N
a direct link between the human eye and th
(continued on page 60) we
an
de
ia
18
18

Ba
ra
ab
De
le
of
Ty
sim
si

be
en
po
st
to
ph

sh
19
th
in
tio
an

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e
s 1928
nt
bauhaus zeitschrift (Bauhaus magazine) Cover
HERBERT BAYER
TS
S Berlin, DE

Herbert Bayer (1900–1985), was a pio- iconic square, circle, and triangle) along
- neering designer, typographer, architect, with sharpened pencil and transparent
painter, photographer, and educator. triangle juxtaposed over the surface of
After completing his military service, the magazine’s cover. This image, classi-
- he was an architect’s apprentice working cally simple and evocative, was one of the
on commissions including interiors, fur- most widely produced examples of Bayer’s
o niture, and packaging. graphic design. It not only identified the
by In 1921, Bayer enrolled as a student publication in a provocative manner, but
d. at the Bauhaus in Weimar, where he stud- it fully communicated the essence and phi-
ied under Wassily Kandinsky (Russian, losophy of the Bauhaus and its avant-garde
1866–1944) and later under László Moholy- educational programs.
Nagy (Hungarian, 1895–1946). Following Bayer left the Bauhaus in 1928 and re-
the closing of the Bauhaus, arrangements located to Berlin. In 1938, like many artists
were made to transfer the school to Dessau, and designers in Germany at the time, he

and bauhaus zeitschrift

Herbert Bayer
and in 1925 Bayer and five other former stu- fled the Nazis and emigrated to the United
dents, including Marcel Breuer (Hungar- States, where he became a self-appointed
ian, 1902–1981), Joost Schmidt (German, spokesperson for the Bauhaus movement.
1893–1948), and Josef Albers (German,
1888–1976), were appointed teachers.
As an educator, he transformed the
Bauhaus by eliminating the use of lithog-
raphy and woodcuts and introducing mov-
able type and mechanical presses to the
Dessau workshops. The use of serif, black
letter, and capital letterform ended; the use
of sans serif, lowercase letterforms began.
Typographic form was now asymmetric,
simple, and direct.
During his years at Dessau, Bayer had
been strongly influenced by Moholy-Nagy’s
enthusiasm for photography as a contem- 58
porary means of visual communication and
started to experiment with various pho-
tographic techniques including collage,
59

photomontage, and light.

Bayer’s most original use of light (and
shadow) was with his photomontage for the
1928 cover of the bauhaus zeitschrift. In
this memorable composition, he uses light
in a dramatic and striking manner. Addi-
tionally, Bayer makes use of a cube, ball,
and cone (solidifications of Kandinsky’s

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 Both informational-based
posters reveal and illuminate
the beauty hidden within
complex data. Each poster
diagrammatically charts
twenty-four hours of light
and dark for each day of the
year and is scientifically accu-
rate and visually engaging.

ACCEPT & PROCEED

London, UK

how we see objects. Earlier thinking was that

the language of graphic design

there was a visual “fire” or glow emanating

from the human eye that allowed us to see.
In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle (Greek,
384–322 BCE) rejected this premise by con-
cluding “if vision were produced by means of
a fire emitted by the eye, like the light emit-
ted by a lantern, why then are we not able to
see in the dark?”
In the history of fine arts, the visual
representation of light has inspired genera-
tions of artists and designers. One needs
to consider only the paintings of Leonardo
da Vinci (Italian, 1452–1519), Rembrandt
(Dutch, 1606–1669), Claude Monet (French,
1840–1926), and Georges Seurat (French,
1859–1891) to understand how these visionar-
ies captured and used light subtly, effectively,
and meaningfully. In photography, the work
of Ansel Adams (American, 1902–1984) and
Robert Mapplethorpe (American, 1946–
1989) provides the same insight.

Properties and Characteristics

You can determine how light ultimately influ-
ences and affects two-dimensional design
elements in any composition. For example,
light can be illusory by overlapping a shape
or form with color, shade, tone, and texture,

Light is represented in this projected onto each of these

theatrical production poster compositional elements,
for Finian’s Rainbow by a full further reinforcing light,
spectrum of saturated color— depth, volume, and three-
cut paper. Just a few strips dimensional space.
within this pure graphic
pattern break away from the SPOTCO
strong, rigid vertical axis to New York, NY, USA
create the start of a rainbow.
Cut-out letterforms and land-
scape forms appear three-
dimensional and in bas-relief
due to light and shadow

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ate
te

e
cu-

5
at

Light
,
n--
of
-
o

h,

ar-
ly,

u-

60
61

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 This assignment requires and the typeface, Futura
the student to explore the (Paul Renner, 1927).
visual relationships between
typographic and architectural MEAGHAN TIRONDOLA,
form. This student based Student
her photographic exploration HENRIETTA CONDAK,
and analysis on the mono- Instructor
lithic proportions and use of SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
light and transparency found New York, NY, USA
in Pierre Chareau’s (French,
1883–1950) modernist
masterpiece building,
La Maison de Verre (1932),
the language of graphic design

creating a sense of transparency or opacity. to

This graphic effect creates the appearance of
that light is coming through each of these el- fo
ements, or it can be completely impermeable dim
di
and prevent light from appearing through ele
el
another shape or form. wh
Light can also create the illusion of a an
third dimension on a two-dimensional surface m
through the use of shadow. This is achieved
by carefully determining where a light source el
ele
is located above, below, behind, or beside de
compositional elements. th
Light also assists with another design sp
principle—contrast, allowing us to perceive a ha
broad range of colors and tones from light str

In this promotional poster

for a lecture given by a toy ROGERS ECKERSLEY
designer, light is projected DESIGN (RED)
through childlike, translu- New York, NY, USA
cent, primary-colored plastic
letters, creating colored
shadows that are projected
onto the poster’s white back-
ground. The effect is iconic,
playful, and immediately
identified with a child’s point
of view.

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 5 Light
to dark. In addition to creating the illusion
of three-dimensionality, light is critical
el- for creating the illusion of depth on a two-
le
ble dimensional plane. It is an essential
element in any three-dimensional space
where there is a need to emphasize objects
and forms, such as in a retail display or
ce museum exhibition.
d Light is also a critical and essential
ce element, property, and dimension of color,
defined as a reflection and how we perceive
the brightness of any color within the
spectrum. The amount of light in a color
a has a direct connection to its amplitude,
strength, and visual impact. Other visual

62

This logotype for a boutique business stationery,

hair salon, is based on a clear- promotional materials, and
63

cut, powerful idea that relies environmental graphics.

upon the Miller & Green
initials and the essential LANDOR
hairdressers’ tool—a pair of Paris, FR
scissors. The vibrant color
combination of a bright lime
green and dark brown reflects
the salon’s elegant yet
vivacious character and was
implemented across various
applications, including

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 These three posters for an
architectural lecture series KRISHNAPRIYA DATTA,
explore classic windows Student
across geography and history KATHRIN BLATTER,
by effectively relying upon Instructor
light and shadow to three- ACADEMY OF ART
dimensionalize each window’s UNIVERSITY
visual effect in a unified and San Francisco, CA, USA
related manner.

effects, such as shadow and contrast, are

visually perceived as varied light levels on a
scale from light to dark.
The element of light is directly con-
nected to other visual characteristics such
as brilliance, chiaroscuro, fluorescence,
gradiant, luminosity, pearlescence, reflection,
refraction, value, shade, tint, and tone.
Light provides you with the essential
means to understand other visual elements,
principles, and techniques such as color,
shape, form, movement, texture, perspective,
shading, motion, visual acuity, and depth
perception. It is a critical element of visual
communications for obvious reasons. With-
out it, the phenomena of visual perception
and understanding would not exist.

The fundamental element elements represent the

of light can be conveyed twenty poems written by
through shadow and depth, the Chilean poet Pablo
as shown in this book cover. Neruda (1904–1973). The
Light is directed upward visual strength of this cover
from the bottom of the also is due to its use of a
image, lengthening projected symmetrical composition in
shadows vertically above each contrast with the asymmetry
red element as well as giving of the cover’s typography.
them a more pronounced,
three-dimensional appear- KATYA MEZHIBOVSKAYA
ance. These unique and New York, NY, USA
subtly distinct red dotlike

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 The use of a subtle color
palette with the varied scaled
decorative patterns for
this branding and identity
program for a San Francisco–
based home furnishings
company creates light,
transparency, and depth on a
two-dimensional surface.

VOLUME INC.
San Francisco, CA, USA

5 Light
n,

ve,

64

A highly reflective material,

contrasted with an over- STUDIO SONDA
65

scaled, large matte black dot, Poreč, HR

reinforces the message and
meaning of this promotional
poster for a light festival in
Porec, Croatia. The poster’s
base material allows any
light to be either absorbed
or reflected, depending on
where it is displayed.

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 col·or \'k -l r\ n
e e

6
the language of graphic design

1 a: a phenomenon of light (as red,

brown, pink, or gray) or visual percep-
tion that enables one to differentiate
otherwise identical objects

“C
PA

a
s
ti

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 6 color
Color is one of the most
“Color is the place where our brain and the universe meet.”
PAUL KLEE (SWISS, 1879–1940) Author, Educator, Painter
powerful and communica- 66

tive elements in a graphic

designer’s language. It
67

affects all of us by providing visual energy and variety in what we

see and experience on a daily basis. Color is used to attract atten-
tion, group disparate elements, reinforce meaning, and enhance

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 1
198
SU
Los

Si
the language of graphic design

20
Co
ro
sig
si
fo
fo

wi
w
Am
Ra
pr
Am
rio
ri
visual compositions. It can also immediately jo
convey an attitude or an emotion, provoke an
a response, create emphasis and variety,
communicate a specific message, and further fo
strengthen an established hierarchy. ch
Color increases visual interest and can an
reinforce the meaning and organization of pr
elements in any visual composition. As a au
primary visual element, color enhances the ue
emotional and psychological nuances of an
any visual message. It assists in creating the an
mood you desire. For example, light colors sy
produce pleasant responses whereas darker in
colors produce quieter effects. an
(continued on page 70) al

ex
vi
Vibrant, tertiary color combi- A full-color gradient, from th
nations create a strong visual ADAMSMORIOKA INC. yellow to blue, is used on this RODRIGO CORRAL DESIGN wa
w
dynamic in these covers for Beverly Hills, CA, USA book cover, Coney Island of New York, NY, USA
Mohawk Papers’ Via note- the Mind, communicating on
books. Repeating horizontal the playful and festival-like ta
patterns set in a variety of spirit of the title and theme ag
typographic treatments for of the book. An intense color
“Via” reinforce the diversity palette, as well as an eclectic th
and broad applications of set of typographic letter- th
the paper line, as we create a forms, further expresses the tie
ti
campaign that is fresh, bold, central celebratory mood
and energetic. and emotional content of the of
book’s poetry. Ea

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 1984
1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics
SUSSMAN/PREJZA & COMPANY
Los Angeles, CA, USA

Since 1980, Deborah Sussman (1931– counterpoint to the warmer Pacific colors.
2014) and her firm, Sussman/Prejza & Colors were generally used in combina-
Company, have advanced the field of envi- tions of three or more, and the palette was
ronmental graphic design, creating urban divided to produce enormous visual variety.
sign programs for numerous cities in Cali- Each venue had its own palette that related
fornia as well as environmental graphics to the character of its specific sport and
for Disney, Hasbro, and Apple Computer. to the ambient color and lighting of its
In the 1960s, Sussman worked surroundings. For example, gymnastics
with two pioneers of twentieth-century was represented by vermilion, yellow, and
American design, Charles (1907–1978) and green; swimming by aqua and white. The
Ray Eames (1912–1988), whose creative im- colors worked very effectively in southern
print revolutionized the look of postwar California light, appearing brilliant and
America. It was during this mentoring pe- vibrant at different times of the day.
riod that she became rooted in an Eamesian Color made the 1984 Los Angeles

and the 1984 Summer Olympics

Deborah Sussman
joy of color, pattern, cultural influences, Olympics a truly visual event. It trans-
and ethnic design. formed one of the largest cities in the world
Her environmental graphics program into an intimate, cohesive experience,
for the 1984 Summer Olympics literally as well as the manner in which visual
changed the way we experience color in communications would be approached for
an urban environment. This comprehensive all future Olympics.
program guided an enormous international In considering color in her work,
audience through a series of complex ven- Sussman said, “My work with color is in-
ues, while visually celebrating the games formed by content. It has roots in contex-
and the surrounding city on a grand scale tual sources and is inspired by geography,
and in a festival-like manner. Sussman’s cultural history, user’s needs, architecture,
system of temporary structures, scaffold- urban characteristics, and available ma-
ing, striped columns, large-scale graphics, terials. I work intuitively when selecting
and bright colors were inventive, function- the actual palettes, often relating them to
al, and extremely accessible. musical iconography. Ray Eames and Alex-
The Olympic colors were unexpected, ander (Sandro) Girard (American, 1907–
exciting, and distinct from the everyday 1993) were my mentors. Wassily Kandin- 68
visual fabric of an urban city. Magenta was sky (Russian, 1866–1944) said, ‘In general,
the base color on which the color palette color is a medium that has a direct impact
was built. Sports pictograms were white on the soul.’ This has been my experience
69

on magenta; freeway signs were magen- and remains my belief.”

ta with aqua; the interaction of magenta
against yellow, vermilion, and aqua was
the most important interrelationship of
the palette. The colors also had strong
ties to locale—magenta and yellow are
of the Pacific Rim, Mexico, and the Far
East. Aqua is Mediterranean and a strong

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 Co
org
ing
bas
of t
per
inf
by
pop
po
col
the
int
eas

Colors also inherently contain subjec- be compared. A color with no visible hue, th
tive meanings that communicate immediate- such as gray, is a neutral color. th
ly without words or images. For example, red is
is associated with fire, blood, and sex; blue is Value inc
in
associated with ice, sea, and sky. A color's lightness or darkness is identified co
Numerous classification systems have as its value. This property is also referred to lar
been developed to identify and categorize as a color’s luminance, brightness, or tone.
color for a variety of visual applications. It is fully dependent on a color’s hue and at
These include color systems and theories intensity. Adding white to a color creates a fu
developed by Sir Isaac Newton (1701), lighter value, or tint; adding black creates a D
De
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1810), Albert darker value, or shade of a color. de
Munsell (1915), Johannes Itten (1961), and Value can be used to exaggerate the sa
Josef Albers (1975). meaning of any visual message. When ele- dy
ments have changing color value, a viewer’s sa
Fundamental Properties eye is guided in, around, and through a visual wi
There are three fundamental visual proper- composition. The degrees of contrast and
ties of color: relative amounts of value also provide move-
ment to the composition. Because distant
This shopping bag series Hue objects appear lighter in nature, value can Thi
Th
for Cass Art Stores in PENTAGRAM Color in its purest form, or hue, is the iden- also create the illusion of space and depth. You
London celebrates color in London, UK Eve
art through typographic tification given to each color such as yellow, upo
up
compositions that feature red, or blue. This identification is the result Saturation (also chroma) and
traditional oil colors and of how we “see” light being reflected from an Intensity or saturation is the brightness or ima
im
communicates their imm
im
provenance throughout art object at a specific frequency. Of these three dullness of a color, or its level of saturation. It as w
history. Scarlet lake, phthalo fundamental properties, hue is the most is the measure of a color’s purity, brightness,
turquoise, and viridian are absolute—we may “see” a color as yellow, or grayness. A saturated color is vibrant and VO
just a few colors that are San
used on these eye-catching red, or blue, but it is identifiable only when it intense, as opposed to a desaturated color
moving billboards. is adjacent to another color with which it can that is restrained and somber. Saturation is

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 Color is used as a primary by immediately identifying a
organizational and wayfind- specific topic with a limited
ing tool in this information- number of colors—in this
based poster titled One Week case, ten different color
of the Guardian. Based on the variables for categories such
periodic table of elements, as News, Business, Culture,
information is organized and Media.
by category of interest and
popularity. Relying upon a DESIGNING THE NEWS
color key at the bottom of London, UK
the poster, the viewer can
interact with content in an
easy and accessible manner

the amount of gray in a color. As it increases,

the amount of gray decreases. Brightness
is the amount of white in a color. As it
increases, the amount of white increases. A
color with little or no saturation contains a
o large amount of white.
Saturated colors attract the viewer’s
attention. Use desaturated colors when
function and efficiency are the priority.
Desaturated, light colors are seen as friendly;
desaturated, dark colors are seen as formal;
saturated colors are seen as exciting and
dynamic. Exercise caution when combining
s saturated colors, as they can visually interfere
ual with one another and increase eye fatigue.

e- 70

This book cover for See for

Yourself: A Visual Guide to
71

Everyday Beauty relies solely

upon bright, vibrant color
and four-color photographic
images to reinforce the visual
immediacy of the book's title,
It as well as its theme.
s,
d VOLUME INC.
San Francisco, CA, USA

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 A sophisticated palette of
vibrant and muted colors MIRIELLO GRAFICO
in a range of values and San Diego, CA, USA
saturations is the primary
element in the rebranding
of Sprint’s new retail stores.
These diverse colors,
combined with product- and
user-based imagery, create
a visual system that is clean
and contemporary for the
brand, as well as appealing to
a younger audience.

Pr
Ye
Th
cre
cr
ar

Se
Co
C
by
an
pu

Te
Co
C
by
se
The rethinking of the washed out and unreadable pu
iconographic New York City in other environments. Color
subway map (Massimo is the primary element used
Vignelli, 1972) in fluorescent in the extreme simplification Co
C
color palettes of RGB and of this visually complex Co
C
CMYK strips away the information diagram. or
familiar color coding of the
original version while still TRIBORO m
maintaining a level of New York, NY, USA ac
hierarchy and functionality. de
The visual effect is intense
and uncomfortable in some wh
lighting conditions, while inc
in

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 This standards manual is part border of the MS logotype,
of a student’s senior thesis reinforcing the diversity JOHN CLARK, Student
project for the rebranding of the company’s products RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
and repositioning of and services. A subdued, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
Microsoft Corporation. In the muted color palette is used New York, NY, USA
overall program, as well as to organize, emphasize,
throughout the manual itself, and allow information to be
color is used as a symbolic, clear and accessible without
functional communication competing with the primary
device. For example, a palette tricolors of the new logotype
of three secondary colors— and symbol.
orange, green, and purple—is
used for the containment

6 Color
Organizational Categories Monochromatic Colors
Colors created with varying values of a single
Primary Colors color are identified as monochromatic.
Yellow, red, and blue are primary colors. This is achieved by adding white or black to
They are pure in composition and cannot be a color. Monochromatic color schemes are
created from other colors. All other colors perceived as homogenous and unified.
are created by combining primary colors.
Analogous Colors
Secondary Colors Colors that are created from adjacent colors
Colors identified as secondary are created on a color wheel and have minimal chromatic
by combining two primary colors. Yellow differences are identified as analogous
and red create orange; red and blue create colors. Analogous color schemes are also
purple; and yellow and blue create green. perceived as unified, but are more varied
than monochromatic color schemes.
Tertiary Colors
Colors identified as tertiary are created Triadic Colors
by combining one primary color with one Colors created from colors equidistant from 72
secondary color—red-orange, red-purple, one another or located at the corners of an
purple-blue, blue-green, and yellow-green. equilateral triangle juxtaposed on a color
wheel are identified as triadic colors. Triadic
73

Complementary Colors color schemes are perceived as strong,

Colors, such as red and green, blue and dynamic, and vibrant.
orange, and yellow and purple, are comple-
mentary and are opposite one another on Quadratic Colors
a color wheel. When mixed together, they Colors created from colors located in the
desaturate or neutralize each other. However, four corners of a square or rectangle
when they are placed next to each other they juxtaposed on a color wheel are identified as
increase in intensity. quadratic colors.

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 In this poster, overlapping A subtle palette of rich, warm varied experiences of the
lines of intense colors are colors is evident throughout multicultural student body at
layered on a solid, black this admissions viewbook the school.
background, creating for Middlebury, a liberal
brighter hues, as well as an arts school in Vermont. Each PHILOGRAPHICA
optical third dimension to the chapter begins with a Brookline, MA, USA
overall composition. typographically bold narra-
tive followed by a series of
RYOTA IIZUKA, Student diagrams, illustrations, and
SIMON JOHNSTON, iconic duotone and four-color
Instructor photographic imagery that
ART CENTER COLLEGE gives the reader an under-
OF DESIGN standing of the diversity and
Pasadena, CA, USA
the language of graphic design

Comparative Relationships Co
C
All color relationships are relative. Colors can Co
C
be identified as darker or lighter only when fe
they are compared to other colors. Yellow is an
perceived as light; violet as dark. Yellow, for co
example, appears darker than white and has ce
the lightest value of any color. A deep blue dis
di
or violet appears bright against black and has as
the darkest value of any color (black being ye
the absence of any reflected light). als
Each color also has different levels of th
saturation. For example, red, blue, and yellow th
have different levels of intensity from bright He
H
to dull. Blue is not as bright as red or yellow; sp
therefore, its intensity is not as high a level of wh
brightness as found in the other two colors. to
When complementary colors are juxta- or
posed with one another, each color appears
brighter than the other. When analogous ac
colors are juxtaposed, they tend to blend un
visually and therefore may be more difficult co
to distinguish from one another. is
Color schemes, or color harmonies, co
have been developed to assist designers in C
Co
choosing colors that work well together. The of
color wheel, a visual representation of the re
primary, secondary, and tertiary colors, forms su
the basis for color schemes. on

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 at

6 Color
Color Wheels By using a color wheel as a visual
an Color theorists have developed many dif- reference, designers can create meaningful
ferent methods and systems for organizing relationships such as harmony or tension
s and describing fundamental and comparative among color combinations.
r color relationships. In the late seventeenth A graduated color wheel contains a
s century, Sir Isaac Newton (British, 1643–1727) progressive series of values, or tints and
discovered that a prism separates light into shades, for each color. This visual reference
as a spectrum of seven colors—red, orange, also illustrates that a color’s highest satura-
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. He tion is not the same for each hue. For
also noticed that the colors at one end of example, yellow is at its highest intensity
the visible spectrum appear very similar to toward the lighter end of the scale, while
ow the colors at the other end of the spectrum. blue is more intense at the darker end of the
t He then drew these two ends of the visible scale. (See diagrams on page 191.)
w; spectrum together, creating the first color A graduated color wheel is an effective
of wheel. This rudimentary model is very similar reference tool for determining combinations
to color wheels used today to codify and of colors that are similar in value or satura-
- organize all color relationships. tion or determining contrast relationships. 74
s The structure of color is represented in
a color wheel, which is organized in twelve Light and Temperature Vibrant and intense colors,
units: three primary colors, three secondary Color is a property of light and can only be are used in this magazine RODRIGO CORRAL DESIGN
75

cover, Latina, to convey the New York, NY, USA

t colors, and six tertiary colors. A color wheel perceived when light is emitted or reflected spirit and culture of the Latin
is a visual reference tool that illustrates by an object. experience in Mexico. This
comparative relationships between colors. Additive color is created from a light message is further communi-
cated with the rich and varied
Color wheels are two-dimensional diagrams source emitted from a video screen, com- color palette in the circular
e of fundamental color relationships and only puter monitor, or theatrical lighting. Additive textile of the cover image
reference hues—the identification of colors, primary colors are red, green, and blue with as well as its juxtaposition
with the intense yellow back-
ms such as yellow, red, and blue. (See diagrams all other additive colors derived from them. ground color of the cover.
on pages 76 and 77.) (continued on page 78)

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 Color Wheels and Organizational Categories Primary Colors Co
C

Secondary Colors M

This color wheel illus-

trates the fundamental
relationships among
colors. The eight smaller
color wheels shown here
illustrate basic color
relationships that can
be applied to an infinite
number of color palette
combinations.

Tertiary Colors An

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 Complementary Colors Triadic Colors

6 Color
Monochromatic Colors Quadratic Colors

Analogous Colors

76
77

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 In this well-defined study movement throughout the This extensive branding typography to communicate
of analogous colors used in center. The main concourse, system and global recruiting a modern context for the
an environmental graphics two city blocks long, and campaign for a financial campaign's print and digital
program for Cincinnati’s Civic potentially a vacuous and services and wealth manage- media applications.
Center, color is also used impersonal public space, ment firm ranges from poster
as a metaphor for the Ohio becomes transformed as a templates to standardized CARBONE SMOLAN
River. It enhances the sense colored canvas on which the iconography and data visu- AGENCY
of movement in the river with river unfolds in wall, ceiling, alization design standards. New York, NY, USA
analogous, saturated blues. and floor treatments. It relies upon a vivid color
These colors appear calming palette, striking four-color
and meditative when used SUSSMAN/PREJZA photography, rigorous page
alone, but in this context & COMPANY grids, asymmetrical compo-
convey energy and a kinetic Los Angeles, CA, USA sitions, and sans serif

Combining two additive primary colors an

creates additive secondary colors such as co
magenta from red and blue, cyan from blue wa
and green, and yellow from red and green. of
Combining all three additive primary colors m
creates white, such as when spotlights of red, m
green, and blue are focused on the same
area or subject. The absence of all additive of
primary colors—in other words, no light— in
creates black. RGB (red, green, and black)
blue) isis pr
an additive color system used for designing to
on screen. co
Subtractive color is created from light im
reflected off a colored or pigmented surface.
Subtractive primary colors are red, yellow,
and blue. Combining two subtractive primary
colors creates subtractive secondary colors:
orange from red and yellow, green from
yellow and blue, and purple from blue and
red. Combining all three subtractive primary Val
Va
colors creates black. The absence of all bot
bo
era
subtractive primary colors—in other words, thi
no pigment—results in white. CMYK (cyan, No
magenta, yellow, and black) is a subtractive a co
c
wri
wr
color system used in offset printing. thr
Temperature of a color is also another att
subjective quality and relates to our visual wit
the
experience. Colors considered “warm,” such fra
as red, orange, and yellow, remind us of heat sca

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 e
te

al

and communicate a feeling of warmth. Cool

colors such as blue and green remind us of
e water and nature and communicate a feeling
of coolness. Warm colors are brighter and
s more energetic; cool colors are calmer and
d, more relaxed.
In addition to typography, color is one
of the most valuable and influential elements
in a graphic designer’s vocabulary. It is a
ss profoundly useful tool and has the power
g to communicate a wide range of emotions,
codify diverse information, and establish an
immediate connection with the viewer.
e.

ry
:
78

y Value and saturation are

both critical color consid- RODRIGO CORRAL DESIGN
79

erations in the success of New York, NY, USA

this cover, The Best Creative
Nonfiction, Volume 1, for
a collection of nonfiction
writing. Four distinct colors,
three warm and one cool,
attract the reader’s attention
with a bold visual for the
theme of this book, and
h frame the restrained, small-
at scale serif typography.

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 tex·ture \'teks-ch r\ n e

7
the language of graphic design

3 b: the visual or tactile surface

characteristics and appearance
of something

“O
W

s
a
s

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 7 texture
“One touch of nature makes the whole world kin.” Texture is defined as the
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (BRITISH, 1564–1616) Author, Playwright, Poet
look and feel of any 80

surface. It is the surface

quality of an object, be it
81

smooth, rough, soft, or hard, and is essentially a visual effect that

adds richness and dimension to any visual composition. It can be
seen and experienced by human touch or interpreted tactilely by

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 A diverse set of composi-
tional elements, such as large
and small-scale typography,
borders, frames, diagrams,
1
and colors are used in this
page spread to further Go
enhance the textural qualities PA
of the page and ultimately Ne
the reader’s experience.

160OVER90
New York, NY, USA

visual means. Textures can be described without being integrated to other design Pa
the language of graphic design

as flat, shiny, glossy, glittery, velvety, wet, elements such as line and form. It de
feathery, gooey, furry, sandy, leathery, furry, is used primarily to enhance other elements an
cracked, prickly, abrasive, puffy, bumpy, relying on shape and space to exist. ce
corrugated, rusty, slimy, and so on. In visual communications, texture is al
Texture, along with other elements in the surface character of any object. It can be de
a composition, can communicate a variety two- or three-dimensional and distinguished an
of different emotions and messages. Rough by visual and physical properties such as wr
textures are visually active and kinetic, while rough or smooth and shiny or dull. A tactile in
smooth textures are passive and calm. texture such as sandpaper can be experi- wo
enced by touch; however, visual texture can
Primary Characteristics only be suggested, interpreted, and under- tu
Texture has characteristics similar to color. Like stood by the human eye. Ar
color, texture cannot function independently (continued on page 85) (G
of
bo
fo
m

be
W
cr
fo
Pr

pu
Vi
no
Ra
wh
w
un
m
This capabilities showroom presentation of complex data en
for W. L. Gore—maker of and scientific information a
fluoropolymer Gore-tex in a compelling and accessible
products, presents the manner for a wide audience. of
company’s technical superior- Am
ity in making ingredient CARBONE SMOLAN
products for a wide range of AGENCY
industries—from medical, to New York, NY, USA by
military, to leisure. Large- th
scale photographic images el
of material textures are used
as emblematic and engaging de
visual backdrops for the er

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 1959
Goodbye, Columbus and 5 Short Stories Book Cover
PAUL RAND
New York, NY, USA

Paul Rand (1914–1996) was an American parted lips, rendered in a bright, red lip-
designer, author, and educator who shaped stick on a stark, white field, are another
s and influenced the course of twentieth- example of visual texture that reinforced a
century graphic design. For forty years, he real sense of physicality. This provocative
also devoted himself to teaching graphic image immediately and memorably com-
be
e design at Cooper Union, Pratt Institute, municates the sexually obsessive theme of
d and Yale University. Through his work, the author’s text, as well as the hands-on
writings, and teaching, he has educated and approach of the designer’s process. Here,
e inspired generations of graphic designers the textured image is a visual metaphor not
worldwide. only for the book’s theme but also for the
n Rand was educated at Pratt Insti- designer’s creative, interactive response.
tute, Parsons School of Design, and the Rand continued to explore a broad
Art Students League under George Grosz range of possibilities with texture and
(German, 1893–1959). In 1937, at the age abstraction in his publishing work—pure

and Goodbye, Columbus

Paul Rand
of twenty-three, he became art director of color fields, organic and ragged cut-out
both Esquire and Apparel Arts magazines, shapes, splatters of ink and paint, as well
for which he created a series of now classic as the use of his distinctive handwriting.
magazine covers. He approached book covers as if they were
In 1941, he left the publishing world to small canvases or sculptures where the art-
become an art director for the William H. ist or, in this case, the graphic designer,
Weintraub Advertising Agency, where he could express his individuality, intuition,
created a series of innovative campaigns and most importantly, creativity.
for Coronet Brandy, Dubonnet Aperitif, El In American book publishing during
Producto Cigars, and Orbach’s. the 1950s and 1960s, Rand influenced nu-
With his early work for American merous graphic designers, such as Alvin
publishers such as Meridian, Knopf, and Lustig (American, 1915–1955), Leo Lion-
Vintage, Rand proved that modernism did ni (Dutch, 1910–1999), Ivan Chermayeff
not have to be serious, cold, and clinical. (American, 1932–2017), Tom Geismar
Rand gave modernism “heart and soul.” His (American, b. 1931), and Paul Bacon (Amer-
whimsical approach, as well as his use of ican, 1923–2015), who continued to pursue
unconventional methods and familiar ele- their beliefs that graphic design in book 82
ments to communicate a variety of differ- publishing was an act of creative expres-
ent emotions and messages, proved to be sion and invention.
a new and groundbreaking interpretation Rand’s “play” instinct transformed the
83

of the European modernist movement in written word through book-cover designs

American graphic design. with wit, humor, and a timelessness un-
His 1959 cover for Philip Roth’s Good- matched in the history of graphic design.
bye, Columbus is a pivotal prototype for
the use of familiar, humanistic, textural
elements—irregular, cut-out shapes, the
designer’s own handwriting, and the pow-
erful use of a graphic “kiss.” The slightly

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 the language of graphic design

Ty
Th
te

Ph
Ta
lit
an
sa
ar
dif
di
ha
by
wa
us

The
Th
thr
Mu
You
of E
con
sup
dri
The
Th
of e
line
lin
the
par

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 The character-based figura- and varied scale typography
tive illustrations in this series in each composition.
of posters for Soulpepper
Theatre have a visual textural EDEL RODRIGUEZ
quality that captures and Mt. Tabor, NJ, USA
strengthens each of the play’s
diverse themes while still
communicating the essence
of each of the main charac-
ters. In this context, texture
is used as a common visual
element, represented as line,
pattern, tone, modeled color,

Types of Texture that already have noticeable and familiar

There are three types or classifications of textures. The use of this type of physical or
texture in visual communications: literal texture in a visual communication
can provide further emphasis, rhythm,
Physical or Literal movement, tension, pattern, and contrast,
Tactile texture, also defined as physical or ultimately having a direct effect on its
literal texture, is an actual tactile variation on message and meaning.
an object’s surface. For example, wood, grain, Light is also important when consider-
sand, fur, glass, leather, canvas, and metal ing physical or literal texture in a composi-
are all physical textures. This type of texture tion since it can influence how a surface is
differentiates itself from visual texture by viewed and understood. Intense light on a
having a physical quality that can only be felt smooth surface can obscure the immediacy
by human touch. One of the most obvious and readability of an image, while the same
ways to evoke a response to texture is by effect can create a strong, visible contrast on
using physical or literal textures—materials a textured surface like wood or canvas.

84

The book covers for these photographic portraits or the Inspired by the ancient letterpress, which further
three plays, Shakespeare’s identities of the each of Roman taverns it was named enhances the textural
85

Much Ado about Nothing, As the play’s main character(s). for, Aventine’s identity and identity, richness, and
You Like It, and The Comedy branding program has a warmth of this program.
of Errors, use a subtle and TAKASHI KUSUI, Student strong textural appearance
consistent visual metaphor to JI LEE, Instructor derived from the inline MARKATOS MOORE
support each play’s character- SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS letterforms paired with San Francisco, CA, USA
driven themes of identity. New York, NY, USA smaller serif and sans serif
The primary visual element typography. These contrast-
of each book cover uses a ing typographic forms are
linear texture as a symbolic further enhanced with line
theatrical scrim or veil that drawings, frames, and maps,
partially hides or reveals as well as debossing and

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 Kanuhura, a luxury resort spices. This textural theme
located on a remote atoll in continues with hand-stitched
the Maldives, celebrates its “recycled” leather holders for
authentic and remote locale information, wood stationery,
with a wide range of textured and driftwood signs made in
brand elements—a hand- the island’s craft workshops.
woven K monogram based
on a repeating line pattern PENTAGRAM
device; a custom typeface London, UK
made of palm leaves; and
a color palette evocative of
white sand contrasted by
aqua sea, sunsets, and local

Visual Implied
The illusion of a physical texture on an An implied texture is a visual texture that
object’s surface is identified as visual texture. has no basis in everyday reality. It is most
These illusory effects can be achieved often utilized in works of abstraction.
through the use of design elements such as
point, line, shape, form, light, tone, contrast, Creating Texture
and pattern. Textures can be created through a variety of
Every material and structure has its own design elements and techniques such as
inherent texture and needs to be taken into repetition, typography, collage, assemblage,
account when creating a composition. Mate- impasto, rubbings, transfers, moirés, erasures,
rials such as canvas and watercolor paper are and computer-generated effects.
considerably rougher than Bristol board or Visual textures can be created by repro-
laser paper and may not be the most suitable ducing the color, tone, and pattern of actual
for creating a flat, smooth surface. textures; darks and lights can be used to
suggest the grooves and irregular surface of
the bark of a tree or the three-dimensionality
of an irregular stone surface.
Lines of typographic text, coated and
painted surfaces, applications of dry media
such as pencil or charcoal, or actual surfaces
photographed or digitally scanned, replicate
actual texture but function as visual texture.
Texture provides any design element
used in a composition with visual surface and
feel. This can be achieved with line, shape, or
photographic images of specific surfaces.

This poster, titled the Real contrasts between black and Co

Show for the Art Directors red and red and white, tre
Club of Metropolitan further enhances the textural bac
Washington, DC, combines characteristics of the poster’s of t
different sizes and weights two-dimensional surface. lab
of sans serif typography bac
with fluid, scriptlike hand FUSZION tas
lettering to enhance the Alexandria, VA, USA of e
visual texture of the poster’s Sh
Shi
promotional message. fur
Additionally, the textured sub
border of the composition, pal
as well as the extreme color ma

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 7 Texture
off

e,
es,

o-
al

f
ty

s
e
.

nd
or

86

d
nd Continuous typographic line identifying the wine name, The Everything Italian
treatments are used as visual year, vintage, and vineyard. postcard series for Fox River MIRIELLO GRAFICO
87

ral backdrops for the branding Paper is composed of a set of San Diego, CA, USA
r’s
er’s of this Charles Shaw wine ANDREW LIM, Student eight themed postcards—all
label series. These textural MICHAEL IAN KAYE, letterpressed to celebrate
backgrounds describe the Instructor the textural surface qualities
taste, flavor, and character SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS and properties of a new line
of each wine—Valdiguié, New York, NY, USA of paper to add to its popular
Shiraz, and Merlot—and are ESSE collection. All postcards
further enhanced by their use a diverse sampling of
subtle monochromatic color typography, patterns, and
palettes, which provide line drawings, all unified with
maximum contrast for the same color palette.

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 This dual front-and-back the essence of each narrative,
book jacket uses texture create a thematic connection
to communicate the essence with the reader, and ulti-
of both Nathanael West mately convey a cohesive and
(American, 1903–1940) unified message.
novels. Miss Lonelyhearts is
represented with a repetitive RODRIGO CORRAL DESIGN
pattern of hearts organized New York, NY, USA
in a series of free-form,
horizontal lines. The Day
of the Locust is treated in
the same manner but as
filmstrips. Both communicate

Built-up media, such as oil or acrylic

the language of graphic design

paint, can produce rough textures from

brushstrokes or palette knives. Type can also
be used to create a texture that ultimately
has more importance in a composition
than the legibility of the letters themselves.
In traditional printing with letterpress or
metal type, each letterform or number to be
printed consists of a raised image—an actual
texture—on a flat background.
Texture gives a “tonal” quality to the
surface of any design element such as a line,
shape, or form, enhancing its visual presence
as well as the viewer’s emotional response. In
this case, textural characteristics and qualities
can be defined as descriptive adjectives in
visual communications. Appropriate and
meaningful texture can give the simplest
visual element resonance and a spark of life.
Effective use of texture can communicate a
variety of emotions and messages.

Collage, hand lettering, and

In this book cover for Kobo tones coupled with a mono- freehand line drawings add LAURENT PINABEL
Abe’s (Japanese, 1924–1993) chromatic color palette, add enhanced visual impact, Montreal, QUE, CA
The Ruined Map, the visual to the surface character and strength, and texture to this
characteristics of collage, visual power of this kinetic poster series for the National
assemblage, and photomon- book cover. Theatre School of Canada.
tage of paper, board, object, The sole structured element
line, image, and typography JOHN GALL evident in each composition
are used in various styles and New York, NY, USA is the framed typographic
sizes to enrich the overall information at the top of
textural power of the compo- each poster identifying the
sition. Light and shadow, specific times, dates, and
as well as a diverse range of locations for each production.

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 7 Texture
o

e
al

e,
ce
In
n
es

e..
a

88
89

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 scale \'skāl\ n

8
the language of graphic design

5 b: a distinctive relative size, extent,

or degree

“If
CH

d
P
m

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 8 scale
The visual principle of
“If you don’t scale the mountain, you can’t view the plain.”
CHINESE PROVERB
scale is defined as a rela- 90

tive, progressive classifi-

cation of proportion or a
91

degree of size, amount, importance, and rank in a composition.

Proportion and scale are related design principles in visual com-
munications. Proportion refers to the size relationships of design

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 The primary communication
element of this branding
program for Evolutiva, a firm
specializing in leadership
and fragmented in a variety
of different configurations to
further engage and provoke
the viewer. Business cards
1
coaching, is a typographic were also cut from this same
poster composed of narrative poster to emphasize both No
content in varying scales the element of surprise and AD
and sizes that reflects the the strategic thinking that Par
Pa
firm’s values and explains highlights the firm’s different
key concepts of the firm’s leadership concepts.
metaphor-based training
programs. Words and state- BLOK DESIGN
ments are cropped, flipped, Mexico City, MX

Ad
A
kn
wa
w
de
in
sp
hi
in
yo
in
Ac

en
he
elements relative to the space they occupy ca
in an overall composition. Scale refers to the an
size comparisons of the design elements in hi
a composition, or a size relationship when pa
comparing one design element to another. pa
On a day-to-day basis, we all make at
scale comparisons relating to size, distance, th
and weight.
These types of visual comparisons are M
usually based on known and familiar experi- wh
w
ences that constantly provide us with a visual fro
fr
reference or orientation. For example, a
skyscraper or snow-capped mountain on the gr
horizon may be difficult to judge in terms of Bu
size. However, when we juxtapose either of at
these with a familiar scale reference such as a fir
person, car, or even a book, it is easier for us tio
to immediately quantify and understand. M
The inaugural issue of the select pages. To emphasize it extremely personal for ap
McGill School of Architecture the school’s many alumni, the reader to engage with Types of Scale wa
alumni newsletter uses the names of all living alumni and ultimately explore.
extreme typographic scale as (approximately 3,000 names) The principle of scale can be categorized as m
an eye-catching, attention- were listed on the front cover ATELIER PASTILLE ROSE either objective or subjective. se
getting device. Small-scale, with “I was here” overprinted Montreal, QUE, CA
narrative-based typography in orange. The visual impact
is printed on newsprint in a of this oversized typographic Objective ty
single color—blue (evoking message juxtaposed with This type of scale is the literal, or objective, to
architectural blueprints)— the diminuitive columnar text definition of scale and is the actual dimensions in
with a vibrant, fluorescent of the newsletter creates a
orange overprint highlighting bold, engaging invitation for of a physical object or a literal correlation so
important information on the reader, as well as making (continued on page 94) on

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 1935
Normandie Poster
ADOLPHE JEAN-MARIE MOURON (A. M. CASSANDRE)
Paris, FR

Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron, also commercial artists and poster designers

known as A. M. Cassandre (1901–1968), in the world. Inspired by surrealism and
was one of the most influential poster cubism, his posters are memorable for
designers of the twentieth century. Born their innovative graphic solutions and their
in Khrakov, Ukraine, in 1901, Cassandre frequent references to twentieth-century
spent most of his life in Paris following avant-garde painters such as Max Ernst
his family’s emigration to France dur- (German, 1891–1976) and Pablo Picasso
ing the Russian Revolution of 1917. As a (Spanish, 1881–1973).
young man, he studied drawing and paint- Normandie, an iconic poster that
ing at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and at the afforded him international fame and rec-
Academie Julian. ognition, is a primary example of how
Cassandre was a man of many tal- Cassandre used scale as a dynamic compo-
ents and, like most creative individuals, sitional element in all of his work.
he experimented throughout his life and The poster’s frontal view is completely

and the Art of the Modern Poster

A. M. Cassandre
career with a wide variety of techniques symmetrical with an extreme upward angle
e and styles. From 1922 to 1940, he devoted that emphasizes the ship’s monumental
himself to the art of the poster. In the latter scale and art deco lines. It is composed in
part of his life, he returned to his first love, a manner that draws our eyes irresistibly
painting, as well as teaching graphic design upward to the sky. The immense scale of
at the Ecole des Arts Decoratifs and then at the ship’s prow is further emphasized by
, the Ecole d’Art Graphique. the French flag at the prow’s apex as well as
In 1936 his work was exhibited at the a group of tiny gulls and sea foam close to
Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the horizon line where ship meets sea. This
- which led to numerous cover commissions reductive, erect composition towers over
al from Harper’s Bazaar. the monolithic text normandie that also
At the age of 24, he furthered his functions as a stable, typographic pedestal
e growing reputation with works such as for the image of the ship.
off Bucheron (Woodcutter), a poster cre- The majority of Cassandre’s posters
ated for a French cabinetmaker that won were based on a true sense of proportion
sa first prize at the 1925 Exposition Interna- and scale, which governed their overall
us tionale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels structure, rhythm, and final composition. 92
Modernes. Additionally, his innovative His primary objective was always to make
approach for the Dubonnet wine company the object the center of a poster’s atten-
was among the first posters and advertise- tion. Through exaggerated scale, he was
93

s ments designed to be seen and read by pas- able to celebrate the geometry of form as
sengers in moving vehicles. well as use this fundamental principle as a
His love of fine art, combined with his memorable, storytelling device.
typographic sensitivity and natural ability
e, to combine these two distinct disciplines
ns into coherent and visually dynamic design
solutions, enabled Cassandre to become
one of the earliest and most successful

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 Large-scale letterforms and
numbers such as W for whole WERNER DESIGN WERKS
wheat, 2 for 2% fat content, L St. Paul, MN, USA
for large eggs, and 4 for four
sticks of butter are primary
communication elements in
Archer Farms food packaging.
This unorthodox typographic
treatment creates an impact-
ful and informative visual
hierarchy of scale that clearly
identifies product, type, and
amounts for the shopper.

between an actual object and its graphic

the language of graphic design

representation. An example of objective or

literal scale is a “scale” drawing of a chair that
is realized on a sheet of 8 1/2 X 11-inch (21.6
X 28 cm) paper; however, the actual chair in
“real” scale is of a size to accommodate the
human figure.
This type of scale is also used in maps,
architectural plans, and models. It is a scale
ratio defined numerically as two quantities
separated by a colon (:). For example, a scale
noted as 1:50 is one unit of measurement,
such as inches or meters, and represents fifty
of the same units at full size.

Subjective
This type of scale refers to a person’s impres-
sion of an actual object. For example, a
car or a house may be described as having
an immense or intimate scale due to how
it relates to our physical selves, as well as
our knowledge and familiarity with cars and
houses. Scale that is relative only to our own
personal experiences is, therefore, subjective
in nature.

Effective Use of Scale

Scale can be used as an effective design
principle to create variety, emphasis, and

This identity and packaging further reflects the restraint

for a new product line of and eco-conscious nature of
disposable and biodegrad- the brand.
able wooden cutlery made
by Aspenware, named WUN BLOK DESIGN
(wooden utensils naturally), Mexico City, MX
elevates the product above
the “natural food” niche.
Sans serif typography in
large-scale caps contrasted
with small-scale numbers
and lowercase identifiers on
the front of the packaging

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 One Degree, an employee-
based awareness program LANDOR
at News Corporation, was Paris, FR
developed from a simple
premise: If everyone were
to change their behavior by
just one degree, it would
change the planet’s future.
The logotype relies upon
scale as a primary compo-
sitional principle that is
evident in all applications
throughout the program.

8 Scale
visual hierarchy in any visual communication. Scale can be used to direct a viewer’s
A proper use of scale contributes to the sta- attention through a singular design element,
bility, visual comfort, and memorable aspects such as an image or typography, as well as a
of any composition, while an incorrect scale composition of multiple visual elements.
will create discomfort, dysfunction, and a A graphic designer also needs to con-
cramped awareness in a composition. sider scale in practical and functional ways.
An element within a composition can Professional work today requires graphic
appear larger or smaller depending on the designers to consider a variety of different
size, placement, color, texture, and visual media and vehicles for conveying their work.
weight of the elements around it. Additional- From the traditional realms of printed matter,
ly, contrast in size can create visual emphasis, to the small-scale requirements of the digital
hierarchy, depth, movement, and tension world of websites and electronic interfaces,
within any composition. and the large-scale requirements of environ-
When compositional elements are all mental graphics and exhibitions, scale is an
the same size and equal in visual scale, the important and constant consideration.
composition will appear flat and one-
dimensional. It will lack contrast, tension, Context 94
rhythm, and movment. It’s as if we were The visual principle of scale is also fully
listening to a musical composition and heard dependent on context. In visual communica-
only one, continuous, monotonous note— tions, familiar comparisons are less intuitive;
95

always the same, never fluctuating in tone or therefore, you need to rely upon scale to
resonance. All of the previous design elements communicate those visual comparisons in an
referenced, when used in an effective, immediate and understandable way.
appropriate, and meaningful manner, can We all have experienced the jarring vi-
create a sense of depth and movement in any sual phenomenon of first printing out a sheet
visual composition. Scale is also an essential of paper with work we have been designing
design element and critical consideration in on screen, and to our surprise, something is
achieving this end result. amiss. We have methodically evaluated and

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 This information-based on the relationship of oil
poster, titled World’s Proven dependency from one country BRYAN FAREVAAG, Student
Oil Reserves, uses various to another. The poster’s GENEVIEVE WILLIAMS,
scales and sizes of transpar- asymmetrical composition Instructor
ent color circles to create a expands beyond its edges, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
visually dynamic composition which further reinforces the New York, NY, USA
that communicates which extreme scale changes from
major countries around one country to another.
the world have the largest
oil reserves. Overlapping
circles create distinct color
combinations that convey
another layer of information

resolved a visual composition in one scale

(on screen) and now expect the same spatial
and visual relationships to be achieved and
maintained at a completely different scale
when they are printed out on an 8 1/2 X
11-inch (21.6 X 28 cm) sheet of paper. This
happens often among most designers today.
We automatically make comparisons
every time we receive sensory information.
Objects are “too hot” or “safe to touch”
because we immediately compare them
to our previous experiences. Additionally,
we tend to make size comparisons based
on our own relationships to human scale.
For example, our perception of scale in the
adult world is completely different from our
perception as small children.

Optical Effects and Scale

Scale is a fundamental design principle that
also helps the viewer perceive spatial illusion,
such as the size of objects and their relative
scale in a composition. Small elements
recede, larger ones come forward. Compo-
sitional elements that are closer to us appear
larger than objects of the same size that are
located farther away.

Restraint in typographic
scale and an effective use of a
monochromatic color palette
provide a unique visual
identity for this brand of hair
care products—Frizz. The
unusual shape and small scale
of the packaging reinforce
the distinct qualities of this
product line.

WOLFF OLINS
New York, NY, USA

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 A system of varied-scale area, and crime. A strict
nt dots is used as a primary page grid develops into a
communication device in three-dimensional chart, as
this atlas, and accompanies successive pages of circles are
TS
S the reader through the stacked, allowing a quick flip
analysis and comparison through the book to reveal
of 101 capital cities around changes in pollution, density,
the world. These functional public transport, and other
dots, sized according to city statistics.
comparative data on each
city, communicate specific STUDIO JOOST GROOTENS
statistical information and Amsterdam, NL
data such as population,

8
The following compositonal treatments
al can be used to achieve optical and spatial

Scale
illusions in a visual composition:

Overlapping and Position

Overlapping is an optical device that can
y. automatically interpret scale and depth, as
well as evoke either realistic or unusual
spatial effects. A compositional element
partially hidden by another appears to be
located behind it in space and therefore
will appear smaller in scale. Each element
obscuring part of another helps the viewer
make spatial sense of the composition.
Similarly, the position of elements
r relative to the overall picture plane helps
the viewer organize them in a composition.
The area at the bottom of the picture plane
is often seen as foreground—the portion
t of a visual composition that is closest to
n, the viewer. The area at the center of the
e picture plane is often interpreted as middle
ground—the portion of a visual composition
of varying depth that is at midpoint distance
ar to the viewer. The upper area of a visual
e composition is often seen as background
(with the exception of landscapes in which
the sky seems to project forward from the
background over the head of the viewer).

96
97

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 In the third edition of this plays a critical role in helping
annual, ongoing project, the the reader engage with a
designer investigates ways variety of dense and detailed
to analyze, capture, depict, statistical data and narrative
and ultimately encapsulate information in an accessible
a year of personal activity and intuitive manner.
graphically. Bar charts, area
charts, maps, and pie charts NICHOLAS FELTON
illustrate the textures and New York, NY, USA
experiences of a complex
and diverse life in New York
City over a period of 365
days. In this context, scale

In Western culture, we tend to interpret the

lower portion of a composition as closer than
the upper portion because representational
paintings in art history have been composed
in this manner.

Atmospheric Perspective
In addition to overlapping and position in
a composition, you can rely on atmospheric
perspective to further indicate scale and
spatial depth. This effect can be used when
there is need for a specific element or area to
appear more distant than the other elements
in a composition. This can be achieved by
using softer edges, less value or contrast, and
less detail in these elements so that they
appear farther back in a compositional space.
When compositional elements are
extremely close to the viewer, they may be
seen in reverse atmospheric perspective:
The closest elements are blurred or brought
out of focus, with the sharpest edges and
strongest value contrast in the elements that
are a bit farther away.
No matter what size a designer’s work
will be when finally realized, it must have its
own true sense of scale.

Scale is used as an effective of the exhibition’s themes

communication tool in or an in-depth presentation
the permanent exhibition of detailed information on a
areas of the California specific theme.
Academy of Sciences. Here,
scale provides an immediate VOLUME INC.
visual hierarchy to exhibition San Francisco, CA, USA
content, whether object or
artifact. Large photographic
imagery, or small narrative
and interpretive information-
based panels allow the visitor
to get an immediate overview

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 This promotional poster
announcing exhibitions, FRASER MUGGERIDGE
performances, workshops, London, UK
and lectures at the Pump
House Gallery in London uses
extreme scale changes in
typography and imagery to
further capture the viewer’s
attention as well as create a
visually dynamic and memo-
rable composition.

8
an

Scale
d

n
to
ts

nd

ce.

at

98

n
99

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 move·ment \'müv-m nt\ n e

9
the language of graphic design

5 a: the suggestion or illusion of motion

in a painting, sculpture, or design

“Ev
“E
M

a
m
tu

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 9 movement
“Everything in the universe has a rhythm; everything dances.” Movement is defined as
MAYA ANGELOU (AMERICAN, 1928–2014) Actor, Author, Civil Rights Activist, Poet
the act or process of mov- 100

ing or a change of place,

position, or effort. It can be
101

actual or implied. In a painting or photograph, for instance, move-

ment refers to a representation or suggestion of motion. In sculp-
ture, movement refers to implied motion, with the exception

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 This symbol for the Darien
Library is derived from the
simple movement seen when
flipping the pages of a book,
C+G PARTNERS LLC
New York, NY, USA
1
and in this identity inter-
preted through a progression Gra
of transparent, overlapping MA
color tints. The symbol also Mil
Mi
refers to an ocean wave or the
wing of a bird, all suggesting
movement and ascent.

of mobiles and kinetic sculptures that have M

the language of graphic design

actual motion, such as found in the work of m

Alexander Calder (American, 1898–1976). tw
In visual communications, movement in
apparent in a drawing, painting, photograph,
book cover, or even magazine spread forces in
our eyes to move constantly and attend to be
one or more elements within the composi- he
tion. Our eye may be brought to the center Hu
H
of the composition because there is a bright gu
color there and then to another location ca
that contains typography functioning as a in
headline in a bold typeface. Here, your M
responsibility is to direct the viewer’s atten- (S
tion through a specific sequence of visual 19
experiences, as opposed to letting their eye Ri
randomly go from one element to another
in a composition. in
The primary function of movement m
in visual communications is to guide the eye 19
of the viewer through and around any visual ia
message, simple or complex. In a three- fir
dimensional composition or space, you need pr
to consider not only movement realized with gr
light and color, but also with the physical alb
al
movement of the viewer through, in, and be
around the total environment. on
(continued on page 104) in
as
st
ch

This assignment requires (7.6 X 7.6 cm) square and becoming more at ease with er
sophomore students to then composed in a 3 X 3-inch a camera, and composing po
consider fundamental design (7.6 X 7.6 cm) nine-square photographic images with
principles—in this case, layout, further communicat- software such as Adobe 19
movement—found in their ing the student’s analysis of Photoshop, Adobe Bridge an
environment and in everyday relationships in form, color, and Camera Raw. m
objects. With photography texture, scale, and contrast
they explore their surround- between the various images. CASTELLANO, Student Ra
ings and document examples This assignment increases ANNABELLE GOULD, br
of movement found in their understanding of fun- Instructor tw
surprising and intriguing damental design principles, UNIVERSITY
situations. The final images their awareness of the natural OF WASHINGTON
are cropped to a 3 X 3-inch and built environment, their Seattle, WA, USA ra

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 1948
Gran Premio dell’Autodromo di Monza (Monza Grand Prix) Poster
MAX HUBER
Milan, IT

Max Huber (1919–1992) was one of the visual perspective that reinforced a great
most significant graphic designers of the sense of movement and speed—letterforms
twentieth century and an influential figure are disappearing in the distance and are
in the history of modern graphic design. in counterpoint to the arrows moving for-
He studied at the Kunstgewerbeschule ward. Additionally, varied typographic
in Zurich and worked as an art director sizes and vibrant transparent colors laid
before moving to Milan in 1940, where over one another provide exaggerated
he became art director of Studio Boggeri. depth, rhythm, and movement to the post-
Huber was also a member of the distin- er’s overall composition. For example, the
guished association of Swiss modernists red and blue arrows give direction to the
called the Allianz—a group whose members street. The type identifying the event, Gran
included Hans Arp (German, 1886–1966), premio dell’ Autodromo, rushes across the
Max Bill (Swiss, 1908–1994), Le Corbusier field of the poster with visual speed as if
(Swiss, 1887–1965), Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879– it transformed itself into one of the cars

and the Monza Grand Prix

Max Huber
1940), Leo Leuppi (Swiss, 1893–1972), and racing at that very moment.
Richard Paul Lohse (Swiss, 1902–1988). This innovative poster illustrates
In his early career, Huber was greatly Italian architect Ettore Sottsass’s (1917–
influenced by the teachings of modernist 2007) dictum of 1947: “One can state that
masters such as Max Bill (Swiss, 1908– the people of Greece would never have ex-
1994) and László Moholy-Nagy (Hungar- isted without the sea, and that the sea is
ian, 1895–1946) and therefore among the their great story. I believe our great story,
first designers in Italy to apply avant-garde by contrast, is speed (velocita).”
principles and aesthetics to commercial It is also important to note here that
graphic design such as posters, jazz record the dramatic and distorted visual effects
album covers, and book covers. Some of Hu- Huber created with typography were highly
ber’s most memorable achievements were readable and impactful without the assis-
on a completely different scale and remain tance of contemporary methods of photo-
in the minds of generations of Italians, such composition, digital composition, and com-
as his identity programs for the department puterized image manipulation software.
store chain La Rinascente, the supermarket Huber relied upon the basic tenets
chain Esselingsa, and for media giant rai. of perspective to convey distance, depth, 102
One celebrated example of this mod- and motion in a unique and memorable way.
ernist approach is Huber’s memorable This poster is a classic visual representa-
posters for the Monza races. Starting in tion that is simultaneously suggestive and
103

1928, Huber designed promotional posters powerful on the theme of movement.

and flyers for the Monza car races in Italy, The Monza posters and flyers embody
mainly for the Grand Prix and the Lottery a joyfulness conveyed by combining vibrant
Race. This poster series illustrates how he colors, balanced lines, and oblique angles,
brought the visual element of movement to all lending rhythm and spatial harmony
two-dimensional compositions. to the composition. It is a choreographed
Huber’s 1948 poster for the motor composition of visually moving dynamics.
races at Monza incorporated illusions of

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 Thr
Th
van
vis
pos
po
nam
for
Ch
The
Th
titl
ing
the
me
cen

Elements and Techniques wa

the language of graphic design

Movement in any visual composition is real- vis

ized and fully dependent upon combining cre
cr
the basic elements of visual communications,
such as line, shape, form, and texture to an
produce the look and feel of motion. These th
design variables can create a collective sense pa
of movement that causes the viewer’s eye pe
to move through an overall composition or be
focus specifically on an isolated group of in
elements within a composition.
Visual techniques, such as repetition Rh
and rhythm, can also enhance the character- Rh
istics of movement in a two-dimensional or of
(three-dimensional) composition. In many oc

The primary project section the dimensionalization of

of this website for Diller flat photographic images into
Scofidio + Refro, an architec- three-dimensional planes
tural design firm, as well as located in space. Addition-
its interface navigation from ally, as the cursor moves
section to section, provides off the common one-point
a series of extremely kinetic perspective left or right of
movements that immediately that common point, so does
engage and hold the viewer’s the composition. It is fluid,
interest. With each inquiry, organic, and immediate.
a new and dynamic composi-
tion is achieved through PENTAGRAM
one-point perspective and New York, NY, USA

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 Three separate and distinct
vanishing points are used as CATHERINE ZASK
visual metaphors and com- Paris, FR
positional devices in this dy-
namic and memorable poster
for a theater production of
Chekhov’s The Three Sisters.
The typography of the play’s
title is simultaneously mov-
ing and merging together and
then apart—another thematic
metaphor for the play’s three
central characters.

9
ways, these techniques can be thought of as
visual “music” because they relate directly to

Movement
creating the “tempo” of any composition.
With the repetition of line, shape, form,
and color, a visual sequence can also guide
the eye of the viewer along a specific visual
path or defined sequence of events. A re-
petitive visual sequence in a composition can
be regular, irregular, gradual, or exaggerated
in its visual character.

Rhythm
Rhythm is most often thought of in terms
of sound and music, defined as alternating
occurrences of sound and silence. In visual

104

The visual principle of

movement is apparent in
105

the streamlined figurative

element of this symbol
for Seagull, a manufacturer
of custom courier bags.

ELEMENT
Columbus, OH, USA

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 The branding and identity one-color, contemporary
program for Media Trust, an logotype for the parent
organization that works in brand, a series of subbrand
partnership with the media logotypes defined for all of
industries throughout the its service organizations,
United Kingdom in building and a “box fan” symbol that
effective communications for adds visual interest to related
charities and nonprofit orga- print collateral material.
nizations, uses movement as
a fundamental visual element FORM
in all levels of its branding London, UK
system. The company’s brand
architecture relies upon a

This provocative book cover top of the cover to the shad- Wi

for Christopher Isherwood’s ows projected in opposing ma
(British, 1904–1986) The directions to the typography tive
tiv
Berlin Stories symbolizes the angled and aligned with the wit
dual presence of two paths direction of the man walking. pho
ph
or points of view in the book, art
which comprises two MOTHER DESIGN and
novellas—Goodbye to Berlin New York, NY, USA inf
and Mr. Norris Changes an
Trains. Movement is articu- He
lated in dynamic and edg
meaningful ways; from the on
cropping of the figure at the com

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 9 Movement
communications, it can be described in the Types of visual rhythm are often defined with
same way. Sound and silence are replaced the following characteristics:
with form and space—active and passive,
primary and secondary. Creating rhythm Regular
with visual elements in a composition is A regular visual rhythm occurs when the
similar to the role of choreography in dance. graphic intervals between the compositional
With visual form, choreography is the im- elements, and often the actual elements
plied movement of compositional elements themselves, are similar in size, length, weight,
perceived by the eye of the viewer. or visual character.
Rhythm can also be acheived with the
repetition or alternation of compositional Flowing
elements, often with defined intervals orga- A flowing visual rhythm can convey a sense
nized between them. It can create a sense of of movement and is often perceived as a
movement, as well as establish pattern and more organic and natural graphic form in its
texture in any composition. visual character.

106

With the redesign of Dance contribute to the strong

magazine, this student effec- dynamic movements of each
107

tively redefined movement of the cover compositions.

with unusual croppings of
photographs to celebrate the LAURA GRALNICK, Student
art of dance, as well as active RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
and inactive zones for related SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
information necessary for New York, NY, USA
an effective magazine cover.
Here the use of perimeter or
edge, typographic variation
on graphic form, texture,
composition, and scale, all

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 As
pho
ph
Bec
Be
is u
col
thr
bro
vis
of m
pho
ph

KA
New
Ne

Progressive
A progressive rhythm is created with a clear
sequence of compositional elements through
a defined progression of steps.
Rhythm gives character to movement in
a composition. Visual rhythms can be evenly
paced and static or irregular and full of exag-
gerated gestures.

Other Considerations
Movement and rhythm are critical to the
compositional aspects of any singular work
of graphic design, as well as the construc-
tion and organization of multiple images,
pages, and frames, such as books, magazines,
motion graphics, and websites. In these
examples, movement and rhythm enhance
variation and change in content while provid-
“Film Project” was created from discarded vinyl LPs; ing a variety of scales, tonal values, and
by Blok Design and Toxico to the project’s logotype was BLOK DESIGN textural variations while maintaining a visual
support independent film- silk-screened as a layered Mexico City, MX
makers and videographers overprint to this previously and structural cohesiveness.
who face challenges in printed material. With these In many ways, both movement and
developing and completing cost-savings methods, a rhythm are transparent in visual communica-
their films. To avoid wasting kinetically dynamic visual
limited resources, postcards, program was developed that tions. They exist only in an implied sense
mailers, and stationery clearly expresses the essence through the arrangement and organization of
were created by recycling of film, pacing, rhythm, and elements of varying size, shape, form, color,
overruns from their own movement, as well as smart
existing projects, along with use of limited resources and texture, and contrast in a composition.
old postcards and jackets creative risk.

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 A series of highly kinetic
photographic images by Bill
Beckley (American, b. 1946)
is used in a variety of scales,
color palettes, and croppings
throughout this monograph
brochure to celebrate the
visual qualities and nuances
of movement found in this
photographer's work.

KATYA MEZHIBOVSKAYA
New York, NY, USA

9 Movement
r
gh

in
y
g-

es,

108
d-

l
109

a-

of
r,,

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 space \'spās\ n

1
the language of graphic design

2 a: a limited extent in one, two, or

three dimensions: distance, area, volume
4 a: a boundless three-dimensional
extent in which objects and events occur
and have relative position and direction

“I
se
LU

s
in
a

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 10 space
r

Space is a key element in

“I think that the ideal space must contain elements of magic,
serenity, sorcery, and mystery.” visual communications. 110
LUIS BARRAGÁN (MEXICAN, 1902—1988) Architect
However, unlike other
elements such as line,
111

shape, form, color, and texture, space cannot be placed or located

in a composition. Space refers to the distance or area between,
around, above, below, and within other elements such as lines,

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 The modulated page grid
and the overall size of
this brochure for Daycorp
Property Development
bined with regulated and
consistent letterspacing and
leading, creates uniform
positive and negative spaces
1
share the same proportional in each page composition.
relationship that allows Boy
Bo
for the creation of related VOICE Ru
spatial compositions from Adelaide, SA, AU LE
page spread to page spread Ne
throughout the brochure.
Additionally, the modulated
structure of the brochure’s
custom letterforms, com-

shapes, forms, colors, textures, frames, Le

the language of graphic design

and images in a composition. It can be two tie

dimensional or three dimensional and no
described as flat, shallow, deep, positive, ist
is
negative, open, closed, actual, ambiguous,
or illusory. an
The fundamental principle of space is ie
an integral design element to be considered th
in any two-dimensional composition and can gr
appear open, dense, compact, loose, empty, hi
full, flat, or voluminous depending on how Ce
space is being used, organized, divided, or in he
other words—activated. al
W
Describing Space
Space is usually identified as negative space Eu
or white space—terms that refer to the wi
w
empty but often active areas of any visual st
composition that are void of graphic Hi
H
elements. Space containing elements such rie
ri
as shapes, forms, and images, is identified Th
as positive space. The varied degrees or kn
amounts of negative or positive space in any ra
composition can create an illusion of depth to
through careful, established spatial relation- tiv
ships of foreground and background or
figure–ground relationships. When negative ar
and positive space are equal, spatial depth is th
lacking and a more visually static composi- Th
tion is created. tio
For example, think of compositional im
space as a room in your home. The room is de
a three-dimensional space containing your ba
personal possessions—or compositional hy
elements. Is it cluttered or is there ample of
room to live, work, and relax? You design the De
D
room by filling it with objects on its walls, si
floors, and ceilings. You can do the same ity
thing by creating a composition with shape, St
form, color, image, and type within a two- fo
dimensional space. in
(continued on page 114) six
si

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 1939
Boy and Girl on a Fence,
Rural Electrification Administration Series Two Poster
LESTER BEALL
New York, NY, USA

Lester Beall (1903–1969) was a twen- designed and produced over a four-year
tieth-century American graphic designer period. Their graphic simplicity and flat
notable as a leading proponent of modern- illustrative elements were appropriate for
ist graphic design in the United States. an audience with minimal reading skills
He was born in Kansas City, Missouri, and were reminiscent of the public posters
and later moved to Chicago, where he stud- designed by the Russian Constructivists
ied at the University of Chicago and later at twenty years earlier. Each poster is a thor-
d the Art Institute of Chicago. As a self-taught ough and thoughtful study in minimalist
n graphic designer, he initially designed ex- form and compositional space.
y, hibits and wall murals for the 1933 Chicago Boy and Girl on a Fence, a poster from
Century of Progress World’s Fair. In 1935, Series Two, is considered one of the great-
in he relocated to New York City and eventu- est American posters of all time. It features
ally opened his own design consultancy in a young boy and girl smiling and looking
Wilton, Connecticut. to the future as they lean against a wood

Lester Beall and the REA Posters

Beall was deeply influenced by the fence bordering their farm. Beall used flat,
e European avant-garde and produced award- vibrant color, photomontage, and a juxta-
winning work in a minimalist, modernist position of angled and orthogonal bands
style for clients such as the Chicago Tribune, to further enhance an implied and active
Hiram Walker, Collier’s, Abbott Laborato- space in the poster’s composition. It also
ries, Time-Life, and International Paper. conveys the strong, humanistic, and pa-
Throughout his work and career, he was triotic spirit of rural America. This poster
known for utilizing angled elements, vib- series is also an early example of graphic
ny
y rant colors, iconic arrows, silhouetted pho- design put to work for the public good.
tography, and dynamic shapes in an innova- In 1937, Lester Beall was the first
- tive and provocative manner. American graphic designer to be hon-
Among his most recognized works ored with a one-man solo exhibition at the
e are a series of public information posters Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
is that he designed for the u.s. government.
The Rural Electrification Administra-
tion (rea) was one of the primary public
improvement projects initiated by Presi- 112
dent Franklin Delano Roosevelt to revive a
battered u.s. economy by building dams and
hydroelectric power plants in rural areas
113

of the country. The rea, a part of the u.s.

he Department of Agriculture, was respon-
sible for promoting the use of electric-
ity in rural areas throughout the United
, States. This now classic series of large-
format posters received national and
international attention. All three sets of
six silk-screened posters for the rea were

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 This symbol for a real estate
developer, LargaVista
Companies, uses pictorial
space to convey a three-
dimensional environment or
volume through an isometric
projection of form contained
within a six-sided trapezoid.

HINTERLAND
New York, NY, USA

Types of Space
In addition to the formal considerations of
space as a compositional element, graphic
designers can create specific types of
compositional space to further enhance and
strengthen any visual message:

Actual Space
The area that a visual composition physically
occupies is identified as actual space.

Pictorial Space
The manipulation of flat surfaces to create a
perception of depth, movement, or direction
is called pictorial space. It relies on illusion to
deceive the mind and eye of the viewer.

Psychological Space
A visual composition that influences the
mind and eye of the viewer is called psycho-
logical space.

Physical Space
In this type of compositional space, the
elemental, aesthetic, and functional require-
ments of space are critical physical consid-
erations for any graphic designer, since they
require an interface with the built environ-
ment. A wayfinding sign program for an
airport, an exhibition of art and artifacts in a
museum, or a large-scale display for an urban
retailer are all representative examples of
The open compositional physical compositional space.
space of this book cover THE OFFICE OF
for Ripped: How the Wired PAUL SAHRE
Generation Revolutionized New York, NY, USA Characteristics and Techniques
Music, guides the reader’s Historically, visual artists and designers have
eye in immediately focusing created a number of methods to interpret
on the three relevant music
devices iconographically and perceive spatial depth in a composition.
represented—tape cassette, Compositional space in visual commu-
CD, and iPod. nications is essentially flat. It has height and
width but not depth. However, the illusion of
spatial depth and three-dimensional space in

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 10 Space
d

ly

a
on
to

o--

a
an 114

This information-based relationships between values

poster uses positive and neg- and emotions—fidelity and
115

ative white space to create infidelity, happiness and

imaginary visual landscapes sadness. The different
e for the intersection and densities of colors suggest
interplay of statistical data arbitrary ranking and proxim-
formulated in this study on ity, implying that there is
n. people living in selected no simple explanation for
- cities. Cities are ranked this data.
d according to their diversity
and the degree to which they LORENZO GEIGER
of are rural or urban. Circles Bern, CH
n
in and spheres illustrate

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 Th
Thi
for
im
imm
rea
pri
do
dom
com
ico
and
con
and
po
pos
sta

compositions can be achieved in the mind, by

as well as the eye, of the viewer through te
specific visual characteristics and techniques. lig
Relative size in spatial relationships so
is one of the easiest visual characteristics for or
creating the illusion of space in a two- ing
in
dimensional composition. A larger element as
will always appear closer in a composition co
than a smaller one. co
Overlapping in spatial relationships is
another way to suggest depth in a two- Li
dimensional composition. When composi- Pa
tional elements overlap one another, they are va
perceived as if one is covering parts of the ca
other so that one appears in the foreground Pe
and the other appears covered and in the dr
background of the composition. ing
in
Location in spatial relationships refers dia
di
to where an element is found vertically in a he
two-dimensional composition. The bottom bo
of the composition is perceived as the (S
foreground; the area nearest to the viewer
and the top of the composition is perceived
as its background—the area farthest from the
viewer. The higher an element is placed in a
composition, the further back in the compo-
sition it is perceived.

Types of Perspective
There are three types of perspective tech-
niques that you can rely upon to enhance
spatial depth:
Effective compositional
space is evident in these LAURA GRALNICK, Student Atmospheric Perspective
page spreads for Dance RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
magazine. Reliance on SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS This type of perspective in spatial relation-
extreme scale variations with New York, NY, USA ships is another visual effect that relies on
compositional elements, such elements such as color, tone, and contrast to
as photographic imagery,
typographic blocks of text, create the illusion of space in a two-dimen-
bands of flat color, and sional composition. When elements appear
repetitive patterns of images, in the distance and farther away from the
reinforces movement across
the active and inactive spaces viewer, atmospheric haze can obscure their
of each spread. visibility. This effect can be achieved

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 This book cover and spine
for The Language of Things MOTHER DESIGN
immediately focuses the New York, NY, USA
reader’s attention on the
pristine white space that
dominates its overall
composition. Small-scale,
iconic-color halftone images
and a black dialog box
containing the book’s title
and author are in a secondary
position and set against a
stark white or black space.

10
by changing or modifying the visual charac-
teristics of the composition’s elements—by

Space
es.
s. lightening their value, lowering their contrast,
softening their edges, minimizing their detail,
or or muting their color. For example, increas-
ing the blue tone of an element also creates
a sense of depth in a composition because
cool colors appear to recede whereas warm
colors appear to come forward.

Linear, or One-Point, Perspective

Parallel lines converging toward a single
re vanishing point located on a horizon line is
called linear, or one-point, perspective.
d Perspective lines above a horizon line are
drawn diagonally down toward the vanish-
ing point; lines below this line are drawn
diagonally up toward it. Vertical lines indicate
height and horizontal lines indicate width; in
both orientations the lines remain parallel.
(See diagram on page 53.)

d
he
a
o--

116

This page spread utilizes

effective and meaningful
117

white space to create a visual

immediacy with the free-form
silhouette of the large-scale
o image as well as with the
common intense red color
found in each photograph.

MERCER CREATIVE GROUP

Vancouver, BC, CA

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 For example, if you see for miles along a
the language of graphic design

straight road, the sides of the road in reality

are parallel to one another; however they
appear to draw closer and closer to one
another and finally disappear at a vanishing
point far off in the distance. It is one of the
most common visual techniques to create
spatial depth in two-dimensional composi-
tions. This technique was first developed
and used by Renaissance artists; they initially
plotted perspective lines as a base to their
compositions, using them to create realistic
illusions of depth in drawings and paintings
of architectural scenes.

Planar, or Two-Point, Perspective

In this type of perspective, the two visible
sides of an element stretch away toward two
vanishing points in the distance located on
a horizon line. Vertical lines within the com-
position remain parallel to one another. The
remaining lines that in reality appear parallel
in the composition also appear to diminish
diagonally toward one of the two vanishing
points to either side of the horizon line. (See
diagram on page 53.)
Using these visual characteristics and
techniques, singularly or in combination with
each other, will strengthen the illusions of
depth and space in any visual composition.

While ample white space

provides a visual anchor for SPOTCO
its primary photographic New York, NY, USA
image, typographic scale
and weight variations used
in this promotional poster
for the theatrical production
Sondheim on Sondheim
create atmospheric perspec-
tive, which further reinforces
an illusion of spatial depth
in an otherwise flat, two-
dimensional composition.

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 The effective use of ample
pictorial or “white” space
is apparent in these page
spreads for Akzo Nobel’s A
Magazine and further shows
how depth, movement, and
direction can create dynamic
and active compositions.

PENTAGRAM
London, UK

10
y

Space
ly

-
e
el

ee
e

118

This brochure cover for appear farther away, or in

American dancer and chore- the background, as opposed
119

ographer Merce Cunning- to the circles located toward

ham’s (1919–2009) Green the bottom, which appear
World effectively illustrates closer to the reader’s eye, or
how location is a critical in the cover’s foreground.
consideration in spatial
relationships when wanting PENTAGRAM
to achieve depth and perspec- New York, NY, USA
tive in a visual composition.
In this example, the smaller
die-cut circles located at the
top of the composition

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 bal·ance \'ba-l n(t)s\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

6 a: an aesthetically pleasing
integration of elements or harmonious
or satisfying arrangement
or proportion of parts or elements,
as in a visual composition

“W
HE

to
p
a

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 11 balance
“What I dream of is an art of balance.” Balance occurs when
HENRI MATISSE (FRENCH, 1869–1954) Painter, Printmaker, Sculptor
visual elements within a 120

composition are equally

distributed and arranged
121

to communicate a feeling of stability and harmony. This visual

principle can be described as formal and symmetrical, dynamic
and asymmetrical, or radial. Our response to balance is intuitively

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 This book cover for Truth
Machine reflects a well-
resolved combination of
symmetry and asymmetry
cover, reflecting a dynamic
or asymmetrical balance to
the cover composition.
1
that creates a unified balance ISAAC TOBIN
to the overall composition. Chicago, IL, USA Ch
The large-scale compositional JA
elements of typography and Cam
Ca
image are symmetrically, or
formally, balanced, while the
secondary title of the book
is symmetrically composed
but integrated to the overall

linked to taking our first steps as human be- In

the language of graphic design

ings. It is that essential need to stand, walk, st

and run that also relates to our fundamental, ic
primal need to prefer balance in our lives, as Pu
well as in any composition. th
Balance is achieved in a composition by og
arranging dissimilar elements with different di
visual characteristics. pe
jo
Types of Balance ov
There are three types of visual balance: of
mi
m
Formal Balance
Symmetry, or formal balance, is the easiest wo
w
type of balance to achieve in any visual com- in
position. It is used extensively in architecture th
because it inherently conveys permanence th
and stability, as well as automatically provides
a singular focus to whatever is placed in the re
center of a composition. It is also based on ill
a mirror image. For example, if you draw a gr
line down the center of a drawing of a gothic in
cathedral, elements on either side will appear in
as a mirror image. de
Formal balance occurs when elements po
are arranged equally in a compositon, appear
stable or static, and are identical and reflect ye
one another. a
(continued on page 124)
125) bo
su

19
The logotype for Arctic sa
Club Hotel, combined with a URBAN INFLUENCE tin
single spot-line illustration, DESIGN STUDIO
creates a symmetrically, or Seattle, WA, USA m
formally, balanced composi- en
tion. This compositional th
balance is further maintained
when the logotype is framed, m
contained, and applied to
the hotel’s advertisements, er
website, stationery, press kit
folder, and guest collateral Ka
print materials. Ho
H

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 1977
Charles Ross: Light Placed Poster
JACQUELINE CASEY
Cambridge, MA, USA

- In 1955, Jacqueline Casey (1927–1991) Brockmann (Swiss, 1914–1996). She devel-

started her professional career as a graph- oped a visual language that was purely her
l, ic designer when she joined the Office of own but strongly connected to proportion,
s Publications (Design Services Office) at grid, and European san serif typography.
the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- Balance also played a fundamental
by ogy (mit) in Cambridge under the design role in all of Casey’s posters. They are hu-
direction of fellow classmate Muriel Coo- manistic visual metaphors—precise, clean,
per (American, 1925–1994). When Cooper imaginative, engaging, and personal in tone
joined mit’s faculty in 1972, Casey took and message.
over as director, where she created a series Each of her posters contains a singular
of iconic promotional posters to publicize focal point or primary visual element that
mit events and exhibitions. immediately attracts the viewer. In each
For over three decades, she was a case, a critical balance between visual and
woman working in a man’s world, not only narrative form occurs, allowing the viewers

Jacqueline Casey at MIT

m- in the mit Office of Publications but also in to engage not only with their own imagina-
re the environs of the entire mit community tion, but with their understanding of the
that served as her sole client. poster’s subject matter.
es Born in Quincy, Massachusetts, she Casey’s work engaged the intellect and
e received a certificate of fashion design and curiosity of her academic audience because
illustration and a bachelor of fine arts de- it was a seamless, balanced integration of
gree from the Massachusetts College of Art type and image, as well as a memorable and
ic in 1949. Following graduation, she worked powerful vehicle for storytelling.
ar in fashion illustration, advertising, interior
design, and trade publications prior to her
position at mit.
ar Casey worked at mit for over thirty
t years, during which time she developed
a unique design philosophy, a memorable
body of work, and a thought-provoking vi-
sual brand for the Institute.
In f. h. k. Henrion’s (German, 1914– 122
1990) 1983 book Top Graphic Design, Casey
said, “Being a graphic designer at mit con-
tinues to be a fascinating experience for
123

me. My job is a constant learning experi-

ence. While mit has its roots in tradition,
the University represents all that is experi-
mental, exciting, and future-oriented.”
Her work was influenced by the mod-
ernist movement and by designers such as
Karl Gerstner (Swiss, 1930–2017), Armin
Hofmann (Swiss, b. 1920), and Josef Müller-

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 This poster, titled Rhythm the writer’s use of narrative reference with a specific
Textures, examines a series rhythms and textures in the number for part, chapter,
of selected quotes from text, such as italicized words, paragraph, and sentence. All
Jack Kerouac’s (American, commas, semicolons, dashes, twenty quotes are listed at
1922–1969) On the Road colons, and question marks. the bottom of the poster and
and uses formal balance to Color classifies characters cross-referenced with this
afford the reader ease and and themes in the text, such numerical codification.
organization when accessing as blue for Dean Moriarity
its dense and diverse content. (protagonist), purple for STEFANIE POSAVEC
The basic structure and tenor travel, and brown for parties, London, UK
of each sentence or quote is drinking, and drugs. Each
graphically documented or notation for each quotation is
mapped to further illustrate numerically coded for further
the language of graphic design

D
Dy
A
As
in
int
It
de
ap
co
kil
an
th

Ra
Th
oc
ra

Thi
Th
Bal
Ba
illu
of f
bal
sym
eac
con
pos
po
har
the
pho
ph
to u

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 11 Balance
Dynamic Balance a circular direction and their visual weight is elements. If elements are oriented in a
Asymmetry or dynamic balance is more equally distributed. Radial balance creates a specific direction, our eyes will also be led in
interesting and more difficult to achieve. strong focal point, always leading the eye to that same direction.
It occurs when elements are arranged the center of the composition. Stars, watch
deliberately unequally in a composition and faces, spokes of a wheel, and sunflowers are Location
appear random and dynamic. Here, the all prime examples of radial balance. A smaller element located farther away
compositionlacks balance and appears off- from the center of a composition will always
kilter. Although it has a more casual appear- Degrees of Balance balance a larger element located closer
ance, it requires careful planning to ensure Graphic designers can rely upon color, to its center. Additionally, larger elements
that it always appears visually balanced. direction, location, shape, texture, value, located on one side of a composition can be
and weight to emphasize a visual element to balanced by smaller elements located at the
Radial Balance achieve a state of balance. Varied degrees far end or on the other side of a composi-
This type of balance is based on a circle and of balance can be created in a composi- tion. This is also the basis for asymmetry or
occurs when visual elements in a composition tion through a combination of the following informal balance.
radiate out from a central, common point in related design elements and principles:
Shape
Color Small, intricate shapes can balance larger, 124
Our eyes are more drawn to color than to simpler shapes. Similarly, large uncluttered
This poster series for the theme, character, and a neutral image. Small elements of vibrant areas within a composition that have little or
Baltimore’s Theatre Project message of each play. color can offset larger elements of neutral no detail can be balanced with small, irregu-
125

illustrates an effective use

of formal compositional SPUR DESIGN color in a composition. Additionally, comple- lar shapes, because the eye is usually drawn
balance. Formal balance, or Baltimore, MD, USA mentary colors visually weigh more than to the more intricate shapes.
symmetry, is used to organize analogous colors.
each typographic grouping
consistently from poster to Texture
poster, while still achieving Direction Smaller areas containing textures, such
harmony and balance with Our eyes can be directed to a specific loca- as variegated, irregular, or random linear
the varied illustrations and
photographic images used tion in any visual composition based on fluctuations, can balance larger areas with
to ultimately communicate its arrangement and composition of design smoother, innocuous textures.

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 Compositional balance of
elements that are diverse in
scale and visual character can
create active and powerful
asymmetrical, or informal,
compositions, as shown in
these promotional posters for
the Guthrie Theater, Chicago,
and the Roundabout Theatre
Company, New York City.

SPOTCO
New York, NY, USA
the language of graphic design

Value
Value refers to the lightness or darkness of
elements. Black against white has a much
stronger contrast or visual weight than gray
against white; therefore, small elements of
high contrast can be used to balance larger
elements of low contrast.

Weight
The perceived physical weight of an element
in any composition contributes to its visual
interest. For example, a visually heavier ele-
ment has more visual interest than a visually
lighter element of the same size.

This set of covers for various balance to each and every

municipal publications is cover composition within the
part of an overall branding overall program.
and identity program for the
city of Melbourne. In these LANDOR
examples, the diversity of Paris, FR
visual content used in each
of these covers—such as line
art, illustration, photography,
and typographic styles—still
allows a visual unity and
cohesiveness due to reliance
on asymmetry or an informal

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 This eye-catching poster is
part of an public awareness MIKEY BURTON
program that reintroduces Philadelphia, PA, USA
classic literature to junior
high school students. Its
reliance on compositional
balance through formal
symmetry, as well as its use
of iconic imagery, creates a
provocative visual metaphor
that is universal and appeal-
ing to a young audience.

11Balance
126
127

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 Asymmetrical, or informal, In t
balance is clearly evident PENTAGRAM dir
in this promotional poster for New York, NY, USA as p
a film screening of Man on and
Wire at the Cathedral Church hel
of Saint John the Divine in the
New York City. This type of of 1
compositional balance the
combined with the simplicity tio
of the photographic image ho
hor
and blacklettering creates a hei
visual invitation that is both ent
eye-catching and memorable. com

Visual balance can be affected not only by

the language of graphic design

the size of compositional elements but also

by their intrinsic value such as lightness
or darkness. This is also described as an
element’s visual weight. When compositional
elements are of equal visual weight, they are
in balance.
Visual balance is an essential require-
ment in all visual communications. Just as
balance is a state of physical equilibrium
where everything comes to a standstill, it is
also a state of visual harmony in which all
characteristics of a composition are mutually
interconnected and interrelated.

Based on traditional Islamic

arabesque patterns, this POULIN + MORRIS INC.
symbol for the Dubai Water- New York, NY, USA
front Canal District
represents the entire city,
as well as its eight distinct
districts. Formal or symme-
trical balance is used here
as a primary compositional
principle to integrate line,
texture, color, and pattern in
a cohesive, unified manner.

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 In this atlas, formal and unifies these variables from
directional balance are used column to column, page to
as primary organizational page, and spread to spread.
and compositional principles,
helping the reader to access STUDIO JOOST GROOTENS
the analysis and comparison Amsterdam, NL
of 101 capital cities around
the world. Dense informa-
tion, organized in a series of
horizontal bands of varied
heights and containing differ-
ent statistical data, shares a
common leading system that

11 Balance
128

The balanced composition

of this promotional poster for BRYAN FAREVAAG, Student
129

a student thesis exhibition GENEVIEVE WILLIAMS,

at the School of Visual Arts Instructor
relies solely upon one shared SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
and common center point New York, NY, USA
for the circular diagram and
the justified, large-scale sans
serif typography framing
the upper and lower portions
of the poster.

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 sym·me·try \'si-m -trē\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

1: balanced proportions;
also: beauty of form arising from
balanced proportions

“S
to
W

s
e
o

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 12 symmetry
“Symmetry is static—that is to say quiet; that is Symmetry is a fundamen-
to say inconspicuous.” tal and timeless principle 130
WILLIAM ADDISON DWIGGINS (AMERICAN, 1880–1956) Book Designer, Calligrapher, Typographer
of visual perception. In
visual communications,
131

symmetry conveys balance, stability, and harmony. When visual

elements are completely balanced or centered, they are in a state
of equilibrium where all elements have equal weight. The result

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 The visual integration of an
uppercase L and I illustrate a
strong symmetry, or balance,
with this logotype for Leo
AND PARTNERS
New York, NY, USA
1
Ingwer Jewelers, even if the
combined letterforms are not Wi
truly symmetrical in graphic JA
form. Additionally, the scale Eng
En
and typographic treatment Lon
of the company’s name and
year established further
strengthens the symmetry of
this typographic composition.

In
the language of graphic design

em
Br
Bo
in
co
in

Pe
wi
w
du
da
pr
er
is a state of visual balance and is identified qu
as symmetry. It is a compositional state of
where design elements are organized on the ne
central axis of a composition (either its
horizontal or vertical axis). A similar compo- bo
sitional state can be achieved when design tio
elements are organized in relation to each re
other’s central axes. A symmetrical composi- ha
tion is static, stationary, and balanced, with
the negative spaces around its elements or lo
the contours of its elements located around ly
its central axis all appearing the same or of tit
equal weight. co
(continued on page 134) th
th
m
wi
w
in
The branding program for family-owned, neighborhood in
Boney’s Bayside Market, from gourmet food market.
packaging and advertising
to environmental graphics MIRIELLO GRAFICO ru
and shopping bags, uses San Diego, CA, USA Ty
symmetry combined with ci
casual sans serif typography,
hand-drawn letterforms, la
textural food photography, th
and quirky line illustrations ty
to communicate the feel,
ambiance, and ultimate co
experience of shopping at a su

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 1949
William Shakespeare: The Tragedy of King Lear Book Cover
JAN TSCHICHOLD
Engraved Shakespeare portrait by Reynolds Stone (British, 1909–1979)
London, UK

In 1947, Jan Tschichold (1902–1974) While at Penguin, he established a

emigrated from Switzerland to Great new set of general design principles based
Britain to accept a position at Penguin on his broad vision of good design. These
Books as its new design director. Founded guidelines were documented in a four-page
in 1935, Penguin Books was one of the most essay titled “Penguin Composition Rules,”
commercially successful book publishers demanding that all Penguin designers fol-
in Great Britain. low these standardized rules for all aspects
Prior to Tschichold’s arrival in London, of book design and composition.
Penguin paperbacks were not produced Tschichold also designed many book
with any specific design standards or pro- covers himself, including the Penguin edi-
duction criteria. Their existing standards, tion of Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of King
dated and limited, were generic and inap- Lear, released in 1949. While conventional
propriate in comparison with the publish- in design, it is a clear and well-balanced
er’s reputation and offerings. Tschichold composition that is immediately legible to

and the Penguin Classics

Jan Tschichold
quickly realized that a new and unique set the reader. Its solid black border is rein-
of compositional rules and standards were forced by inset hairline rules that provide a
e needed at the publishing house. strong frame for the symmetrical typogra-
Tschichold’s redesign of Penguin phy set in Monotype’s Perpetua. During his
o-- books in the late 1940s not only revolu- tenure, Tschichold standardized the design
tionized typographic conventions but also for Penguin’s extensive book series, and
reintroduced compositional standards that The Tragedy of King Lear is a prime exam-
i- had long been labeled out-of-date. ple of the basic compositional principles he
Tschichold developed a pragmatic devised for Penguin Classics, making them
look for Penguin Books that was extreme- instantly recognizable to the consumer.
d ly appropriate for a large number of book By raising the aesthetic level of a
titles, while increasing a level of balance, mass-market publisher of paperback books,
consistency, and readability throughout Tschichold brought to life the timeless
their catalog. In his view, adherence to principle of symmetry that graphic design-
the tenets of classical typography—sym- ers still rely upon today. Tschichold later
metry, legibility, a balance of type styles, wrote, “We do not need pretentious books
wide margins, contrast, simplicity, and for the wealthy, we need more really well- 132
integrated rules and ornaments—were all made ordinary books.”
od integral to a book’s timeless function.
Tschichold had begun to reject the
133

rules of Die Neue Typographie (The New

Typography) and functional Bauhaus prin-
ciples while designing books in Switzer-
land between 1933 and 1946. He realized
then that symmetrical and asymmetrical
typographic treatments could equally ac-
complish the requirements and goals of
successful book design.

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 the language of graphic design

Symmetrical, or formal, balance is also or

known as bilateral symmetry. It is achieved sa
by repeating the reverse of an image on the fo
opposite side of a vertical axis; each side ex
becomes the mirror image of the other side.
Symmetrical balance is considered formal, im
ordered, stable, and quiet. tio
The compositional design principle of wi
symmetry has also long been associated with on
physical beauty, natural or man-made. po
Symmetry can be found in virtually all forms
of the natural world, including the human im
body, animals, and plants. Classical architec- fu
ture also combines symmetrical types, tio
creating unified, dynamic, and memorable on
forms. Prime examples found in the man- ex
made environment are Notre Dame Cathe-
dral, the Eiffel Tower, and the U.S. Capitol.
In this monogram for Tiffany
& Co., the designer uses Types of Symmetry
ligature, as well as in-depth
knowledge of and intimacy There are three types of basic symmetry:
with letterform, to create
a unified, balanced symmetry Reflective
for an already simple idea.
Horizontal and vertical symmetry are identi-
LOUISE FILI LTD. fied as reflective symmetry. This type of
New York, NY, USA symmetry is created by mirroring equivalent
elements around a central axis or mirror line.
Reflective symmetry can be achieved in any

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 This series of book covers
for five Ernest Hemingway THE OFFICE OF
(American, 1899–1961) PAUL SAHRE
novels relies upon traditional New York, NY, USA
symmetry combined with
serif typography to celebrate
these classic, seminal books.
The use of textural images as
visual metaphors allows the
reader’s imagination to con-
nect with the familiar themes
of these iconic novels.

12 Symmetry
o orientation as long as its elements are the
same on both sides of the mirror line. Forms
e found in nature, such as a monarch butterfly,
exhibit reflective symmetry.
e. Horizontal symmetry is created with an
imaginary horizon or a left-to-right line func-
tioning as the divider of the composition,
with the top and bottom sections mirroring
th one another. A landscape reflected in a still
pond is an example of horizontal symmetry.
s Vertical symmetry is created with an
imaginary vertical or a top-to-bottom line
c- functioning as the divider of the composi-
tion, with the left and right sections mirroring
one another. A Rorschach inkblot is an prime
example of vertical symmetry.
- 134

Each of the fourteen framed

and contained blocks of TIMOTHY GOODMAN
135

typographic text in this cover New York, NY, USA

for Los Angeles magazine is
composed in a symmetrical
manner, and collectively
composed as one overall sym-
- metrical composition, further
illustrating the diversity and
t power of this guiding compo-
sitional design principle.
e.
y

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 Symmetry functions as the
compositional guide for JOHN SURACE, Student
the typographic elements of ANITA ZEPPETELLI,
this cover for a set of novels Instructor
by Thomas Mann (German, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
1875–1955)—Tristan, Death New York, NY, USA
in Venice, and Gladius Dei.
Although the trees are not
symmetrical in the photo-
graphic composition, they
are visually balanced and add
a powerful metaphor to the
title of this book set.
the language of graphic design

Ro
Ro
dir
di
dr
ro
an
sh
an
m
an
in

Tra
Tr
Th
eq

This book cover for Sean Thi

Th
McCloud’s Divine Hierarchies ROGERS ECKERSLEY the
illustrates how symmetry DESIGN (RED) bas
can create a state of visual New York, NY, USA cha
equilibrium and balance siti
sit
through the effective and sym
meaningful use of centered to c
compositional elements, pro
appropriate scale, color, tra
value, and typographic style. sub

MIR
MI
New
Ne

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 The typographic composi-
tions for the book covers MOTHER DESIGN
of Rollo May’s (American, New York, NY, USA
1909–1994) The Courage
TS
S to Create and Man’s Search
for Himself use symmetry
as a compositional principle,
combined with vibrant
colored frames and pull
quotes to reinforce the
dynamic balance between
these two book covers.

12 Symmetry
Rotative a composition. Translative symmetry can Symmetrical forms are also simpler than
Rotating equivalent elements in an outward occur in any direction and over any distance asymmetrical forms, which makes them
direction from a common center point while as long as the basic orientation of its design more immediate and recognizable in a visual
drawing attention inward is identified as elements is maintained. Continuous patterns composition to the reader’s eye.
rotative symmetry. This can occur at any found in architectural surfaces such as
angle or frequency as long as its elements façades, friezes, and pediments are primary
share a common center point. Arabesque examples of translative symmetry.
and mandala patterns are examples of Aside from its aesthetic properties,
man-made rotative symmetry. A sunflower is symmetry has other characteristics that are
an example of rotative symmetry found potentially beneficial to graphic designers.
in nature. Symmetrical forms are seen as figure
elements rather than ground elements in any
Translative visual composition. They traditionally receive
This type of symmetry is created by locating more attention and are more memorable
equivalent elements in different areas of than any other compositional organizations.

136

This promotional poster for Bilateral symmetry is a

the School of Visual Arts is compositional principle used
137

based on a common eye test on this brightly colored,

chart as well as the compo- triangular background
sitional design principle of pattern as well as with the
symmetry and was designed decorative typographic and
to catch the attention of line elements contained
prospective students as they within the larger triangular
traveled the New York City frame used on these wine
subway system. labels for Tratturi Primitivo.

MIRKO ILIĆ LOUISE FILI LTD.

New York, NY, USA New York, NY, USA

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 asym·me·try \( )ā-'si-m -trē\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

1: lack of balance or symmetry

“A
JA

w
b
m

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 13 asymmetry
“Asymmetry is the rhythmic expression of functional design.” Asymmetry is the opposite
JAN TSCHICHOLD (GERMAN, 1902–1974) Author, Book Designer, Educator, Typographer
of symmetry. Asymmetri- 138

cal balance, also called

informal balance, means
139

without symmetry. This definition by itself has nothing to do with

balance. It means only that images within a composition do not
mirror one another. The term, however, is usually used to

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 The symbol for Overture,
a web search engine, is
composed of a series of
concentric O’s organized in
reflected neon, cropped top
and bottom, and interpreted
as an environmental graphic
wall mural.
1
an asymmetrical perspec-
tive that further conveys C+G PARTNERS LLC Ko
balance and movement, as New York, NY, USA JA
well as referencing a target, Bas
Ba
informational hierarchy, and
unlimited reach. This asym-
metrical symbol also takes
on an added visual dynamic
when used as a greeting in

describe a kind of balance that does not rely Ja

the language of graphic design

upon the principle of symmetry. With asym- in

metry, one dominant form or compositional pa
element is often offset by smaller forms lig
or compositional elements. In general, asym- ar
metrical compositions tend to have a greater an
sense of visual tension than symmetrically in
balanced compositions. ca
to
References in Nature
Asymmetry in nature is uncommon and is th
a skill development trait identified as us
“handedness,” a property of an object vi
(continued on page 142) vi
id
st
pr

Ba
st
lo
wo
w
de
an
19
an
ic
its
wi
w

m
co
J. Christopher Capital’s or
stationery is identified with 19
a centered monogramlike
logotype and organized an
within asymmetrical composi- ar
tions for its letterhead, ap
envelope, and business card.
Ba
HINTERLAND
New York, NY, USA Ty
tio
im

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p
ed
ic
1937
Konstruktivisten Poster
JAN TSCHICHOLD
Basel, CH

y Jan Tschichold (1902–1974) was born type, and the creative use of white space.
- in Leipzig, Germany, the eldest son of a sign These tenets were ultimately summarized
l painter and calligrapher. He studied cal- in Tschichold’s treatise titled Die Neue
ligraphy, engraving, typography, and book Typographie (The New Typography, 1928)
m- arts at Leipzig’s Academy for Graphic Arts and in Typographische Gestaltung (Asym-
er and Book Production. Soon after establish- metric Typography, 1935).
ing himself as a graphic designer, he be- In 1926, he was appointed by Paul
came aware of the need for a new approach Renner (German, 1878–1956) to teach ty-
to typography. pography and lettering at the Munich Meis-
At the time, typography was based on terschule fur Deutschlands Buchdrucker,
the principle of centered type or symmetry, and he continued to lecture there until
using frame, border, and ornament to pro- 1933.
vide further texture, distinction, and indi- In 1933, Tschichold was arrested and
viduality to each composition. Tschichold accused by the Nazis of being a “cultural

and Die Neue Typographie

Jan Tschichold
identified this approach as the “box block Bolshevik,” creating “un-German” typogra-
style” of typography, an approach that was phy. Soon after his release, he and his fam-
predictable, uninteresting, and outdated. ily immigrated to Basel, Switzerland. In the
In August 1923, he attended the first later part of his life, Tschichold ultimately
Bauhaus exhibition in Weimar and quickly embraced principles of both symmetry and
started to assimilate this new design phi- asymmetry, as well as the use of serif and
losophy. Influenced and informed by the sans serif typography in his work.
work of modern avant-garde artists and
designers such as Herbert Bayer (Austri-
an, 1900–1985), Paul Klee (German, 1879–
1940), El Lissitzky (Russian, 1890–1941),
and Piet Zwart (Dutch, 1885–1977), Tsch-
ichold wanted to liberate visual form from
its restrictive rules and provide designers
with greater freedom and flexibility.
He believed that typographic infor-
mation had to be purely functional and 140
composed in a clear and precise manner,
or else it would be ignored. Starting in
1925, he began writing a series of articles
141

and publications proposing a revolution-

ary approach to a “new” typography—an
approach strongly influenced by both the
Bauhaus and the Russian Constructivists.
The major tenets of the New
Typography were asymmetric composi-
tions of elements based on their relative
importance, the preference for sans serif

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 Thi
Th
dev
vid
Kin
imm
im
typ
in a
tio
vie
ous
ou
size
siz
the
rul
the language of graphic design

(such as a living organism) that is not identi- Compositional Characteristics

cal with its mirror image. This is fully evident Asymmetry is achieved when one side of a
in a person’s tendency to use one hand rather visual composition does not reflect the other
than the other. side. Asymmetrical balance is a type of visual
Other examples of handedness and balance in which compositional elements are
left-right asymmetries in nature are the left organized so that one side differs from the
dolphin lung that is smaller than the right other without impacting the composition’s
to make room for its asymmetrical heart; a overall harmony. Consequently, when an
fiddler crab’s different-size large and small asymmetrical composition is disturbingly off
claws; the narwhal’s left incisor tusk, which balance, the result is jarring and disorienting.
can grow up to 10 feet (3 m) long and form As a compositional principle of visual
a left-handed helix; the eyes of a flatfish, communications, asymmetrical balance is
located on one side of its head so it swims more complex and more difficult to achieve
with one side upward; and several species of than symmetrical balance. It involves organi-
owls whose size and ear position assists them zing compositional elements in a way that
in locating their prey. will allow elements of varying visual weight

The asymmetrical balance of

this page spread is achieved STUDIO JOOST GROOTENS
simply with the effective use Amsterdam, NL
of scale, proportion, and grid.
Reliance on extreme large-
and small-scale photographic
images, a dynamic layout of
typographic columnar text,
and activation of a flexible
page grid all add to the visual
impact and kinetic qualities
that can be achieved with an
asymmetrical composition.

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 This poster for promoting separate information, makes
developing artists’ films and this poster easily and readily
videos throughout the United accessible to the reader.
Kingdom relies upon the
immediacy and power of pure FRASER MUGGERIDGE
typography and is organized London, UK
in an asymmetrical composi-
tion to gain and hold the
viewer’s attention. An obvi-
ous hierarchy of typographic
sizes and colors, as well as
the use of horizontal, linear
rules to highlight, group, and

er
ual
al
re
e

fff
g.

e
i-

142

This 74-foot-high (22.6 m) large-scale typography as a

sandblasted limestone bas-relief and permanently
143

tablet engraved with the displays the first amendment

forty-five words of the First as a timeless element set in a
Amendment is traditionally modern context.
composed with serif all-cap
letterforms in an asym- POULIN + MORRIS INC.
metrical organization, and New York, NY, USA
located on the modernist,
all-glass façade of the
Newseum building, also in an
asymmetrical manner. This
treatment accentuates the

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 Per
Pe
cam
we
pro
tha
int
apo
sm
scie
sci
fro
ers
com
and

to balance one another around an axis or

pivot point. This can be best visualized as
a literal balance scale that represents visual
weights in a two-dimensional composition.
For example, it is possible to balance a
heavy weight with a group of lighter weights
on equal sides of a pivot point. In a visual
composition, this might be a cluster of small
elements balanced by a larger one. It is also
possible to imagine compositional elements
of equal weight but different mass (such as
a large mass of feathers versus a small mass
of stones), on equal sides of a pivot point.
Unequal visual weights can also be balanced
by shifting the pivot on this imaginary scale.

Maison Theatre’s playful and of print collateral materials

childlike symbol is composed with bright saturated colors,
of two triangular, transparent hand-drawn letterforms and
color shapes layered on top script lettering, and trian-
of one another to create a gular patterning—all active
third unique triangular shape. and dynamic asymmetrical
An all-cap treatment of the compositions, reinforcing the
theater’s name functions as unique, visual character of
a typographic base for this the theatre’s overall message
asymmetrically balanced and brand.
symbol. To further appeal
to a youthful audience, the LG2BOUTIQUE
symbol is applied to a variety Montreal, QUE, CA

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 Perricone MD’s branding
campaign includes packaging, MONNET DESIGN
website, advertising, and Toronto, ONT, CA
promotional sales collateral
that reflect a modern visual
interpretation of a traditional
apothecary—understated,
small-scale serif typography;
scientific photography;
frosted amber glass contain-
ers—all organized and
composed in an asymmetrical
and balanced manner.

13 Asymmetry
Asymmetrical balance is informal and
generally more active and dynamic than sym-
metrical balance. While symmetrical balance
is achieved through repetition, asymmetrical
balance is completely dependent upon
tss contrast and counterpoint in a composition.
It results from combining contrasting design
ll elements, such as point, line, shape, form,
o and color, evenly distributed along an axis of
s a composition.
Asymmetry is also a compositional state
s where elements are organized in a nonsys-
tematic and organic manner to achieve visual
d balance. This type of visual balance relies
e.. upon the critical interaction and integrity of

144

The cover for The Good Men

Project: Real Stories from POULIN + MORRIS INC.
145

the Front Lines of Modern New York, NY, USA

Manhood uses asymmetry
to create visual tension,
balance, and eye-catching
recognition for the buyer and
reader. These characteristics
are further strengthened with
the effective use of an iconic
photographic image, bold
typography, vibrant color,
and distinctive proportions.

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 The varying visual weight
of the photographic and ROGERS ECKERSLEY
typographic elements in this DESIGN (RED)
promotional poster for The New York, NY, USA
New Group Theater creates
an asymmetrical composition
that is fully balanced due to
contrasts and counterpoints
evident in the scale, color,
and tone of the poster’s com-
positional elements.

compositional elements and negative space,

the language of graphic design

as well as their location and proximity to

one another, to create tension, balance, and
meaning in any visual communication.
These types of balanced compositions
are inherently active and kinetic, and com-
municate the same to the viewer.
Asymmetrical compositions require a
more disciplined and analytical eye due to
their unique and ever-changing spatial
requirements. Here you have to constantly
and consistently evaluate and assess po-
tential compositional solutions based on
spatial relationships varying from element to
element and size to size, whether positive or
negative, figure or ground.
In visual communications, your reliance
on the principle of asymmetry in creating
asymmetrical compositions increases the
viewer’s ability to organize, differentiate, and
interact with a broad range of visual content.

The overall asymmetrical and placement of the project Th

composition of this brochure symbol bleeding off the an
cover for the Old Police right-hand edge of the cover. ref
Headquarters building, a leg
renovated, historic, mixed- URBAN INFLUENCE chy
use real estate development DESIGN STUDIO an
in downtown San Diego, is Seattle, WA, USA tha
reinforced by asymmetrical an
and
characteristics of the cover— tre
the composition of its acc
typographic elements and the con
cropping of its photographic typ
image as well as the cropping dra

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 Future Flight, a promotional ascending and flying beyond
poster for the Australian the edges of the poster,
Graphic Design Association, strengthens the asymmetry
functions as an announce- of this composition.
ment for a series of member
programs and offerings. LANDOR
The immediacy and dynamic Paris, FR
visual character of this poster
is solely due to its asymmetri-
cal composition. Additionally,
the use of varied colors and
scales of paper planes, as well
as their illusive appearance of

13
e,

Asymmetry
d

o
orr

nd
d
t.

146

These covers for Blueprint, illustrations, captions, and

an architectural magazine, narrative text.
147

reflect optimum readability,

legibility, emphasis, hierar- PAOLO COCKRIEL, Student
chy, and scale by relying upon ADRIAN PULFER, Instructor
an asymmetrical page grid BRIGHAM YOUNG
that allows varied narrative UNIVERSITY
and visual content to be Provo, UT, USA
treated in a meaningful and
accessible manner. Varied
content includes large-scale
typography, architectural
drawings, photography,

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 ten·sion \'ten(t)-sh n\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

3 c: a balance maintained in
artistic work between opposing
forces or elements

“Te
“T
RI

is
d
fo

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 14 tension
“Tension is the great integrity.” The principle of tension
RICHARD BUCKMINSTER FULLER (AMERICAN, 1895–1983) Architect, Author, Inventor
in visual communications 148

is critical to effective
graphic design. Tension
149

is primarily a visual, as well as psychological, attention-getting

device. It is also a tenuous balance maintained between opposing
formal elements, often causing anxiety, stress, angst, or excitement,

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 Color and compositional
placement are two key factors
in creating a visual tension
with this identity program
yellow used consistently
throughout this program,
whether figure or ground.
1
for BPI, a lighting design POULIN + MORRIS INC.
consultancy. The lowercase, New York, NY, USA Lag
tri-letter acronym is always PIE
PI
located at the lower edge Am
of any print collateral so that
the descender of the p can
bleed off the bottom edge.
This tension is also reinforced
with a vibrant fluorescent

Pi
the language of graphic design

m
in
Am
Am
wh
w
tu
te
th

th
th
Ts
on
exuberance, and joy for the viewer. Tension Ho
H
and balance are interrelated principles in an
visual communications. Like balance, tension tis
is an obvious and constant presence in our
everyday lives. Unfortunately, we cannot h.
experience one of them without the other. en
When something is out of balance in our wo
w
life, we feel tense and anxious. For example, fir
when we observe a daring feat, such as a th
high-wire act at a circus, it makes us feel Co
uneasy and tense since there is always a
potential for the performer to fall. The same tis
ti
experiences and emotions can be conveyed in
and ultimately felt in any visual message. fo
(continued on page 153) m
fr
to
sp
These book covers for Biruta, th
a Brazilian publishing house, CASA REX de
use visual tension as an eye- São Paulo, BR
catching device. Each cover ty
layers a high-contrast black- co
and-white photographic po
image turned and cropped in
an unusual and jarring
orientation with an over- co
scaled dot pattern. The effect po
is bold, dynamic, and relevant
to each book theme, and full of
of compositional imbalance. sio
si

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 1923
Laga Company Advertisement
PIET ZWART
Amsterdam, NL

Piet Zwart (1885–1977), a Dutch crafts- asymmetrical balance, contrasts of size and
man, draftsman, and architect, was born weight of elements, and a dynamic interac-
in Zaandijk, an industrial area north of tion between positive and negative space.
Amsterdam. From 1902 to 1907, he attended Zwart synthesized two very distinct and
Amsterdam’s School of Arts and Crafts, contradictory points of view in his work—the
where he became interested in architec- Constructivist movement’s visual playful-
ture. His early work involved designing ness and de Stijl’s formal functionality. He
textiles, furniture, and interiors in a style ultimately created a unified language that
that showed his affinity for de Stijl. has prevailed for the last eighty years and
Zwart was influenced by many of to this day strongly influences contempo-
the modern, avant-garde movements of rary designers.
the early twentieth century, as well as
Tschichold’s The New Typography. He was
one of the first modernist designers in

Piet Zwart and Laga Company

Holland to apply the principles of de Stijl
and Constructivism to commercial adver-
on
n tising during the 1920s.
From 1921 to 1927, Zwart worked for
h. p. Berlage (1856–1934), the most influ-
ential Dutch architect of the era. While
working in Berlage’s office, he received his
e,, first typographic commission and designed
the first of many advertisements for Laga
Company, a Dutch flooring manufacturer.
These dynamic and arresting adver-
e tisements are early examples of Zwart’s
d interest in typography, pure compositional
form, and asymmetrical tension. Here, he
mostly used found type and letterforms
from various printers’ cases. While pho-
tographs and photomontage were used 150
sparingly, when he did rely on these forms,
they were never used as embellishment or
decoration. Every visual element, whether
151

typographic or photographic, was used to

collectively create a more meaningful and
powerful message.
With this early work, Zwart rejected
conventional symmetry and traditional ty-
pographic rules. He considered the design
of a visual composition as a “field of ten-
sion” brought to life with a combination of

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 Vis
an
att
in t
Mo
com
dra
em
and
com
the
imb
im
the
the language of graphic design

Ch
C
Te
th
fo
pe
an
tu
wi
(G
he
In
to
(R
(A
ap
ch
(A
(A

ra
m
pa
re
re
in

co
im

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 Visual tension is used as
an eye-catching, riveting, LAURENT PINABEL
attention-getting principle Montreal, QUE, CA
in these four posters for
Montreal-based theater
companies. Gestural hand-
drawn letterforms, bold
emotional line illustrations,
and angular typographic
compositions all add to
the dynamic contrasts and
imbalances evident in these
theatrical posters.

14 Tension
Characteristics and Effects
Tension is a critical compositional element
that depends completely on opposing visual
forces. In the related fields of applied and
performing arts, such as architecture, music,
and dance, the same holds true. In architec-
ture, monumental structure is juxtaposed
with curvilinear forms in the Eiffel Tower
(Gustave Eiffel, 1889) and the Guggen-
heim Museum (Frank Lloyd Wright, 1959).
In music, loud sounds compete with soft
tones in the compositions of Tchaikovsky
(Russian, 1840–1893) and Philip Glass
(American, b. 1937). In dance, movement
appears harsh with fluid gestures in the
choreography of Merce Cunningham
(American, 1919–2009) and Martha Graham 152
(American, 1894–1991).
Tension can be realized through a wide A simple, asymmetrically to peer through the prison
range of contrasts and imbalances—between placed graphic line not only gates toward the beaches
153

creates a palatable, visual of Cuba.

medium and message, form and content, tension on this cover for The
pattern and texture, scale and proportion. It Prisoner of Guantanamo, it JOHN GALL
results from opposing forces and unresolved immediately communicates New York, NY, USA
the emotional, firsthand
relationships, not only in visual form but also experience of the novel. It
in narrative content. also represents the political,
It can also be achieved through the emotional, conceptual, and
relevant spirit of the book’s
compositional element of space. Varied prox- narrative, as well as literally
imity of elements can result in visual tension illustrating what it looks like

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 The John P. McNulty Prize, essential character of the
in association with Aspen program. Color and typogra-
Institute, supports extraor- phy are also used effectively
dinary young leaders making and to further reinforce this
creative, effective, and compositional dynamic.
lasting contributions to their
communities. The program’s POULIN + MORRIS INC.
logotype is organized in New York, NY, USA
three vertical bands anchored
to the upper right-hand
corner of any print collateral,
creating a visual tension
and excitement that is an
the language of graphic design

that brings an apparent and dynamic interest

to a composition. Equal and regular spacing
creates visual static and uniformity.
For example, a space between two
or more elements can affect not only their
spatial relationship but also the perception
of that relationship by the viewer. As two
or more elements move together, a visual
tension occurs. When they touch, a new
hybrid shape is created, and, as they move
apart, they become disassociated with one
another. Tension is a conversation in which
compositional elements communicate with
one another. This dialogue can be quiet
and understated or loud and chaotic. The
result can be affected profoundly by the
position and number of elements in a
composition. Proximity groupings create
patterns, a sense of rhythm, or other visual
relationships that elicit a response from the
viewer. However, you need to keep in mind
that this visual conversation should always
be in support of the message’s content.
Tension can also be created by the
imbalance of design elements in a composi-
tion. With asymmetrical compositions, visual
tension is in response to gravity and its
obvious effect on the individual elements.

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 14 Tension
st
g

154

This poster series for the the tension among the

Stephen Petronio Company compositional elements of
155

is a thorough study in spatial each poster.

tension. Each composition
is an integral representa- LAURA GRALNICK, Student
tion of visual tension and RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
balance, effectively using SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
cropped photographic images New York, NY, USA
- contrasted with horizontal
al and vertical typographic
elements, and varied layers of
color and dot patterns—
all collectively strengthening

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 The intersection of two
extremely different-size lines PUBLIC INC.
of typography, combined with San Francisco, CA, USA
their alternating direction
and orientation, adds to the
visual tension and distinctive
visual character of this
graphic identity program for
Pfau Long Architecture.
Saturated and muted colors
also contrast with one an-
other, creating another level
of visual tension.

It can create varied degrees and levels of

the language of graphic design

excitement and visual tension depending on

the degree of asymmetry.
Our lives are filled with opposites—
happy, sad, angry, calm, crying, laughing.
Effective visual communications echo these
opposites in our lives, making us connect and
engage with them in a much more immediate
and meaningful way. This language of oppo-
sites is a language of tension, and it helps us
understand so many things and experiences.
Visual tension speaks to the good and
the bad, the easy and the difficult—in life, as
well as in graphic design. Effective visual
communications is often filled with tension.

A single vertical rule placed

between the words support
and resist in the title of this
book creates a visual tension
in a powerful and immediate
way. This graphic rule also
symbolizes the essence of
the book’s content, which
celebrates design innovation
in structural engineering.

THINK STUDIO
New York, NY, USA

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 14
n

Tension
e
nd
te
o-
s
s.

ass

156

Page spreads from the

School of Visual Arts’ Senior
157

Library show how disparate,

unrelated visual images can
be cropped and paired to
create a balanced, visual
tension that ultimately
provides unity to the totality
of each page spread, as well
as to the overall book.

POULIN + MORRIS INC.

New York, NY, USA

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 clo·sure \'klō-zh r\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

1: the process or ability to fill in

missing parts of a visual stimulus;
a Gestalt principle of visual organization
holding that there is an innate tendency
to perceive incomplete objects
as complete

“Im
w
yo
y
GE

m
a
n

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 15 closure
n

In visual communications,
“Imagination is the beginning of creation. You imagine
what you desire, you will what you imagine and at last
closure can basically be 158
you create what you will.”
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW (IRISH, 1856–1950) Playwright
described as a visual
illusion. Closure literally
159

means the act of closing or the condition of being closed. It is also

a definitive finish or conclusion. As human beings, we have an in-
nate need to make sense of what we see; therefore, if we anticipate

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 In the identity, stationery,
and website for the Max
Protetch Gallery, the appear-
ance of the x in the logotype
LAURA GRALNICK, Student
RICHARD POULIN, Instructor
SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
1
is only partially closed and New York, NY, USA
incomplete, bringing an The
Th
additional visual nuance to (Th
the program. This form of Exh
Ex
closure provides an interac- AR
tive engagement with the Zur
Zu
viewer, allowing them to fill
in the blanks and ultimately
create a visual conclusion.

Fo
the language of graphic design

(b
in
pe
de
ce
an

th
wo
w
ap
ra
Ba

a form we will always complete it. In human Historical References in

nature, we are constantly searching for A classic representation of closure in art his- Ge
G
resolution in everything we see and do. We tory is in Michelangelo’s (Italian, 1475–1564) Cr
have been taught to strive for the perfect the Creation of Adam on the ceiling of the tu
balance in our lives. Even when we experi- Vatican’s Sistine Chapel (1512). Here, God is lo
ence something incomplete or imperfect, reaching his pointed finger outward toward he
we continually look for closure or a better- the finger of Adam’s hand. In our minds, wa
balanced sense of resolution. the fingers appear to touch, symbolically de
In personal relationships we always representing creation and birth. The fingers po
expect a happy ending. When this doesn’t do not touch, yet they are perfectly posi-
occur, we feel unrest and disappointment. tioned to imply such. If they were any farther we
w
This is a example of our basic human need apart, or conversely, if they were touching, ne
for resolution. In visual communications, the quality of this critical compositional in
closure is an equivalent visual resolution. relationship, as well as the visual perception ou
of closure, would be lost. an
no
Visual Characteristics at
Closure is completely dependent upon the bo
Precision and accuracy are rupting the letterform spatial relationships in a composition. It is sy
essential visual metaphors in this manner not only used to create visual interest for viewers m
for this symbol identifying creates visual interest but
O’Shaughnessy Asset also adds meaning to its because it engages them to complete the
Management, a financial overall message. composition in their own mind’s eye. ba
investment firm. A circular It is also dependent on the distance Au
O letterform is pierced and C+G PARTNERS LLC
interrupted by an arrowlike New York, NY, USA from one object or shape to another. When co
apostrophe pointing to related objects are too far apart from one fig
its center. The viewer can another, they have no immediate and appar- vi
immediately complete
the full circular profile of the ent visual relationship. When related objects an
letterform; however, inter- (continued on page 162) tr

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 1955
Theaterbau von der Antike bis zur Moderne
(Theater Construction in Antiquity and Modernity)
Exhibition Poster
ARMIN HOFMANN
Zurich, CH

For over forty years, Armin Hofmann His posters are widely recognized for
(b. 1920) has devoted his life to teach- their contrasts in simplicity and complex-
ing art, design, and the principles of visual ity, representation and abstraction. They
perception and communications. His stu- have a direct and immediate connection to
dents’ works are benchmarks of visual ex- the viewer’s eye—engaging, challenging,
cellence, as well as the envy of students and communicative. They pique interest
and teachers of graphic design worldwide. and convey a clean and understandable
In 1937, he studied foundation art at message. Hofmann’s posters are pure and
the Kunstgewerbeschule in Zurich; he also symbolic visual statements. He has written
worked as a draftsman and lithography that “a poster does more than simply sup-
apprentice in Winterthur and as a lithog- ply information on the goods it advertises;
rapher and designer in various studios in it also reveals a society’s state of mind.”
Basel, Switzerland. Paul Rand (American, 1914–1996),
Hofmann began his career as an a close friend and longtime colleague of

and the Austellung Helmhaus

Armin Hofmann
influential educator at the Allgemeine Armin Hofmann, has described Hofmann’s
s-- Gewerbeschule Basel School of Art and contributions to the graphic design pro-
) Crafts (later known as Schule fur Gestal- fession: “Few of us have sacrificed so
tung or ags) at the early age of 26. He fol- much time, money and comfort for the
is lowed Emil Ruder (Swiss, 1914–1970) as the sake of their profession as has Armin
head of its graphic design department and Hofmann. He is one of the few exceptions to
was instrumental in developing the graphic Shaw’s dictum, ‘He who can, does; he who
design style known as the International Ty- cannot, teaches.’ His goals, though prag-
s pographic Style or Swiss School. matic, are never pecuniary. His influence
His teaching methods and maxims has been as strong beyond the classroom
er were unorthodox and broad based, setting as within it. Even those who are his crit-
new standards that became widely known ics are as eager about his ideas as those
in design education institutions through- who sit at his feet. As a human being, he is
n out the world. His independent insights as simple and unassuming. As a teacher, he
an educator, married with his rich and in- has few equals. As practitioner, he ranks
novative powers of visual expression, cre- among the best.”
ated a body of work enormously varied— 160
books, exhibitions, stage sets, logotypes,
symbols, typography, sign systems, and
most memorably, posters.
161

His exhibition poster titled Theater-

bau von der Antike bis zur Moderne for the
Austellung Helmhaus in Zurich is a simple,
n compositional study in black and white,
figure–ground, and closure, engaging the
r- viewer with the compositional elements
s and principles of asymmetry, tension, con-
trast, and scale.

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 This identity system for an for the exhibition. These Ele
exhibition titled Graphic illuminated, stencil-like pro
Design in China relies solely letterforms are another Stu
on fluorescent light visual representation of the pla
installations evident in design principle of closure in firm
each exhibition venue that graphic design. of c
spell out the names of each the
designer and the disciplines SENSE TEAM the
represented in the exhibition. Shenzhen, CN sho
Custom letterforms were the
photographed and used as if iti
primary elements in a series On
of promotional posters con
the language of graphic design

are composed in close relationship to one

another, they become meaningful and there-
fore related. They also become complements
to one another, creating tension and engag-
ing the viewer in a more immediate manner.
Closure is most successful when visual
elements in a composition are simple and
singular, recognizable patterns, such as
geometric shapes. When shapes and patterns
are not easily understood, they become
unfamiliar; therefore, closure will not occur in
the mind of the viewer.

Compositional Forms
The principle of closure refers to the con-
dition of being closed. A form that is closed
is fully described or complete. However, a
form that is interrupted, partially closed, or
incomplete can still be understood.
Closure is the recognition of meaning
in an unclear or incomplete composition
because the viewer has been able to draw on
previous experiences to discover sufficient
similarity between it and individual memo-
ries. It allows the viewer to bring something
to an ultimate, visual conclusion.
By providing this opportunity in a com-
position, you also create an interactive

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 Elements of this branding the full name of the firm.
program for Bergen Street This compositional device is
Studio, an architecture, considered a form of visual
planning, and interior design closure, allowing the viewer
firm, rely upon the principle to fill in the blank.
of closure to further engage
the viewer. For example, POULIN + MORRIS INC.
the announcement card New York, NY, USA
shows bergenst anchored to
the right side of the card as
if it continues off the page.
On its reverse side, the word
continues as reet as well as

15 Closure
experience for the viewer. They become
engaged with the visual communication and
therefore become more intimately involved
with the visual process of assimilation, under-
standing, and memory.
Closure also provides us with balance
and harmony. Visual closure gives you the
same results. Even if your goal is to create
tension in a composition, closure is still part
of the compositional equation.
This design principle enables you to
reduce complexity and increase visual inter-
est in a composition by relying upon simple
and recognizable elements to communi-
cate information. For example, a logotype
composed of recognizable elements such as
multiple, repetitive lines does not need to 162
complete many or all of its lines and contours
Stencil-like, typographic to be meaningful and effective. Reducing the
“scraps” or fragments give an MENDE DESIGN number of lines in the logotype not only re-
163

unusual, hybrid appearance San Francisco, CA, USA

to these letterforms. The duces the visual complexity of the logotype,
visually inconsistent charac- it also makes it more engaging for viewers to
teristics of this logotype for complete in their own mind.
Scrap House, a temporary
demonstration home
blitz-built using scrap and Forms of Perception
salvaged materials, provides Closure is a principle of visual perception
visual interest and engages
the viewer to complete this where the eye tends to perceive a set of
puzzlelike image. individual elements as a single, recognizable

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 Acquire New York, a licensed frame is not needed, it is
real estate brokerage firm, implied through the visual
caters to affluent residential principle of closure.
real estate buyers. Its logo-
type relies upon traditional POULIN + MORRIS INC.
serif typography, graphic New York, NY, USA
patterning evocative of
engraved currency and stock
certificates, rich saturated
colors, and fragmented linear
brackets framing all of these
elements into one cohesive
unit. While a fully closed

whole as opposed to separate elements. It is

the language of graphic design

also one of the principles of visual communi-

cation referred to as a “gestalt principle of
perception,” which means that we tend to
perceive a single pattern so strongly that we
will close gaps and fill in missing information
to complete the pattern if necessary.
For example, when individual line seg-
ments are positioned along a circular path,
they are first perceived holistically as a circle,
and then as multiple, independent line seg-
ments. Our tendency to perceive information
in this way is automatic and subconscious;
it is most likely a function of an innate
preference for simplicity over complexity,
and pattern over randomness.
Many forms of visual storytelling rely
on closure in a similar way. For example, in
film and comic books, singular and discrete
scenes are presented to the viewer, who in
turn supplies what occurs in between each
scene. Essential information is provided by
the storyteller, and the remaining information
is provided by the viewer.
By using this fundamental design
principle effectively and creatively, you can
enhance immediacy, interest, and under-
standing in your work.

Coral Technologies is a soft- literally and visually distinct

ware provider that bases and separate.
its business on continuous
communication and connec- TRIBORO
tivity with its clients. Its Brooklyn, NY, USA
symbol uses simple, stylized
imagery to communicate this
essential need for continuity
with two separate icons.
The viewer, however, sees
these icons immediately
as a holistic whole before
acknowledging that they are

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 This acronym-based logotype square, an illusion allows
for BLT Architects, a full- the viewers to close the frame
service architectural design in their own mind’s eye.
firm, comprises a series
of san serif monumental POULIN + MORRIS INC.
letterforms in two distinct New York, NY, USA
weights and framed with two
linear corner brackets. These
two line elements imply a
fully resolved, continuous,
and articulated square frame.
However, by using only
partial fragments of the

15
s
ni-
i-

Closure
e
n

e,

on

on

164

The large-scale, sans serif as the overall visual impact

letterforms used in this and meaning of this powerful
165

poster for La Radio dans le typographic composition.

Noir are of ample scale and
familiarity to withstand the CATHERINE ZASK
overlay of geometric forms Paris, FR
that block and fragment
their identity and reading.
The viewers ultimately
resolve each individual
letterform in their own mind,
therefore retaining their
identity and meaning as well

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 ex·pres·sion \ik-'spre-sh n\ n e

1
the language of graphic design

2 a: a mode, means, or use of

significant representation or symbolism;
esp: felicitous or vivid indication
or depiction of mood or sentiment

“A
an
a
th
JO

e
v
a

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 16 expression
;

Expression is a design
“All that is good in art is the expression of one soul talking to
another; and is precious according to the greatness of the soul
principle fully dependent 166
that utters it.”
JOHN RUSKIN (BRITISH, 1819–1900) Art Critic, Artist, Poet
on your individual ideas,
personal moods, sole
167

emotional outlook on the world, and place within it. It is perceived

visually, as well as psychologically, in any visual message. It is also
a completely subjective principle and reflects directly on the time

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 The image for this promo-
tional poster for the School
of Visual Arts combines
visual metaphor and narra-
GAIL ANDERSON
New York, NY, USA
1
tive form with the graphic
designer’s personal point Les
of view, interpretation, BR
and ultimate expression of Lug
Lu
creativity, defined here as
an organic, evolving process
requiring nourishment and
constant care.

and experiences in which you have lived Br

Expression cannot be taught; it is learned by in
each and every graphic designer. It is also er
a reflection of your inner thoughts, dreams, ie
fears, and passions. As a result, an inherent De
bias completely depends upon our separate
experiences or realities. Dreams, fantasies, by
and imagination also influence a designer’s as
creative process and choices. se
In everyday occurrences and interac- He
H
tions, we hear someone say that they have Ts
“expressed their opinion.” However, visual Zw
expression is something more concrete, more hi
specific, and more intentional. Meaningful Bo
and memorable visual expression occurs ge
when the fundamental elements and prin- til
ciples of graphic design are used selectively
and collectively by you to create a “visual M
experience” for the viewer. ar
Since the beginning of human develop- in
ment, we have had the desire and need to In
express ourselves. Although graphic design an
as a discipline has had a relatively short sp
history, with the name graphic designer first co
coined by William Addison Dwiggins (Amer- b.
ican, 1880–1956) in 1922, visual communica- in
tion and visual expression has always been an d’
integral part of our history. It is evident in the
(continued on page 172) th
Hi
H
in
an
This branding program for a th
landscape architecture, plan- sig
si
ning, and urban design firm
expresses an appreciation for an
natural systems and a strong as
commitment to the synthesis tim
ti
of design aesthetics and
sustainability, which is a driv- sp
ing force of this practice.
m
SAGMEISTER & WALSH
New York, NY, USA sc
m

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 1989
Les Noces Poster
BRUNO MONGUZZI
Lugano, IT

Bruno Monguzzi (b. 1941) was born bombastic, and magnetic. Always a great
y in the small town of Ticino in the south- light on any city thoroughfare . . . It takes
ern lake district of Switzerland. He stud- hold of your eye with an initial onslaught of
ied graphic design at the Ecole des Arts beauty, then sense, then he hands you the
Decoratifs in Geneva, and then in London. gift of intellectual communication.”
e During this time, he was influenced From 1987 to 2004, he was the sole
by the work of modernist designers such designer for Museo Cantonale d’Arte in
as Carlo Vivarelli (Swiss, 1900–1986), Jo- Lugano. His poster titled Les Noces for the
sef Müller-Brockmann (Swiss, 1914–1996), Museo is an emblematic example of how he
Herbert Bayer (Austrian, 1909–1985), Jan has realized visual form as a true form of
Tschichold (German, 1902–1974), and Piet expression—enlivening, enriching, and en-
Zwart (Dutch, 1885–1977). Monguzzi began lightening. It is clear from this work that he
ore
re his career in 1961 as a designer with Antonio has a passion for form, craft, and function
Boggeri (Italian, 1900–1989) at Studio Bog- as well as for history, which allows him to

and Museo Cantonale d’Arte

Bruno Monguzzi
geri in Milan, Italy, and remained there un- integrate the past with the present.
til its closing in the early 1980s. For example, in this poster Monguzzi
y Now residing in the secluded town of uses thirty-six letterforms—twenty-two
Meride, in northern Italy, Monguzzi is also letters are from Herbert Bayer’s alphabets,
a renowned teacher of graphic design, first which are mostly from his Bauhaus Univer-
p- in Lugano and later throughout the world. sal type variations of 1925; one letter is from
In 1981, Monguzzi was the sole curator Theo van Doesburg’s (Dutch, 1883–1931)
and designer of the Studio Boggeri retro- work, four letters are of his own assem-
spective at the Milan Trienalle. In 1983, in blage, and three are from Schlemmer’s The
collaboration with Jean Widmer’s (Swiss, Husband’s Prayer. All of these letterforms
r-
er- b. 1929) Visuel Design studio, he won the are in some manner or another historically
- international competition for Paris’s Musee and thematically connected to either Oskar
an d’Orsay’s identity and sign system. Schlemmer (German, 1888–1943) or Igor
he Monguzzi is known as a thoughtful and Stravinsky (Russian, 1882–1971). In this
thought-provoking designer and educator. context he, has used expressive and histor-
His professional work, as well as his teach- ical-relevant typographic letterforms as a
ing, has always focused on the enrichment means to marry the past with the present. 168
and betterment of the human experience He is a true poet of expressive form
through visual expression in graphic de- and function.
sign. He has consistently created modern
169

and timeless work that is as visually rich

as it is diverse in design, content, and ul-
timate meaning. It is also devoid of any
specific style.
Monguzzi’s work and has been ad-
mired by many of his colleagues and de-
scribed as “street communication at its
most impressive. Informational, elegant,

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 the language of graphic design

The redesign of a series of ephemera, insect pins, and Tamara Shopsin (Despair),
Vladimir Nabokov’s book the like, selected to evoke the Helen Yenthus and Jason
covers for Random House was book’s content and theme. Booher (Invitation to
an exercise in collaboration The designers represented a Beheading), John Gall
and visual expression. Each here include Michael Bierut (The Eye), Chip Kidd (Ada,
cover was designed by a (Speak Memory), Peter or Ardor), Carin Goldberg
different graphic designer, Mendelsund (King, Queen, (Pnin), and Sam Potts
whose sole requirement was Knave), Stephen Doyle (The Real Life of Sebastian
to use the same black framed (Pale Fire), Barbara deWilde Knight).
specimen box—the type used (Stories), Marian Bantjes
by collectors like Nabokov (Transparent Things), Dave JOHN GALL
to display insects. Each box Eggers (Laughter in the New York, NY, USA
is then composed with paper, Dark), Jason Fulford and

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 16 Expression
170
171

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 The duality of this playing
card is the basis for a CARBONE SMOLAN
promotional poster celebrat- AGENCY
ing “Amore y Arte” (“Love New York, NY, USA
and Art”) and the integral
relationship between Frida
Kahlo (Mexican, 1907–1954)
and Diego Rivera (Mexican,
1886–1957), two celebrated
Mexican modernists of the
twentieth century.

prehistoric cave paintings of northern Spain

and southern France, in the Roman Forum’s
Trajan’s Column (113 CE), in the illuminated
medieval manuscripts of the Middle Ages,
and in the mesmerizing neon signs of Times
Square and Piccadilly Circus.
Expression is also a quality of inner
experience or the emotions of a graphic
designer communicated through other visual
elements in a composition. Historically,
this is evident in all forms of visual art, inclu-
ding painting and sculpture. The viewer
cannot separate actual form and its integral
expression when viewing memorable work
such as Pablo Picasso’s (Spanish, 1881–1973)
Guernica, the paintings of Jackson Pollock
(American, 1912–1956) and Jean-Michel
Basquiat (American, 1960–1988), or the
sculptures of Alexander Calder (American,
1898–1976). Expression transcends all visual
artists and graphic designers, as well as their
own, individual personal experiences.
Visual communications provide a means
for you to “express” your imagination in ways
that do not rely upon the spoken or written
word. Every design element and principle
used has the potential to express something.
Although their explanation and ultimate use
may seem cut-and-dry, the quality of these

In keeping with the themes accentuating visible old text,

and goals of this festival and hand lettering used in
of used books in which lieu of digital typography.
attendees buy, sell, and ex- This concept and theme was
change books, the designers also used throughout the
decided to add value to old rest of the visual campaign,
and used goods by reusing including recycled and
the remaining posters from reprinted sponsor T-shirts
last year’s festival. The new and shopping bags.
promotional posters were
now more visually expressive STUDIO SONDA
due to the evidence of tat- Poreč, HR
tered edges, repainted fronts

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 Unusual, three-dimensional
constructions representing JANET FROELICH
de Stijl and Constructivism, New York, NY, USA
a monochromatic “blanc”
floral arrangement, animal
fur, and kaleidoscopic colors
all take on expressive mean-
ings and messages when
also representing the iconic
black letter T of the New York
Times Style Magazine.

16
n
s

Expression
d

al

u-

l
r

ns
ys

g.
e

172

xt,
173

ass

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 Ha
for
dyn
com
exp
com
em
of e
pro
Bo
Hip

ele
el
the language of graphic design

th

illu
vis
wi
de
an
as
U
Un
co
W
as
gie
gi
an

ar
se
of
bl
ble
gr
di
dis
as
m

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 Hand-drawn, black letter- These unusual, unconven-
forms and line illustrations, LAURENT PINABEL tional, and highly expressive
dynamically cropped and Montreal, QUE, CA hand-built letterforms spell
composed, are extremely out the statement “Good
expressive visual elements Work” and are composed
communicating the intense, of drawing pencils—a clear
emotional, and raw power and meaningful message for
of each of these theatrical any designer who values the
productions—Une Fête pour interconnection between the
Boris, Hedda Gabler, “medium and the message.”
Hippocampe, and Woyzeck.
JASON TAM
Brooklyn, NY, USA

16
elements and principles is perceived solely
through the expression of the total message.

Expression
Imagery, such as photography and
illustration, is the most powerful form of
visual expression. When used in combination
with typography, color, and other relevant
design elements, it can create a distinct
and memorable message that will always be
associated with a specific human emotion.
Understanding form, shape, line, space, and
color is also essential to visual expression.
With these tools, you can fully embrace,
as well as explore, new concepts, technolo-
gies, materials, and styles, with confidence
and assurance.
Unlike narrative form in which words
are organized in a specific sequence to form
sentences, visual expression provides a range
of forms, symbols, and ideas with mallea-
ble meanings. It can help you achieve a
greater power and influence in your craft and
discipline—to inform, educate, and persuade
a single person or collective audience in a
meaningful and memorable way.

Bold and expressive mono- brand message of this line

chromatic textures are used of beverages. The imagery
as simple visual metaphors is metaphorically derived
for capturing the spirit and and symbolizes the spirit of
flavors of Mijovi and each of individuality, energy, and
its products. Combined with ultimate self-expression.
bold sans serif lowercase
typography and bright satu- POULIN + MORRIS INC.
rated colors, this packaging New York, NY, USA
not only stands out among
the overcrowded shelves of
competing products but also
communicates the essential

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 ab·strac·tion \ab-'strak-sh n, b-\ n e e

1
the language of graphic design

1: considered apart from concrete

existence
2: not applied or practical; theoretical
3: having intellectual and affective
artistic content that depends solely on
intrinsic form rather than on narrative
content or pictorial representation

“A
th
ta
AN

a
w
in

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 17 abstraction
Abstraction is indepen-
“A designer knows that he has achieved perfection not when
there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to
dent of our visual world. 176
take away.”
ANTOINE DE SAINT-EXUPÉRY (FRENCH, 1900–1944) Author
It is an illusion of our own
visible reality and solely
177

a sensory experience. In graphic design, abstraction provides us

with alternative ways of communicating visual messages contain-
ing specific facts and experiences. It is a visual language that does

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 Simplification and distillation
of letterforms using different
light fixtures and bulbs is
the primary visual metaphor
how the practice of architec-
ture is being transformed in
the twenty-first century.
1
for this promotional poster MENDE DESIGN
announcing an American San Francisco, CA, USA Nig
Institute of Architects San AL
Diego–sponsored conference. Ne
The conference title, “If Not,
Then When?” spelled out in
an abstract manner further
conveys the theme of the
conference, which explores

not rely upon the literal nature of things—fa- On

O
the language of graphic design

miliar and identifiable to us in our own world. be

Relying on an abstract visual language can tw
reshape the familiar into the expressive. It on
is free from objective content, context, and an
meaning. It can be symbolic, interpretive, tio
imaginary, impressionistic, nonrepresenta- th
tional, nonobjective, or nonfigurative. gr
fo
Historical References bo
Abstraction is not a twentieth-century
phenomenon. It has been a part of our visual An
language since early mankind. From naïve of
(continued on page 181) an
He
H
fo
de
a
bo
zi
re
til
an

er
pa
fa
er
in
he
th
su
The abstract outline of a Jo
heart in this symbol suggests C+G PARTNERS LLC St
a human-centered approach New York, NY, USA
to healthcare, beyond the Ro
traditional realms of science, st
chemistry, and manufactur- bi
ing for the pharmaceutical
company Kyorin. Continuing fie
this human viusal metaphor, an
the center of the symbol is an
“inner smile.”
in
Di

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c-
n 1945
Nightwood Book Cover
ALVIN LUSTIG
New York, NY, USA

a- One of the most prolific collaborations book a quickly grasped, abstract symbol
d. between a graphic designer and client in of its contents as a sheer force of form and
twentieth-century American design was the color, to attract and inform the eye. Such a
one shared by Alvin Lustig (1915–1955) symbol is a matter of distillation, a reduc-
and the progressive publisher New Direc- tion of the book to its simplest terms of
tions Books in the 1940s and 1950s. During mood or idea. The spirit of the book cannot
this time period, Lustig designed dozens of be expressed by naturalistic representation
groundbreaking book covers and jackets of episodes or by any preconceived formal
for the Modern Reader and New Classics approach, but can only develop naturally
book series for New Directions. from its own nature.”
A designer, writer, and educator in Los The reliance on modernist visual form
al Angeles and New York City, Lustig was one was a means of communicating the book
of the first designers to approach his craft publisher’s commitment to an intellectual
and profession in a nonspecialized manner. literary tradition distinct from the main-

Alvin Lustig and New Directions

He believed that all design was a matter of stream—a new and sophisticated visual
form and content and that the role of the language that at once created and affirmed
designer was that of a synthesizer, not of New Directions’ place within a highly com-
a style maker. His diverse work included petitive and overcrowded market.
books, book jackets, advertisements, maga- Lustig’s visionary “distillation” of
zines, trademarks, letterheads, catalogs, form and image developed into a complex,
record albums, sign systems, furniture, tex- abstract, efficient, and resolutely modern
tile design, interior design, product design, visual language, simplified yet never sim-
and architecture. plistic, unique yet never forgettable.
Lustig’s first New Directions book cov-
ers began as an experiment with geometric
patterns, but soon he was adapting forms
familiar to him from his knowledge of mod-
ern painting. Within a few years, Lustig was
incorporating biomorphic glyphs or what
he called symbolic “marks” that recalled
the work of abstract modernist painters 178
such as Paul Klee (German, 1879–1940),
Joan Miró (Spanish, 1893–1983), Clyfford
Still (American, 1904–1980), and Mark
179

Rothko (American, 1903–1970). His most

striking and memorable book jackets com-
bined modern typography with complex
fields of line, shape, form, color, texture,
and image.
He explained, “The primary intention
in designing the book jackets of the New
Directions series was to establish for each

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 This cover series for a set
of Irvine Welsh (Scottish, JAMUS MARQUETTE,
b. 1958) novels uses abstract Student
illustrations to further KEVIN BRAINARD, Instructor
enhance the design of each SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
cover and convey the raw, New York, NY, USA
emotional themes of each
book. Saturated colors, bold
sans serif, all cap letterforms,
and textures collectively
add power and impact to the
expressive qualities of each
of these compositions.

gr
the language of graphic design

pa
tia
in
rit
cip

Le
Ab
A
fy
pe
ra
re
up
av
to
tio

of
th

(c
ot
lo
low
re
th
re
im
di
dis

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 17
graphic gestures found in prehistoric cave
paintings and stylized hieroglyphs in Egyp-

Abstraction
tian funereal tombs to graphic emblems used
in medieval science, heraldry, and religious
rituals, abstraction is an integral design prin-
ciple in all of these visual forms.

Levels of Abstraction
Abstract visual language is created by simpli-
fying and distilling form and content. It de-
pends solely upon its own intrinsic form
rather than on narrative content or pictorial
representation. A graphic designer who relies
upon abstraction as a means to communicate
a visual message also requires the viewer
to connect immediately, intuitively, and emo-
tionally with that same message.
There are different degrees or levels
of abstraction in visual communications, from
the least abstract to the most abstract.
For example, a photographic image
(closer to a true representation than any
other image type, such as illustration) has the
lowest level of abstraction, since it only
replicates the actual content or meaning of
the actual image. Exact duplication of the
reality represented in a photographic
image is not possible because that reality is
distorted as soon as the photographer takes

180

The cracked slab of limestone earthquake, this promotional

used in this poster is an poster announced an
181

abstract visual metaphor exhibition and conference

representing the legendary on the potential renovation
city of Bam and its citadel of the city.
located in southern Iran,
which was among the world’s STUDIO ABBASI
most famous architectural Tehran, IR
landmarks. In 2003, an earth-
quake destroyed the city and
caused the death of more
than 40,000 people. For the
first anniversary of this

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 The mission of Amphibian
Stage Productions, a theatri- ALFALFA STUDIO LLC
cal production company, New York, NY, USA
is to produce “innovative and
engaging” theatrical works
that challenge the way people
see the world around them.
This brand identity draws
from abstract amphibian
forms and patterns used to
create a visual vocabulary
appealing to all theatergoers
—young and old.

the photograph, as well as in the viewer’s

the language of graphic design

visual perception and interpretation of that

photographic image.
The next level of abstraction is not
based on reality or any recognizable form,
but is represented by signs or something else
to communicate a visual message. Letter-
forms, numbers, punctuation, and words
are all signs—representations or visual
expressions of written and verbal language.
The highest level of abstraction is
evident in glyphs, pictograms, and symbols.
These graphic forms are more abstract
than signs because their meaning can be
(contined on page 185)

The typography in this and proportion all add to the Bo

theatrical poster for a overwhelmingly dark and You
production of Shakespeare’s serious tone of this message. Gir
Macbeth has been abstracted tio
to a certain degree to imply CATHERINE ZASK hea
a towering castlelike wall Paris, FR int
enclosing an environment fee
that will have to be breached nat
and broken down, but it still soc
maintains an immediate typ
identity for the title of the nar
play. Color, typographic form, eac
exaggerated scale, contrast,

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 Both of these posters, titled
You Will Mingle and Meet JASON LYNCH, Student
Girls, use expressive abstrac- WILLIAM MORRISEY,
tions of a person’s eye and Instructor
head to communicate the SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
intensity and anxiety one can New York, NY, USA
feel when considering these
natural yet uncomfortable
social situations. Supporting
typography functions as a
narrative counterpoint to
each visual representation.

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 This series of stylized graphic
variations for Alfred A. TRIBORO
Knopf Publishers’ classic Brooklyn, NY, USA
Borzoi dog symbol use visual
simplification, interpreta-
tion, and abstraction as a
means to update and provide
alternative graphic choices
when incorporating the
symbol on various book titles
and spines.

int
in
Sy
re
re
se
ca
m
du

vis
Fo
ob
vis

tio
gr
ye
m

An abstract human form similar to the reductive

made from found objects— human form directly below
threads and a button—and this titling.
represented in a manner that
is both lyrical and dancelike CHEMI MONTES DESIGN
becomes a powerful and Arlington, VA, USA
memorable figurative icon
for this poster announcing
a spring dance concert.
Custom-drawn, lowercase
letterforms identifying “open
source” are also abstracted,
evoking visual qualities

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 17
interpreted by the viewer on many levels.
Symbols are not realistic in graphic form but

Abstraction
represent concepts and ideas, which may be
reflected spiritually, socially, politically,
sexually, or culturally. For example, a triangle
can represent inspiration, the gay-rights
movement, or oppression in Nazi Germany
during World War II.
Total abstraction bears no trace of any
visual reference to anything recognizable.
For example, color is completely free of
objective representation and is an abstract
visual form.
Using abstraction in visual communica-
tions provides you with a broad palette of
graphic form that has no concrete meaning
yet can evoke powerful, memorable, and
meaningful visual messages and responses.

184

In this poster for a perfor- frame for this image, giving it

mance by Henri Meschonnic added strength and presence
185

(1932–2009), a French in the composition.

essayist, poet, and theorist of
language, the image of a man CATHERINE ZASK
is reduced and abstracted to Paris, FR
an illusive visual gesture. It
appears figurative and, at the
same time, not figurative. It
is unfamiliar, yet engaging.
Sans serif typography ori-
ented on a vertical axis acts
as a strong counterpoint and

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 tone \'tōn\ n

1
the language of graphic design

7 a 1: color quality or value

7 a 2: tint or shade of color b: the color
that appreciably modifies a hue or
white or black

“Ev
“E
W

d
ti
o

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 18 tone
“Every hour of the light and dark is a miracle.” In visual communications,
WALT WHITMAN (AMERICAN, 1819–1892) Essayist, Journalist, Poet
tone (also identified as 186

value or shade) means the

degree of lightness or
187

darkness apparent on the surface of an object. Tone is also the rela-

tive degree of a color’s lightness or darkness—its content of black
or white. It can be characterized by the degree of light that falls on

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 Muted tones of color,
pattern, and typography are
used as visual, figurative
textures to further enhance
scents, and spirits found
throughout Asian cultures.

BLOK DESIGN
1
the identity program Mexico City, MX
for Ödün, a Mexico City Exp
restaurant featuring cuisines WI
from China, Thailand, Am
Japan, Vietnam, and other
Asian countries. The overall
identity, as well as its broad
palette of tones, colors,
and patterns, was inspired
by a diversity of flavors,

an object and how it is then reflected, and W

ultimately perceived. It is also one of the Du
most important principles in visual commu- we
w
nication because it helps define an object’s tu
size, form, and position relative to orienta-
tion and composition. la
Because the majority of our perceptible of
world is defined by color, it is critical that se
we understand its characteristics and effects. be
Vi
Characteristics Fo
Tone gives a composition unique character- wo
w
istics that cannot be achieved with flat color. ap
These visual characteristics are spatial M
depth, texture, and movement. Tone can
also increase visual impact in a powerful He
H
and immediate way or create extreme visual an
restraint and nuance that is still obvious and gr
palatable to the eye of the viewer. pi
Color is an absolute presence in our co
visual world; therefore, it is extremely dif- tia
ficult to extract the characteristic of chroma of
or hue from all of its other qualities. an
gr
Value th
A tone (or shade) is a color to which black
or another dark color or hue has been added ca
to make it darker, thereby tending to make m
(continued on page 190) 19
Of
O
m

Bold, tonal typography is be

used for these dual front-and- M
back book jackets to create
active white space reinforcing so
each author’s name and book an
title as iconic, singular, and un
immediate identifiers for
both publications. pr
th
ESTRADA DESIGN pa
Madrid, ES
Fr
Ge
G

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 1956
Experimenta typographica
WILLEM SANDBERG
Amsterdam, NL

Willem Sandberg (1897–1984) was a resistance, Sandberg produced the basis

Dutch typographer and graphic designer, as for Experimenta typographica, a series of
well as a unique presence in the Dutch cul- print experiments in form, space, and tone,
tural world during the 1940s and 1950s. presented in eighteen short, mostly hand-
He was born in Amersfoot, the Nether- made, books that were finally published in
lands, and studied art at the State Academy the 1950s and subsequently inspired his
le of Art in Amsterdam. As a young man, he later work. These experiments included
served as a printer’s apprentice in Herrli- unjustified text settings and sentence
s. berg, Switzerland. In 1927, he studied in fragments composed freely, with varying
Vienna and then at the Bauhaus in Dessau. type weights and styles for visual interest
Following his return to Amsterdam, he or emphasis. They are void of symmetry
- worked as a graphic designer until he was and use bright colors, strong contrasts,
r. appointed deputy director of the Stedelijk and subtle tones for rhythm and pacing.
Museum in Amsterdam in 1938. Crisp sans serif typography is combined

and Experimenta typographica

Willem Sandberg
His main sources of inspiration were with large-scale, torn-paper, collaged let-
Hendrik Werkman (Dutch, 1882–1945) terforms with rough, irregular edges.
l and Piet Zwart (Dutch, 1885–1977), both These sensitive explorations of com-
d groundbreaking Dutch typographers whose positional tone and space became enor-
pioneering work abandoned the tenets of mously influential among a generation of
conventional symmetry. Sandberg also ini- graphic designers, as well as becoming
tially agreed with the “neue typographie” the basis for many of Sandberg’s later
a of Jan Tschichold (German, 1902–1974) Stedelijk Museum catalogs, which were
and began to incorporate lowercase typo- seen and then imitated around the world.
graphic characters and unjustified text in His body of work was a provocative
the majority of his work. marriage of the “neue typographie” com-
During World War II, Sandberg be- bined with the expressive freedom of sur-
d came a wartime hero as the only surviving realism and the inevitable compromises of
member of a Dutch resistance group that in a wartime Europe.
1943 burned down Amsterdam’s Municipal
Office of Records in protest against the ad-
ministration of the Nazi government. 188
After Europe’s liberation in 1945, Sand-
berg became the director of the Stedelijk
Museum. It was at the Stedelijk that he per-
189

sonally designed hundreds of its catalogs

and posters, providing the museum with a
unique brand and identity. As a designer, he
produced innovative work characterized by
the use of bold type, vivid colors, textured
papers, and signature torn-paper forms.
From 1943 to 1945, while hiding from the
Germans and working for the underground

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 In this series of brochures G
and posters for a regional HELMO
theater and arts center, Montreuil, FR
titled Lux, lighter, intense
tints of color are used as
tonal textures and patterns
that provide a visually rich
and animated series of
background layers for the
typographic information
running throughout these
collateral print promotions.
the language of graphic design

it more neutral in color. For example, black Gr

added to green creates a darker shade of Ea
in
green. Value changes in pure colors or hues ua
are called shades and tints. This can be more (ti
clearly understood by viewing these variables tha
sat
sa
on a color wheel. for
Toning (or shading) shows changes gre
gr
from light to dark or dark to light in a the
sca
sc
composition by darkening areas that would int
be shadowed and by leaving other areas zo
light. The blending of one value into another co
co
is also identified as feathering or gradient. sim
Toning is often used to produce the illusion rat
of dimension, volume, and depth. tra

The subtle, muted tone of

the photographic image MOTHER DESIGN
on this book cover for Zero New York, NY, USA
Decibels: The Quest for
Absolute Silence is used as a
visual metaphor for silence,
with an intent that it can be
read and understood, but just
barely. The added restraint
of the serif typography, with
its extreme thick and thin
stroke nuances, adds a quiet
presence to this message.

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 Graduated Color Wheel Shade

18 Tone
Tint

Graduated Color Wheel Tone

Each hue is shown here These color tonal wheels
in a progressive or grad- demonstrate changes in
s uated series of values saturation and value
re (tints and shades). Note by adding or subtracting
es that the point of greatest black, white, or gray.
saturation is the same When white is added to
for each hue. Yellow is of a bright red, the value is
greatest intensity toward lighter and the resulting
the lighter end of the color is less saturated.
scale, while blue is more Adding black to a bright
intense in the darker red results in a dark red
zone. Use this graduated closer to the neutral
er color wheel to look for scale because of satura-
combinations that are tion changes. If gray is
similar in value or satu- added, the saturation Saturation/Chroma
ration, and to build con- is lowered but the value
trasting relationships. is unchanged.

190
191

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 These three brand identity represented in the group’s
variations for the financial brand photography—dynamic
group Liquid Capital use a images that support the
single color with related light group’s key brand messages.
and dark tones of that same
color to further convey JOG LIMITED
movement and diversity in London, UK
their various organizations.
Greens are used for markets,
magentas for securities, and
a range of oranges for the
overall group. This concept
is further reinforced and
the language of graphic design

Ty
In
co
as
re
an
re
hu

ca
ic
ca
sc
br
gr

Volume magazine, a sales patterns. Each spread, acti- Av

tool specifically designed for vated with a different, dis- JOG LIMITED are
the image library, Corbis, to tinct tone or shade, is actually London, UK pos
po
communicate with its book an overscaled fragment of a per
publishing clients, showcases custom-designed, pixilated to K
recently designed book letterform. These structured Un
covers and publications using letterforms symbolize a com
Corbis–based imagery. The digital age in which most of d
visual diversity of this work publications are designed and sha
is further accentuated by the set electronically using pixels tity
framing and displaying of rather than picas. Am
each cover or publication mu
on a variety of background mu

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mic

s.

18 Tone
Types and Effects
In color theory, a tint is the mixture of a
color with white, increasing its lightness, and
a shade is the mixture of a color with black,
reducing its lightness. Mixing a color with
any neutral color, including black and white,
reduces its chroma or colorfulness, while its
hue remains unchanged.
A tone can also be gray or what is
called a midtone. It is identified as achromat-
ic and is mixed from black to white. Tones
can range from light to dark values in a gray
scale. Grays can flatten and minimize the
brilliance of any pure color or hue. Darker
grays also affect color or hue in a way similar

192

A variety of subtle tones

are used in this promotional CHEMI MONTES DESIGN
193

poster for a jazz ensemble Falls Church, VA, USA

performance titled “A Tribute
to Kind of Blue” at American
University. The poster’s
composition, as well as its use
of different color tints and
shades, reinforces the iden-
tity and meaning of jazz in
American culture as a diverse,
multifaceted, multilayered,
musical experience.

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 A range of light- and dark- The
Th
colored tonal values and for
layers on these notebook squ
covers provides a strong sm
visual dynamic, spatial depth, or t
and kinetic movement to red
these swirling, curvilinear blu
color compositions. pro
dep
ADAMSMORIOKA INC. act
Beverly Hills, CA, USA sam
of c
env
the language of graphic design

to black; lighter grays affect color or hue in

a way similar to white. For example, a tone
mixed with yellow produces a rich, colorful,
earth tone that resembles ochre and umber.
Monochromatic tone is a single color
mixed with either a tint, shade, or tone. This
type of color scheme can effectively simulate
the presence of other colors or hues through
use of tone and its effects on individual and
distinct colors.
In theory, there are an almost infinite
number of value gradations between true
black and true white. The contrast between
these two extremes is mitigated by midtones,
from the palest to the darkest of grays.
It is due to these primary factors that
tone is a valuable conceptual and composi-
tional element in visual communications.
Line illustration and hand
lettering for this poster, LAURENT PINABEL
Les Aventures de Lagardére, Montreal, QUE, CA
are further strengthened
by the effective use of
a monochromatic color
palette—an intense, vibrant
red paired with a darker tone
of the same color. Here tone
simulates the presence of
another color, thereby adding
volume and depth to the
overall composition.

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 The identity and branding promotional elements,
for the Microsoft Store, a reinforcing the visual
square divided into four language of this program,
smaller squares, uses tones as well as symbolizing the
or tints of quadratic colors— diversity of the company
red, green, yellow, and in a retail environment.
blue. This reliance on tints
provides this symbol with COLLINS
depth, dimension, and visual New York, NY, USA
activity. Variations on this
same monochromatic theme
of color and tone are used in
environmental graphics and

s
te
gh
h
d

es,

194

Intense color and tone is

effectively used as a second- JACK HENRIE FISHER
195

ary informational layer to this Brussels, BE

poster announcing a series of
educational programs at the
Cranbrook Academy of Art.
Sans serif typography set in
various scales and contrast-
ing colors, paired with figure–
ground, allows the reader to
change focus in an immediate
manner, allowing easy access
to layers of information.

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 con·trast \’kän- trast\ n

1
the language of graphic design

1 a: juxtaposition of dissimilar
elements (as color, tone, or emotion)
in a work of art

“T
st
CH

b
li
is

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 19 contrast
Contrast is a visual prin-
“There are dark shadows on the earth, but its lights are
stronger in the contrast.” ciple that fundamentally 196
CHARLES DICKENS (BRITISH, 1812–1870) Author
provides the eye with
a noticeable difference
197

between two things or objects—large and small, red and green,

light and dark, or hot and cold. In visual communications, contrast
is the perceptible difference in visual characteristics that makes

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 These notebook covers
effectively use the design
principle of contrast to
present a graphic message
1
that is powerful, and
immediate. The bold use Em
of pure geometric shapes, EM
textures, figure–ground, Bas
Ba
and letterforms, further
strengthen this concept.

ADAMSMORIOKA INC.
Beverly Hills, CA, USA

Em
the language of graphic design

ty
ed
m
sig
si
Ty

an
ag
po
Zu

Ar
be
an object (or its representation in an image) te
distinguishable and distinct from other re
objects in a composition as well as its sur-
rounding background. Contrast in a compo- ab
sition is the opposite of visual harmony. Ru
It can be achieved by exaggerating Ge
G
the visual differences in size, shape, color, gr
and texture between compositional elements, pr
thereby enhancing and making a message St
more immediate and understandable to a de
viewer. Contrast can also draw and direct an
attention, create a mood or emotion, and
create hierarchy and emphasis in complex wa
w
information in any visual message. em
(continued on page 200) tu
Its
It
fro
fr
an
The extreme scale, cropping,
and juxtaposition of these VOICE in
fluid, calligraphic letter- Adelaide, SA, AU
forms, placed in counterpoint fin
to formal serif typography be
and articulated in a stark th
black-and-white palette,
provide contrasts that create m
tension, movement, and m
visual impact to each and ph
every one of the spreads in
this promotional brochure for tio
Colour Cosmetica. an

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 1967
Emil Ruder: Typography Book Cover
EMIL RUDER
Basel, CH

19
Emil Ruder (1914–1970) was a Swiss the contrast of macro and micro, was es-
typographer, graphic designer, author, and sential to understanding both of these pa-

Contrast
educator instrumental in starting the Alleg- rameters—the negative, or white, space of
meine Gewerbeschule (Basel School of De- the page and the negative, or white, space
sign), as well as developing the International of letter and word forms, such as counters,
Typographic Style or the Swiss School. letter spacing, and word spacing.
As a young man, Ruder studied in Paris Ruder stated, “Typography has one
and trained as a typesetter in Zurich. At the plain duty before it and that is to convey
age of fifteen, he began a four-year com- information in writing. No argument or
positor’s apprenticeship and attended the consideration can absolve typography from
Zurich School of Arts and Crafts. this duty.”
In 1948, Ruder met the artist-printer He also promoted an overall, system-
Armin Hofmann (Swiss, b. 1920), and they atic approach to the design of page layout
began a long period of collaboration and and the use of complex, structured grids to

Emil Ruder and Typographie

teaching that achieved an international bring all compositional page elements into
reputation by the mid-1950s. a unified, cohesive whole while still allow-
Ruder was also a writer and published ing for contrasting variations in narrative
a basic grammar of typography titled Emil and visual and content.
Ruder: Typography, which was published in
German, English, and French in 1967. This
groundbreaking book helped spread and
propagate the International Typographic
Style and became a basic text for graphic
design and typography throughout Europe
and the United States.
The International Typographic Style
was defined by sans serif typefaces and
employed a rigorous page grid for struc-
ture that produced asymmetrical layouts.
Its philosophy and tenets evolved directly
from the de Stijl movement, the Bauhaus, 198
199
and Jan Tschichold’s New Typography.
In Ruder’s work, as well as in his teach-
ings, he called for all graphic designers to
199

find an appropriate balance in contrasts

between form and function. He believed
that typography loses its function and com-
municative value when it loses its narrative
meaning. He further believed that typogra-
phy’s primary role in any visual composi-
tion is legibility and readability. A careful
and critical analysis of visual contrasts, or

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 These Eastern European–
inspired labels and packaging LG2BOUTIQUE
for Slavko, an alcoholic Montreal, QUE, CA
beverage line, were created
using contrasts in color, scale,
typography, and graphic
form. Bold, inline letterforms
layered with high contrast,
posterized imagery, and
bright, saturated colors all
give increased visual empha-
sis, weight, and prominence
to this branding program.
the language of graphic design

Comparative Relationships we
Contrast is the comparative relationship fo
between light and dark. Many other types vis
of contrast in visual communications refer to co
comparative relationships or juxtapositions
between two or more compositional ele- ap
ments. These juxtapositions can be positive an
and negative, geometric and organic, orga- m
nized and chaotic, smooth and rough, static re
and kinetic, and large and small. by
Contrasting relationships can be
further articulated by combining elements to Ch
C
achieve variety and unity. Here, the ultimate Co
C
challenge is to create a composition made jux
ju
up of disparate elements that work together str
as one orchestrated whole. Contrasting size, br

Contrast between black-and- of the graphic hands as if

white letterforms and hand- they were moving beyond TAKASHI KUSUI, Student
written script, as well as the edges of the poster, and KEVIN BRAINARD, Instructor
in the scale of graphic forms the pure representation of SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
and textures, provides visual the performer’s face as a New York, NY, USA
drama and excitement to visual anchor and frame for
this poster promoting a the title of the performance
performance by the world- all add to this series of visual
renowned French mime contrasts found in this active
Marcel Marceau (1923– and impactful composition.
2007). The emblematic use
of a black-and-white palette,
the dynamic cropping

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 19 Contrast
weight, direction, value, color, texture, and
form can all add effective and meaningful
visual interest by allowing one element to
o contrast and complement the other.
For example, a serpentine curve
appears more curvilinear when it is close to
e an extremely orthogonal and straight ele-
- ment. A color such as red will always appear
c redder when it is adjacent to or surrounded
by its complementary color—green.

to
o Characteristics and Functions
e Contrast can create emphasis by establishing
juxtaposition with compositional elements to
r stress their visual differences. For example,
e, bright colors juxtaposed with dark colors,

200

Solid black fields layered over backgrounds of the news-

existing textural elements paper to show through and
201

and intense colors of a provide ample contrast for

tabloid newspaper create a immediacy and readability of
highly distinctive contrast for specific information.
this publication celebrating
the ten-year anniversary of SAGMEISTER & WALSH
a contemporary art museum New York, NY, USA
in Bregenz, Austria. Large-
scale, sans serif letterforms
and blocks of narrative text
are knocked out of these
black fields, allowing existing

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 The promotional materials manner, to achieve surface
Thi
Th
for the AIGA Boston variation, nuance, and
bra
Twenty-Fifth Anniversary an immediate visual impact.
pro
use a subtle ornamental
con
background pattern, STOLTZE DESIGN
dif
composed of fragmented Boston, MA, USA
dis
decorative and typographic
mo
elements set against a silver
geo
metallic, highly reflective,
bra
foil-stamped version of the
bot
bo
event’s logotype. In this
dif
context, contrast is used in
wh
both a restrained and obvious

angular shapes with curvilinear shapes,

the language of graphic design

and minuscule elements with monumental

elements can create visual excitement and
emphasis, as well as direct attention to focal
points in a composition and organize hierar-
chal orders in a visual message.
Contrast creates emphasis, importance,
weight, or dominance for an element of a
composition. A composition lacking contrast
may result in visual monotony, neutrality, and
even confusion.

Types of Contrast
Contrast effectively uses opposing design
elements such as tone, color, and shape in a
composition to produce an intensified, visual
effect. For example, chiaroscuro (Italian for
“light-dark”) in fine art and photography
is characterized by strong tonal contrasts
between light and dark. It is also a technical
term used by artists and art historians for
using contrast of light and dark or tone to
achieve a sense of volume in modeling three-
dimensional form such as the human body.
Since we live in a world of color, using
it as a contrasting force can immediately be
understood by the viewer when conveying
or emphasizing differences among visual

The visual branding program color palette, informational

of Casa Lever, a restaurant scale and hierarchy, as well
located in a modernist New as in its logotype, packaging,
York City architectural and website.
landmark, uses warm colors,
bold shapes, and simple MUCCA DESIGN
geometry to evoke the spirit New York, NY, USA
of Italian modernist work.
Graphic contrasts can be
found throughout the visual
characteristics of this
contemporary program—in its
typographic form, two-tone

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 This bold and distinctive
brand identity and packaging DEVICE CREATIVE
t.
program effectively uses COLLABORATIVE
contrast by pairing two Winston-Salem, NC, USA
different typefaces from two
distinct type classifications,
modern and sans serif
geometric, and presents the
brand typography reading in
both orientations, offering
different visual experiences
when viewing and pouring.

all
-

e,

st
nd

a
al

e-

202

all This logotype for Terence

Higgins Trust’s HIV campaign FELTON COMMUNICATION
203

g,
ng, in the United Kingdom London, UK
draws visual attention with
the effective use of extreme
contrast. A vibrant red
symbolizing the potential
nature of a person’s HIV
status is set against flanking
monolithic black letterforms,
creating a dramatic focus
to the powerful impact of HIV
throughout our society.

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 Simple, obvious contrasts of a large-scale, spiraling floor Th
Thi
large and small, black and graphic, which directs itself cel
white, and serious and play- onto an introductory entry (Sw
ful, are all evident in the in- wall while simultaneously un- bir
terpretive graphics for a Tim derlining the exhibition title sim
Burton (American, b. 1958) “Tim Burton,” shown in his and
retrospective exhibition at own smaller-scale, restrained seg
the Museum of Modern Art in hand lettering. con
New York City. For example, un
uni
Burton’s hand lettering is JULIA HOFFMANN in t
juxtaposed with formal sans New York, NY, USA rag
serif typography used for an rec
introductory timeline, and let

ele
el
the language of graphic design

co
ca
vie
ap
wh
pr

su
ey
sc
It
m
th
ey
af
or

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 This memorable poster literally tore off the left side
celebrating Fritz Gottschalk’s of the cross and recomposed
(Swiss, b. 1937) seventieth it into an F for Fritz. Here,
birthday is a study in graphic the simple transformation of
simplicity, visual immediacy, graphic form is further
and linear contrast. A realized with contrasts in line,
segment of the crisp, evenly shape, color, and letterform.
continuous outline of the
universal cross symbol found CARBONE SMOLAN
in the Swiss flag is abruptly AGENCY
ragged and irregular, New York, NY, USA
reconfigured to create a
letterform. The designer

19
elements in a wide variety of messages and
compositions. Distinct, contrasting shapes

Contrast
can also produce striking reactions from the
viewer. For example, a conventional shape
appears more conventional and normal
when an irregular, nonconventional shape is
present in the same composition.
Contrast can exist on many obvious and
subtle levels in a composition. The human
eye can simultaneously detect contrasts in
scale, value, shape, direction, and surface.
It can clarify and strengthen any visual
message by providing stability and clarity to
the cohesiveness of a composition, draw the
eye’s attention to a specific area, and affect
a figure–ground relationship by maximizing
or minimizing its visual immediacy.

204

In this editorial spread titled

“Ashamed to be Asian?”, TAMMI CHAN, Student
205

dynamic contrasts appear CHRISTOPHER

between its compositional AUSTOPCHUK, Instructor
elements—the figure–ground SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
of black and white; the free- New York, NY, USA
form character of letterforms
and the sharp, cutout lines of
illustrations; the intense and
muted colors of the figurative
illustration; and the scale of
large and small elements.

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 fig·ure–ground \'fi-gy r 'grau̇nd\ n e

2
the language of graphic design

1 a: relating to or being the relationships

between the parts of a perceptual field
which is perceived as divided into
a part consisting of figures having form
and standing out from the part
comprising the background and being
relatively formless

“E
w
RE

p
th
ti

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 20 figure–ground
s

Figure–ground is primar-
“Everything we see hides another thing; we always want to see
what is hidden by what we see.” ily the visual relationship 206
RENE MAGRITTE (BELGIAN, 1898–1967) Painter
between the foreground
and background of a com-
207

position. This relationship between figure and ground is one of

the primary principles of visual perception and visual communica-
tions. Related design elements of shape and contrast have a critical

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 The symbol for “Peace One
Day,” a public awareness
campaign for global cease-
fires and nonviolence,
the symbol’s positive figure—
a silhouette of a dove with
an outstretched wing—and
its negative ground, a side
1
relies upon an ambiguous profile of a person’s face, are
figure–ground relationship one and the same. Ku
between a dove’s wing and MA
a profile of a person’s face JEANELLE MAK Zur
Zu
to further reinforce that we New York, NY, USA
are directly connected to
one another and ultimate
peace in the world. In this
compositional relationship,

M
th
ty
sc

Ku
sil
si
19
wi
w
(R
18
m

Sw
direct effect on how a figure and its ground in
interact with one another. Figure–ground de
relationships also refer to the phenomenon gr
that occurs when specific design elements in ar
any composition appear to move forward or (1
recede. For example, the page that you are Ri
currently reading contains typographic text
and images that constitute “figure,” and the m
book’s white paper constitutes “ground.” De
D
How and to what degree these two composi- Ul
tonal elements interact, creating either ten- tia
sion or harmony, is fully determined by you ha
and ultimately will contribute to the success ed
or failure of this chapter, as well as the en
(continued on page 210) fr
in
th
st
This circular symbol for M
APA Technologies, a WINK Al
manufacturer of watches Minneapolis, MN, USA
that monitor ultraviolet rays, Itt
It
uses figure–ground to create te
a dual visual effect. Lines Pe
radiate from the symbol’s
center representing the
Sun, as well as create narrow flu
triangular shapes that move In
inward bringing attention to
the product name. in
an

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 1931
Kunstgewerbemuseum Exhibition Poster
MAX BILL
Zurich, CH

Max Bill (1908–1994), born in Winter- possible to develop an art largely on the
thur, Switzerland, was an architect, painter, basis of mathematical thinking.”
typographer, industrial designer, engineer, From 1967 to 1971, he was a professor
sculptor, educator, and graphic designer. at the Staatliche Hochschule fur Bildende
Bill was initially a student at the Kunste in Hamburg and chair of environ-
Kunstgewerbeschule and apprenticed as a mental design.
silversmith before beginning his studies in As a graphic designer, he fully and
1927 at the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, enthusiastically embraced the tenets
with teachers such as Wassily Kandinsky and philosophical views of this modern-
(Russian, 1866–1944), Paul Klee (German, ist movement. The majority of his graphic
1879–1940), and Oskar Schlemmer (Ger- work is based solely on cohesive visual
man, 1888–1943). principles of organization and composed
He permanently settled in Zurich, of purist forms—modular grids, san serif
Switzerland, in 1929, and in 1937 became typography, asymmetric compositions,

Max Bill and Swiss Modernism

d involved with a group of Swiss artists and linear spatial divisions, mathematical
designers named the Allianz. The Allianz progressions, and dynamic figure–ground
group advocated the concrete theories of relationships.
n art and design and included Max Huber His powerful use of figure–ground
r (1919–1992), Leo Leuppi (1893–1972), and relationships is never more evident than
Richard Paul Lohse (1902–1988). with his exhibition poster, designed in 1931,
In 1950, Max Bill and Otl Aicher (Ger- for the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Zurich,
e man, 1922–1991) founded the Ulm School of Switzerland. The poster’s figure–ground
Design (Hochschule fur Gestaltung-HfG is its primary compositional principle; its
i-
si- Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school ini- bright white figure is asymmetrically lo-
- tially created in the tradition of the Bau- cated and set against a muted-tone back-
haus and that later developed a new design ground. The pure geometry of the figure’s
s education approach integrating art and sci- inner circle is a powerful focal point fur-
ence. Bill served as the school’s director ther offset by the pure linear square con-
from 1951 to 1956. Ulm is notable for its taining information on the exhibition.
inclusion of semiotics, the philosophical
theory of signs and symbols, as a field of 208
study. Faculty and students included Tomás
Maldonado (Argentinian, b. 1922), Josef
Albers (American, 1888–1976), Johannes
209

Itten (Swiss, 1888–1967), Otl Aicher, Wal-

ter Zeischegg (Austrian, 1917–1983), and
Peter Seitz (German, b. 1931).
Bill was the single most decisive in-
fluence on Swiss graphic design or the
International Typographic Style, beginning
in the 1950s with his theoretical writing
and progressive work. He stated, “It is

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 This assignment is a study of four and then sixteen
of unit, structure, pattern, units within a predetermined ERINI FAHIM, SEHYR
and figure–ground created grid system. Attention is AHMAD, OMAR MOHAMED,
in the repetition of a single, given to the complexity of Students
cropped letterform. Students figure–ground relationships AMIR BERBIC, RODERICK
start with a compositional within each pattern. Color GRANT, Instructors
exercise involving a black is introduced in the final AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
letterform on a white surface, stage of the assignment as OF SHARJAH
cropping away pieces of the students explore further Sharjah, UAE
letterform within a 7.8-inch means to enhance pattern,
(20 cm) square. These rhythm, and figure–ground
letterform compositions are relationships.
used to generate patterns
the language of graphic design

reader’s interaction with and understanding re

of this narrative and visual information. In
m
Definition of Elements to
Design elements in any composition are co
perceived as either figure (objects or focus) Fa
or ground (the remaining background or the vis
rest of the perceptual compositional field). as
It is also critical to remember that
ground, or the space surrounding a figure, is an
also a shape. Shapes can exist independently de
as well as overlap each other, depending on tio
the specific figure–ground relationship of a fig
composition. ur
Figure is also considered a positive ca
compositional element, while the space, or
ground, around it is considered opposite and
a negative compositional element. Each is
dependent upon the other—it is impossible The
Th
to change one without affecting the other. let
of a
Creating dynamic relationships between pho
ph
positive and negative is the cornerstone of let
well-resolved visual compositions. The
Th
rep
Figure is a compositional element to fig
which we pay attention. It is also identified as one
on
a positive shape in a visual composition. It is or t
bra
defined as the outline, form, or silhouette of pos
po
an object. It refers to an active, positive form its

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 20 Figure-Ground
revealed against a passive, negative ground. Types of Figure–Ground
In the simplest visual compositions there There are three basic types of figure-ground
may be only one figure that the viewer needs compositions and relationships:
to pay attention to. In more complex visual
compositions, there may be multiple figures. Simple
) Familiar, figurative, and representational A simple figure–ground can be created when
e visual objects are easy to see and assimilate a coherent, independent object is juxtaposed
as figure. in a space that functions as its surrounding
Ground is the surrounding space of ground. The ground can be compressed or
s an object or compositional element. It is also shallow, or convey an illusion of depth. In a
ly defined as the negative space in a composi- simple figure–ground composition, the figure
n tion, as well as everything else that is not a is positive and active, whereas its ground is
figure. As attention shifts from figure to fig- always negative and passive. In this composi-
ure, the ground also shifts so that an object tional relationship, the figure is clearly visible
can go from figure to ground and back. and separate from its background.

nd
d 210

These arboreal-based the background’s, green This public awareness

letterforms are the outcome textures in the surrounding campaign’s logotype for
211

of a student’s thorough woodlands are negative Terence Higgins Trust’s

photographic exploration of and passive. HIV program—“Get It On”—
letterforms found in nature. uses the exaggerated
They are also a primary TAKASHI KUSUI, Student negative space, or counter,
representation of a simple JI LEE, Instructor of its lowercase n for a
figure–ground relationship, SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS figure–ground reversal of a
as one in which the figure’s, New York, NY, USA symbolic condom.
s or the foreground’s, darker
branches and limbs are FELTON COMMUNICATION
off positive and active, whereas London, UK
m its ground, or, in this case,

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 This promotional poster, Invisible Man—“I am invisible,
titled Stealth and developed understand, simply because
for New York City’s Studio people refuse to see me.”
Museum in Harlem, is an ex- When flat, it reveals this
ploration of identity through almost invisible typographic
the use of figure–ground, statement through the
visual texture, and three- illusion of figure–ground.
dimensional form. Despite When folded, the poster’s
the posters ultimately form is evocative of a stealth
becoming a dynamic physical bomber (hence its name).
object, its essential message
is revealed in its form and THE MAP OFFICE
is based on a quote from the New York, NY, USA
the language of graphic design

Reversal Am
A figure–ground reversal can be created An
A
when a figure functions as a ground and is
ground as figure. This graphic inversion is tw
caused by shapes that form in the spaces gr
located between the parts of the figure, co
creating the reversal. This type of figure– gr
ground composition can be a dynamic means th
to activate neutral white space in a visual of
composition. In a simple figure–ground is
composition, the borders are perceived as Ed
limitless, whereas a figure–ground reversal im
bounds and limits an image. pr
re
fo
tio
be

Ch
C
Th
m
it
ele
el
bla
bl
In
no
te

This symbol, a simple figure–

ground relationship, clearly WINK
illustrates green trees and Minneapolis, MN, USA
brown mountains. However,
the symbol’s white “negative”
space, framed by the upper
and lower “positive” figures,
creates a negative or visual
ground that reads as a W
for Mountain Woods, a rural
community in Colorado.

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 Bold, all-cap sans serif
letterforms juxtaposed with
delicate handmade letter-
forms composed of branches
and flowers create a dramatic
and memorable composition,
as well as a simple figure–
ground reversal for this
brochure cover for the Fort
Worth Opera Festival.

THE MATCHBOX STUDIO

Dallas, TX, USA

20
Ambiguous

Figure-Ground
An ambiguous figure–ground composition
is created when the graphic relationship be-
tween a composition’s figure (or object) and
ground (or space) is undetectable, yet fully
comprehensible. With this type of figure–
ground relationship, a pair of objects share
ns the same edge or profile. A classic example
of an ambiguous figure–ground relationship
is Rubin’s vase, developed by psychologist
Edgar Rubin (Danish, 1886–1951). In this
image, the black positive space forms two
profiles of a human face that appear to be
ready to kiss, and the inverse negative space
forms a vase. Visually, the eye’s concentra-
tion on either the black or white alternates
between the faces and the vase.

Characteristics
The principle of figure–ground is one of the
most basic in visual communications because
it refers to our ability to visually separate
elements based on contrast—dark and light,
black and white, and positive and negative.
In the simplest terms, the figure is what we
notice and the ground is everything else we
tend to not notice.

212
213

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 This circular symbol for
Girard Management, a
residential property manage-
ment company, uses the
principle of figure–ground
to combine the cap letter G
with a lockset.

WINK
Minneapolis, MN, USA

An effective and perceptible figure–

ground relationship occurs when the eye can
identify a figure as an object distinct and
separate from its ground or compositional
background. This perception is dependent
solely on the design principle of contrast.
A composition’s figure–ground rela-
tionship is clear and stable when the figure
receives more attention and immediacy than
the ground. When a figure–ground relation-
ship is unstable, it is ambiguous; therefore, its
compositional elements can be interpreted in
different ways.
Balanced and effective figure–ground
relationships animate any composition, add-
ing visual impact and power to its message.
However, when a figure dominates its
ground, the effect can be clear but potential-
ly boring. Locating a clearly defined object in
the center of a composition leaves no doubt
about the subject, but its presentation may
lack visual nuance and power.
Ultimately, figure–ground is one of the
most important design principles to consider
when creating any visual communication.
In doing so, you can further guarantee that
the work you are producing will be effec-
tive, communicative, memorable, and highly
meaningful to the viewer.

This mural is an integral an expanse of blue, like the The

Th
storytelling element of the sky that day, then gradually POULIN + MORRIS INC. Cam
Ca
overall visitor experience at fills with missing-person New York, NY, USA The
Th
the 9/11 Tribute Museum, posters, stretching from floor and
located fewer than 50 feet to ceiling at the far end of ies
(15 m) from Ground Zero the gallery. This collagelike rela
rel
directly across from the figure–ground treatment usi
World Trade Center (WTC) invokes the iconic image of ele
site. Most New Yorkers walls all over lower Manhat- and
remember how extraordi- tan covered with posters bla
narily blue the sky was the for weeks after the disaster,
morning of 9/11. This 80-foot as families looked for their JO
(24 m)-long wall begins as missing loved ones. New
Ne

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 20
n

Figure-Ground
n
-
its
in

al-
in
btt

e
er

214

These book covers for Albert

Camus’ (French, 1913–1960)
215

The Stranger, The Plague,

and The Fall are seminal stud-
ies in simple figure–ground
relationships fully articulated
using fundamental design
elements such as point, line,
and shape, as well as a stark
black-and-white color palette.

JOHN GALL
New York, NY, USA

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 frame \'frām\ n

2
the language of graphic design

1: a closed, often rectangular border

of drawn or printed lines

“A
p
G.

m
a
v

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 21 frame
In basic terms, a frame is
“Art consists of limitation. The most beautiful part of every
picture is the frame.” an enclosure to a visual 216
G. K. CHESTERTON (BRITISH, 1874–1936) Author, Essayist
image. It is a fundamental
element of visual com-
217

munications and can be used to separate, organize, unify, contain,

and distinguish, as well as increase visibility and immediacy in any
visual message. Like an actual picture frame, it can take various

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 The graphic identity for the
Toledo Museum of Art uses
frame as a graphic represen-
tation for the institution as
by serving as a visual stage
for its collections, exhibi-
tions, and cultural activities.
Typography anchors and
to focus attention on either
historic and contemporary
architecture or sculpture.
1
well as an icon that has been activates the inside perimeter C+G PARTNERS LLC
an integral element to the of the frame and is knocked New York, NY, USA The
Th
presentation and viewing of out of it to create a stronger SA
fine art for centuries. The visual figure–ground when Los
four words that make up the incorporating and framing
museum’s name help define other visual elements, such as
the edges of the frame’s fine art details or images of
form. The frame also provides the exhibitions. The sign sys-
views inside the institution tem uses the logotype’s frame

graphic forms and can be found virtually Characteristics and Functions Sa

the language of graphic design

everywhere. In the familiar world, a frame can As a compositional element, a frame can de
set off a work of art from the wall on which have a variety of visual characteristics and fil
it is being displayed and simultaneously functions. It can appear simple or decorative, fo
bring visual attention to it. In the broadest subtle or obvious, flat or modeled. It can ex
definition of the word, a frame can be many be a container for another element as well as hi
things and have many functions. It can be a function as a transition element from an
proscenium stage for a theatrical event, an active compositional space to a passive com- wo
w
exhibition vitrine for displaying an artifact, positional space. Its presence in a composi- es
or an architectural molding surrounding an tion can be subtle, thereby becoming more co
entrance door. Frames can be obvious or integrated to its visual content, or it can have in
implied. They can be realized as a border to extreme graphic presence, ultimately setting Ku
a page or as an inset solid surface within a content apart in a composition. M
page composition. (continued on page 220) wo
w
W
an
Gr
Ps
Si

qu
in
Un
No
N
ra
ap
Sc
co
ne
tit
(1

This brand identity is built on st

“structured flexibility,” a key th
tenet of this international
financial consultancy, where Ke
the wordmark is bold and ly
stable, while the dynamic “C,” pr
or frame, can easily bracket
different messages through un
text or imagery. em
fil
BRUCE MAU DESIGN
Toronto, ON, CA
Ba

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r
1955
The Man with the Golden Arm Poster
SAUL BASS
Los Angeles, CA, USA

Saul Bass (1920–1996) was a graphic the title sequence for the film as well. This
designer and Academy Award–winning was Bass’s first opportunity to design more
filmmaker who received global recognition than a conventional title sequence and to
for his work in graphic, film, industrial, and create something that would ultimately
exhibition design but was best known for enhance the audience’s experience and
his animated film-title sequences. further contribute to the mood and theme
During his forty-year career, he of the film.
worked with some of Hollywood’s great- Bass was one of the first designers to
est filmmakers, including Alfred Hitch- realize the creative potential of the open-
cock (British, 1899–1980), Otto Prem- ing and closing credit sequences of a film,
inger (Austrian, 1905–1986), Stanley all contained within a fundamental design
Kubrick (American, 1928–1999), and element—frame. He believed that title se-
Martin Scorsese (American, b. 1942). His quences could “set the mood and the prime
work included the epilogue for Around the underlying core of the film’s story, to ex-

the Golden Arm

and The Man with
Saul Bass
World in Eighty Days (1956), his direction press the story in some metaphorical way.
and editing of the racing sequences for I saw the title as a way of conditioning the
Grand Prix (1966), the shower sequence for audience, so that when the film actually
Psycho (1960), and the prologue for West began, viewers would already have an emo-
Side Story (1961). tional resonance with it.”
Among his most famous film-title se- His first popular success, for which he
quences are the kinetic typography rac- became widely known, was with Otto Prem-
ing up and down a high-angle view of the inger’s film The Man with the Golden Arm
United Nations building façade in North by (1955). The film was about a jazz musician’s
Northwest (1959) and the disjointed typog- struggle to overcome heroin addiction, a
raphy that raced together and then pulled taboo subject in the 1950s. Here he uses the
apart for Psycho. His later work for Martin addict’s arm, jagged and distorted, as the
Scorsese allowed him to move away from central, iconic image. The film’s poster is a
conventional optical techniques he had pio- study on how a frame can be used to bring
neered earlier and work with computerized focus, tension, contrast, and balance to an
titles for films such as The Age of Innocence image that is extremely dynamic and pow-
(1993) and Casino (1995). erful. The film’s title sequence featured an 218
Bass was born in New York City and animated, black-paper cutout of the same
studied at the Art Students League and arm used for the poster. As expected, the
then at Brooklyn College with György sequence caused a sensation and became
219

Kepes (Hungarian, 1906–2001). He initial- a memorable benchmark for the design of

ly began his time in Hollywood designing future title sequences.
print advertisements for the film industry,
until he collaborated with director Otto Pr-
eminger on the design of the poster for the
film Carmen Jones (1954).
Preminger was so impressed with
Bass’s work, Bass was asked to produce

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 As
the
in t
str
thr
thi
foc
rem

MU
New
Ne

A frame typically functions as a con-

tainment element for an image, setting it
apart from its background to give the image
more prominence, as well as increase its
visibility within a composition. It can also
have other functions, such as dividing, crop-
ping, fragmenting, and distorting elements.
In either extreme, a frame can be used
effectively to emphasize or deemphasize the
content of any visual message.

Related Forms and Functions

A frame can be considered as a margin in a
traditional page layout, such as in a book or
magazine. Margins influence the way a read-
er interacts with narrative and visual content
of a page, such as a block of typographic
text or a group of photographic images, by
A continuous, bold, magenta providing passive or open space around Ac
frame surrounding this these compositional elements. A more fra
poster for the National str
Theatre School of Canada pronounced margin provides visual emphasis “H
maintains a visual order and and immediacy to images or a block of uni
un
focus to the varied, free- typographic text. The opposite result occurs cia
form, and highly expressive wit
illustrative elements used in when a margin is minimal and narrow, creat- suc
its composition. ing an effect where images or blocks of text cat
appear larger than they actually are, as if and
LAURENT PINABEL
Montreal, QUE, CA they were expanding beyond the limitations VO
of the compositional page. San

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 A simple frame surrounding
the title Mao and articulated
in the same line weight or
stroke thickness as the title’s
three letterforms brings
this book cover literally into
focus, while the overall image
remains out of focus.

MUCCA DESIGN
New York, NY, USA

21 Frame
e

d
e
he

r
d-
t
220

A consistent-weight linear Multiple framing of this

frame that matches the project name and location,
221

stroke thickness of the “Prospect New Orleans,”

is
sis “Heath” typography further creates a structured,
unifies this logotype, espe- integrated pattern similar
rss cially when it is integrated to brick coursing, further
with other visual elements communicating strength,
- such as stationery, sales connection, teamwork,
t catalogs, brochures, websites, and community.
and advertising.
PURE + APPLIED
s VOLUME INC. New York, NY, USA
San Francisco, CA, USA

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 The packaging and label
design for Soto, an organic LANDOR
skincare product line, Paris, FR
embodies an ingredient table,
an effective use of color,
and an alpha-based product
identification system as its
core idea. Bold, brightly
colored frames used as the
primary graphic device
contain single san serif letter
product identifiers that are
immediate and eye-catching.

Another form of frame—in this case, be

margin—also provides a “safe” area in any su
composition, such as a publication, for an
specific elements such as folios (page sp
numbers), headers, and footers. Though ca
these page conventions are usually located in ne
a nominal space, a margin can also be more
pronounced to contain other elements such no
as images, captions, and sidebars. as
A frame can also act as a border. A als
border clearly and concisely demarcates
where an image ends and its surrounding el
ele
background begins. It can be an obvious el
ele
edge to an image or a composition that may fu
lack a definitive perimeter or outline. Or it ar
can be used to visually emphasize an outer
edge, or frame, and to separate a section
of an image or information within an overall
In this poster, frame is used composition. A border can be graphically
to contain and accentuate the RYOTA IIZUKA, Student articulated with line, shape, color, and
film festival title—Japanese SIMON JOHNSTON,
Cinema Festival ’09—as well Instructor texture, realized with simple and restrained
as to separate and organize, ART CENTER COLLEGE visual characteristics or more detailed and
in individual graphic frames, OF DESIGN complicated ones.
a wide range of information Pasadena, CA, USA
such as programs, screenings, The framing of elements in a composi-
dates, times, and locations. tion is called cropping. Cropping can alter
As a metaphor, frame in this the size and shape of any image, as well as
context is also evocative
of film frames, shoji screens, directly impact an image’s content and
and tatami mats. meaning. For example, a vertical image can

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 21 Frame
be cropped to become a square, circle, or
such, each time taking on new proportions
and potential meaning. Cropping in on a
specific element or detail of an overall image
can alter the focus of that image, giving it a
in new identity and visual presence.
e The visual representation of a frame is
h not limited to compositional elements such
as line, shape, color, texture, or tone. It can
also be articulated with type and letterform.
In the virtual world of websites and
electronic interfaces, a frame is a ubiquitous
element with a multitude of appearances and
y functions. It is the literal and physical frame
around a computer monitor, and it appears

222
l
A singular frame, equal in
prominence and weight to
223

this public awareness

campaign’s logotype for
Darfur, allows it to stand
apart and maintain its visual
immediacy when layered on a
- variety of photographic
images and graphic textures.

VOLUME INC.
San Francisco, CA, USA

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 A subtle, tinted frame is
used to bring immediate PUBLIC INC.
attention to this restaurant’s San Francisco, CA, USA
restrained, sans serif
–
logotype “S INO,” an Asian-
inspired Chinese restaurant
and lounge. When layered on
a variety of different color
fields, textures, and images,
this frame maintains a visual
immediacy and focus to this
identity program.
the language of graphic design

on
do
su
na

an
It
un
ap
ei
eit
bi
bil
af

Gr
Gra
fra
ext
bra
rep
eff
tio
enh
wit
nat
qu
qua

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 This cookbook cover has a classic serif typography,
sophisticated visual charac- as well as bridging and
ter, capturing the warmth, connecting the two distinct
personality, and elegance of photographic images, further
the restaurant Chanterelle, unifying the cover as a
while at the same time cohesive whole.
communicating the gracious
service found in this family- MUCCA DESIGN
run establishment. The New York, NY, USA
composition of the cover is
also evocative of a fine art
book, with a centered white
field framing the book title’s

on a computer’s desktop on numerous win-

dows that contain a hierarchy of information
such as controls, icons, and other types of
navigational information.
A frame can be a functional, as well as
an aesthetic element within a composition.
It can strengthen and reinforce the viewer’s
understanding of information as well as
appear solely as a decorative element. With
either of these functions, it is your responsi-
bility to determine the appropriate use of
a frame.

224

Graphic variations on a literal Frame takes on a series

frame and bracket are used MENDE DESIGN of varied graphic forms ANDREW LIM, Student
225

extensively throughout this San Francisco, CA, USA throughout This Book Is Not MICHAEL IAN KAYE,
branding program and annual Pink, as represented in these Instructor
report for “The 1%.” A bold, spreads, which maintain a SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
effective use of color, propor- consistency and continuity New York, NY, USA
tion, and figure–ground all for the reader as a means
enhance depth and dimension of bringing further focus
without illustrating the literal and grounding to the varied
nature of these visual visual elements and narrative
qualities and characteristics. content of each spread.

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 pro·por·tion \pr -'pȯ r-sh n\ n e e

2
the language of graphic design

3: the relation of one part to another

or to the whole with respect to
magnitude, quantity, or degree

“W
of
o
m
VI

c
in
re
r

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 22 proportion
“Without proportion there can be no principles in the design Proportion is the systemat-
of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation between its
ic relationship of one thing 226
members, as in the case of those of a well-shaped man.”
VITRUVIUS (ITALIAN, C. 80–C. 15 BCE) Architect, Author, Engineer
to another in any given
composition. In visual
227

communications, it is an essential design principle defined as the

integral relationship of sizes within a composition. These integral
relationships are transparent and function as an underlying

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 1
Un
AD
Par
Pa

Ad
A
on
th
on
ev

in
in
cu
Sw
of
a
Du
wo
w
framework for all compositional elements.
Proportion also represents the critical ie
relationship between one part of a composi- Ap
tion and another or between the whole of a Pe
composition and its size, quantity, or degree. Fr
Generally the goal of any proportional wo
system is to produce a sense of coherence, th
harmony, and integrity among the elements. ne
Fr
Historical References as
Proportion has shaped our visual world of
throughout history—it is an intrinsic part of be
the Parthenon (432 BCE), da Vinci’s Mona
Lisa (1519), and Michelangelo’s David (1504). er
(continued on page 230) fo
eq
Fr
ci
This poster, sponsored by change, and power—and This book’s proportional of photographic, illustrative, lig
AIGA and promoting the get- their opposites. The vertical format, as well as its interior and narrative content us
out-the-vote campaign for proportion of this poster’s layout, is derived from the throughout the book.
national elections, presents format, married with the Brooklyn Botanic Garden’s lu
a simple, evocative, and monumental proportion of overall plan designed by the POULIN + MORRIS INC. tw
intriguing image and the wrapped, bound figure Olmsted Brothers and based New York, NY, USA re
message. Posed in front of and its vertically propor- on the golden section or
bold, sans serif typography tioned letterforms, further rectangle. This proportional th
that spells “vote,” an enig- creates a seamless and inte- formula is also graphically
matic figure is wrapped and grated visual composition. articulated as a continuous ta
bound, ultimately raising series of hairline borders and
questions about freedom, ALFALFA STUDIO LLC frames that contain, isolate, ax
identity, self-expression, New York, NY, USA and highlight a wide range va

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 1957
Univers Family of Typefaces
ADRIAN FRUTIGER
Paris, FR

22
Adrian Frutiger (Swiss, 1928–2015) is
one of the most prominent typographers of

Proportion
the twentieth century and the designer of
one of the most notable typeface families
ever to be created—the sans serif Univers.
As a young boy, he experimented with
invented scripts and stylized handwrit-
ing as a negative response to the formal,
cursive penmanship being enforced at the
Swiss school he was attending. At the age
of sixteen, he began a apprenticeship as
a compositor with an Interlaken printer.
During this apprenticeship, he also learned
woodcutting, engraving, and calligraphy.

Adrian Frutiger and Univers

Between 1949 and 1951, Frutiger stud- is of the same weight. Its horizontal axis
ied at the Kunstgewerbeschule (School of identifies perspective shifts, from extend-
- Applied Arts) in Zurich. In 1952, Charles ed to condensed with italic variations. Any
Peignot (French, 1897–1983) recruited weight ending with an even number is ital-
e. Frutiger for Deberny & Peignot, one of the ic. Roman variations are designated with
world’s foremost type foundries in Paris. At an odd number, oblique variations with an
that time, Deberny & Peignot was using a even number.
s. new phototypesetting process and wanted With the design of Univers, Frutiger
Frutiger to adapt typefaces for it, as well also started a trend in type design toward a
as design a large, matched typeface family larger x-height with lowercase letters pro-
of different weights. During this period, he portionally more similar to their ascend-
began to design the Univers family. ers, descenders, and capitals. The sizes and
The twenty-one variations of the Univ- weights of Univers’s capitals are also closer
4).
). ers typeface family have five weights and in size and weight to its lowercase letters,
four widths. At its center is Univers 55, the ultimately creating a page of text with vi-
equivalent of a standard “book” weight. sual harmony and ease for the reader.
Frutiger also proposed to abandon impre- The Univers family of typefaces is 228
cise terms such as condensed, extended, known for its remarkable visual uniformity,
e,
ve, light, bold, roman, and italic, and instead which enables a graphic designer to use
use a reference numbering system that il- all twenty-one fonts together as a flexible,
229

lustrated the proportional relationships be- integrated typographic system.

tween each variation. At the time, it was a In 1986, Adrian Frutiger was awarded
revolutionary concept of how typefaces and the Gutenberg Prize for technical and aes-
their related families could be described. thetic achievement in typography.
He also created a visual “periodic
table” for the Univers family—its vertical
axis identifies different weights, and any
variation beginning with the same number

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 vis
the language of graphic design

Ba
No
N
of
Pr
Ar
wh
pr
Pr
de
po

Euclid (c. 300 BCE), the influential th

Greek mathematician, was the first to put the of
theory of proportion into words and images. its
He divided a line into two sections in such a re
way that the ratio of the whole line in relation tio
to the larger part is the same relationship as co
the larger part is to the smaller. sio
Vitruvius (Italian, c. 80–c. 15 BCE) in
int
defined proportion in terms of unit fractions, vie
the same system used by the Greeks in their by
orders of architecture.
One of the most universal images sio
representing the visual theory of proportion wi
is Leonardo da Vinci’s (Italian, 1452–1519) Pr
iconic drawing Vitruvian Man (c. 1490), which ce
first appeared in the 1509 book, Divina Pro- ba
portione, by Luca Pacioli (Italian, 1445–1517). siz
It was here that daVinci attempted to codify m
The three-column page grid announcement cards, and proportion based on his studies of the human als
of this publication for Lux, collateral print material that form, as well as his numerous observations Fo
a regional theater and arts is diverse and varied with
center in southern France, is narrative and visual content. and measurements of proportions for all its th
fully integrated to, as well as parts. He referred in these notebooks to pr
based on, the proportional HELMO the works of Vitruvius. Many artists of the be
design principle of the golden Montreuil, FR
section. The use of this pro- Renaissance subsequently used proportion as
portional page relationship a primary design principle in their work. Th
further guarantees visual In the fifteenth century, Albrecht Dürer Th
cohesiveness and continuity
throughout this publication, (German, 1471–1528) determined what se
as well as related posters, characteristics of the human body were th

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 22
visually balanced and beautiful by accurately
measuring and documenting its proportions.

Proportion
Basic Relationships
Not obvious, and not hidden, the principle
of proportion can be simply conveyed. In
Priya Hemenway’s Divine Proportion: Phi in
Art, Nature, and Science, she states, “The
whole is to the larger in exactly the same
proportion as the larger is to the smaller.”
Proportion lends insight into the process of
design and gives visual coherence to com-
position through visual structure.
In basic proportional relationships,
the outer dimensions determine the format
he of a two-dimensional composition and are
s. its most basic proportion. A square and
a rectangle are formats with unique propor-
on tions that affect particular characteristics of a
s composition. Outer proportions or dimen-
sions can have an integral relationship to
internal divisions and alignments, affect the
s, viewer’s orientation, and are often dictated
irr by the composition’s ultimate proportion.
The relationship between outer dimen-
sions and internal divisions also provides you
n with a system for managing design decisions.
Proportional systems have been used for
ch centuries in architecture and art, and are
- based on ratios—a comparison of one set of
). sizes with another. Although ratios are com- 230
y monly expressed in mathematical terms, they
an also can be expressed as visual relationships. The format and page design the golden ratio, furthering
For example, the golden section is a ratio of Assuring the Jefferson Jefferson’s ideal of harmony
231

Legacy: The Site and Facilities found in nature as well as in

that dates back to the ancient Greeks, and its Plan for Monticello is fully the built environment.
proportional properties have both aesthetic influenced by the design and
beauty and structural integrity. planning principles used by POULIN + MORRIS INC.
Thomas Jefferson in all of his New York, NY, USA
as work. These visual principles
The Golden Ratio are reflected in the book’s
er The golden ratio is the ratio between two layout, typography, and color
palette. They are also evident
segments or elements of an object such in the overall proportion of
that the smaller (bc) segment is to the larger the book, which is based on

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 The cover of this promotional
brochure for a commerical
photographer uses a series
of proportional frames or
“stages” to further symbolize
the creative process under-
taken by a photographer in
realizing his work, as well as
the conventional format of a
photographic image.

MERCER CREATIVE GROUP

Vancouver, BC, CA

segment (ab) as the larger segment (ab) is to Eames (American, 1907–1978), and the
the sum of the two segments (ac), or bc/ab = Apple iPod (2001). Even today, contempo-
ab/ac = 1.618. rary graphic designers use the golden ratio as
It can be found throughout nature, as an optimal format for print and digital media.
well as throughout the history of visual This pro-portional relationship has also
and applied arts. This proportional ratio is been identified in many other ways over the
evident in natural forms such as pinecones, centuries, including the golden mean, golden
nautilus shells, seed patterns in the center number, golden section, golden proportion,
of sunflowers, and the human body. It is divine proportion, and section aurea.
constructed through a series of extended Visual communication is partly an
relationships with a strong aesthetic harmony, experience of visual balance—of the relation-
since the interior proportions relate in scale ship of parts to the whole. Perceiving it as
to the proportions of the original square and anything else is missing its most fundamental
its extensions. component. Painting, sculpture, architecture,
The golden ratio can also be extended music, prose, or poetry are also organized
to construct the golden rectangle, which the and methodically balanced around a hidden
Greeks used as the basis for the majority of sense of true proportion.
their city planning and architecture, includ- Most of what we perceive as pleasing to
The relationship of form a textural wood detail on the ing the Parthenon (432 BCE). Renaissance the eye, as well as balanced and harmonious,
and content is an obvious cover with its grain oriented artists used it to create overall harmony and has some relationship and connection to the
influence in the design of on the same vertical axis as
this monograph for Kruno the book, as well as the use of balance in works of painting and drawing. rules of proportion.
Vrgoc (b. 1957), a Croatian a singular column of justified Antonio Stradivarius (Italian, 1644–1737)
artist and sculptor. The typographic text. used it in the design and construction of his
extreme vertical proportion
of this monograph’s format STUDIO SONDA violins. It has also been used in the planning
is directly reflective of the Poreč, HR and design of the Great Pyramid of Giza
artist’s use of similar extreme (c. 2560 BCE), Stonehenge (c. 3100–1500
proportions in his sculp-
tural work. This format is en- BCE), Chartres Cathedral (1220 CE),
hanced and strengthened by the LCW chair (1946) designed by Charles

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 Step One
How to Construct the A B E

Golden Section Rectangle

D C F

22
Step Two
A B E

Proportion
D C F

Step Three
Step One A B E
Draw a perfect square,
ABCD.
as
ia. With the midpoint of
DC as a center, draw an
arc with a radius equal
e to the length of a line
en drawn from the midpoint
, of DC to B.

Step Two
Draw a line from D to E
to divide the rectangle D C F
n-
into smaller divisions.

al Step Three Step Four

e, To continue, draw a A B E
line between opposite
corners of the rectangle.
n For example, a line from
F to B.
232
to Step Four
s, This is the proportion
e recognized as the golden
233

section or rectangle.

A golden rectangle is
one whose side lengths
are in the golden ratio, D C F
1:1+ 5 or 1:1.618.
2

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 im·age \'i-mij\ n

2
the language of graphic design

2 b: a visual representation of something:

as (1): a likeness of an object produced
on a photographic material (2): a picture
produced on an electronic display
(as a television or computer screen)
6: a vivid or graphic representation
or description

“A
HO

o
o
o

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 23 image
g:

“A picture is a poem without words.” An image is an artifact

HORACE (ITALIAN, 65–8 BCE) Poet
usually defined as a two- 234

dimensional picture, idea,

or impression of a person
235

or physical object. A powerful and memorable image can make

or break any visual communication. Photography, illustration, and
other types of image forms can communicate a specific idea or

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 1
Com
Co
IVA
IV
Ne

In
the language of graphic design

pu
er
tim
ti
tiv
or
pi
(1
Ku
(1
Iv

To
m
emotion, gain a viewer’s attention, further a of
reader’s imagination, and ultimately enhance
and enrich any visual message. wo
w
as
Characteristics th
In visual communications, numerous forms Un
and methodologies can be considered when (i
undertaking the act and process of image Ar
making—glyph, pictogram, symbol, drawing, 19
illustration, painting, photography, and Ge
G
even typography can all be described as wi
forms of image. While they all have distinct (A
and varied visual characteristics and func- de
tions, they also have potential as meaningful
and obvious counterpoints to narrative form. Br
(continued on page 239) es
pr
ag
A variety of illustration styles This singular photographic incorporation of hand-drawn Th
is used in provocative and image of a rich, lush land- lettering is secondary and ba
meaningful ways, creating a scape is used to communicate supportive of this powerful
memorable and highly a series of performances photographic composition. id
communicative series of titled Promenades at a of
covers for these public regional theater and arts HELMO re
awareness brochures for the center located in southern Montreuil sous Bois, FR
Scripps Research Institute. France. The subtle, yet co
dynamic, use of a figurative lit
MIRIELLO GRAFICO cutout from the same co
San Diego, CA, USA background image and then
juxtaposed is eye-catching ag
and extremely engaging. The br

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 1959
Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare Book Cover
IVAN CHERMAYEFF
New York, NY, USA

In the 1960s, American paperback book matter. They were powerful signs that
publishers and American graphic design- grabbed the attention, and sparked the
ers started working together for the first imagination, of the reader.
time with a collective, creative objec- Ivan Chermayeff ’s design for the
tive. At the forefront of this new collab- book cover for Common Sense and
orative movement was a group of visual Nuclear Warfare by Bertrand Russell
pioneers and designers such as Paul Rand (British, 1872–1970) is a high-contrast,
(1914–1996), Alvin Lustig (1915–1955), Roy photomontage of two black-and-white
Kuhlman (1923–2007), Rudolph de Harak photographs—a mushroom cloud superim-
(1924–2002), Tom Geismar (b. 1931), and posed on the back of a man’s head. These
Ivan Chermayeff (1932–2017). powerful metaphors act as a counterpoint
Ivan Chermayeff, with his partner, and provide the reader with an unnerving
Tom Geismar, have created some of the and fearsome idea about mankind’s vulner-
most memorable and recognizable images ability to nuclear war, even before opening

Paperback
and the Modern American
Ivan Chermayeff
of the twentieth century. the book. It is a seminal example of the mar-
In his formative years, Chermayeff riage of image, symbol, and word to create
worked as a record album cover designer powerful visual communications.
as well as an assistant to Alvin Lustig in Chermayeff said, “Great images, to
the early 1950s. He studied at Harvard be great, must be original and memorable.
University, Illinois Institute of Technology Occasionally a designer recognizes a com-
(iit), and Yale University School of Art and monality between two separate visual im-
Architecture. Following his graduation in ages and pins them together, making one
1960, Chermayeff and fellow classmate new, powerful, and provocative form. Find-
Geismar moved to New York City to join ing connections, large and small, is what
with already-established Robert Brownjohn the design process is all about.”
(American, 1925–1970) to start their own Ivan Chermayeff and Thomas Geismar
design consultancy firm. were awarded the prestigious American
It was during the early 1960s that Institute of Graphic Arts (aiga) Gold
Brownjohn, Chermayeff, and Geismar Medal in 1979.
established themselves as one of the few
progressive and innovative groups of im- 236
age makers in American graphic design.
They were masters in combining their
background and training in modernist
237

ideals with the streetwise visual language

of the times. Their early work explored a
remarkable integration of type and image
combined with expressive, intelligent, and
literate storytelling. Their numerous book
covers produced at the time combined im-
ages and symbols to further convey and
brand the essence of a book’s subject

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 the language of graphic design

vir
or
dim
di
An
A
de
sc
ob
ey

br
su
pa
su
ca
co

C
Cl
Character-driven themes, tion of styles. All provide Im
such as for these three plays— a highly interpretive and Th
The Guardsman, Travesties, communicative visual story
and Glengarry Glen Ross, directly related to each of the ab
provide any graphic designer play’s themes.
with a multitude of image Vo
challenges and opportunities. SANDWICH CREATIVE
This poster series for the Toronto, ONT, CA A
Soulpepper Theatre uses of
dynamic and provocative tio
imagery that is composed of
photography, illustration, line ac
art, and a layering combina- ca

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 23Image
An image can be two-dimensional or Fixed
virtual, such as a photograph, an illustration, A fixed image, also called a hard copy, is an
or a screen display; or it can be three- image that has been recorded on a mate-
dimensional, such as a sculpture or statue. rial or object, such as paper or textile, by a
An image can be captured by an optical photographic or digital process. A laser print,
device such as a camera, mirror, lens, tele- photographic print, and a large-scale digital
scope, or microscope, as well as by natural wall mural are all types of fixed images.
objects and phenomena such as the human
eye or the reflective surface of water. Still
The word image is also used in the A still image is a single static image, as dis-
broader sense of any two-dimensional figure tinguished from a moving image. This term
such as a map, graph, pie chart, or abstract is used in photography, visual media, and the
painting. Images can be rendered manually, digital world.
such as through drawing, painting, or
carving, or rendered automatically through Moving
conventional printing or digital technology. A moving image is typically a movie (film)
or video, including digital video. It can also 238
Classifications be an animated display such as a zoetrope.
Images vary greatly in media and content. In addition to conventional film, moving The Penguin Classics imprint and relevant characteristics
The extensive choice of image types avail- images can be captured with digital cameras, is more than a half-century from each narrative due to
239

y old and is recognized around the unconventional vantage

the
he able today can be organized as follows: laptops, webcams, and cell phones. the world for its offerings of points and interpretations
world-class literature. In taken with each photograph.
Volatile Graphic Forms these three book covers for
Robertson Davies’ (Canadian, SOAPBOX DESIGN
A volatile image exists only for a short period An image is a potentially powerful element in 1913–1995) novels, four-color COMMUNICATIONS
of time. This image type may be a reflec- visual communication because it is one of the photographic imagery is used Toronto, ONT, CA
tion of an object in a mirror, a projection of few forms that can represent an emotional as bold, iconic storytelling ve-
hicles for each of the book’s
a camera obscura, or a scene displayed on a experience and be immediately understood fictional themes. The imagery
cathode ray tube or video monitor. and embraced by the viewer. also has distinct, memorable,

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 This set of book covers is palettes, hand-drawn
part of a branding campaign letterforms, and reductive
based on the illustrative and representational visual
reinterpretation of classic elements are collectively used
book covers directed toward to unify this diverse series.
junior high school students.
Dynamic, textural, and highly MIKEY BURTON
emotional line illustrations Philadelphia, PA, USA
engage the young reader,
giving them an immediate
and meaningful connection
to each book and its themes.
Vibrant and intense color
the language of graphic design

Images can be stylized and take many

graphic forms, such as an icon, sign, symbol, an
supersign, or logotype. Photography and fin
illustration are forms of image that are en
broad based in content, composition, and ex
style, each affording the designer a specific ch
visual language or dialect. Both forms can dir
di
be realistic representations or interpretive ab
expressions depicting a wide range of visual th
narratives. Each of will have a direct impact
and influence on the ultimate meaning in a Fu
visual message. Im
Type (letterform, narrative form) is also wi
a form of image that can have meaningful pr
qualities for effective visual communications. tiv
vis
to
em

pe
te
An
A
m
dia
di
wo

is
Th

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 This class assignment is involves a substitution of the formal qualities of each
an exploration of addition, sixteen landscape squares unit in the imposed structure SARAH AL GROOBI, Student
subtraction, transforma- into the architecture image, or grid. The substitution is AMIR BERBIC,
tion, and substitution and then sixteen architecture defined and governed by RODERICK GRANT,
relationships created with squares into the landscape such design principles as Instructors
photographic form. Students image. The goal is to achieve contrast, continuity, rhythm, AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
start with two photographic the greatest transformation juxtaposition, similarity, OF SHARJAH
images—one of architecture with each substitution. This and difference. The ultimate Sharjah, UAE
and one of a landscape. These process is also informed objective is for each student
images are first printed, then by the composition of each to develop new relationships
cut to a 4 cm (1.5-inch) grid image, not only in terms of of photographic form that did
and flush mounted to black the overall arrangement of not exist previously.
kraft paper. This process visual elements, but also in

23Image
The presentation and representation of
any image can span a broad spectrum de-
fined at one end by realism and at the other
end by abstraction. Between these two visual
extremes are myriad possibilities for you to
choose from—the more realistic, the more
direct and immediate the image; the more
abstract, the more restrained and interpretive
the image.

Functions
Images can function in a multitude of roles
within any visual communication. They can
provide a meaningful counterpoint to narra-
tive text, engage the reader with enhanced
visual interest, bring clarity and organization
to complex information, and communicate 240
emotions grounded in the human experience.
They can visually represent a specific
person, place, event, or reference in narrative
241

text, as well as provide a counterpoint to it.

An image can be literal, representational,
metaphorical, or abstract. It can also imme-
diately alter the meaning of words, just as
words can change the meaning of any image.
Combining image and narrative form
is challenging for any graphic designer.
These distinct visual forms can be combined

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 Bri
and
im
ima
app
po
pow
eac
Ad
typ
op
ope
the
per
im
imm
for
the language of graphic design

to establish more meaningful relationships

or contrasting counterpoints between the
two forms and simultaneously strengthen the
collective message.
When deciding to use photography
versus illustration, you need to consider that
most people will respond and engage more
immediately with a photograph because they
perceive this image type as the closest form
of their own objective reality. Illustration is
traditionally seen as an artist’s (or designer’s)
visual interpretation of a subjective reality.
One form is immediate, intuitive, powerful,
and persuasive; the other, less so.
Ultimately, there are many methods
to communicate meaningful messages and
ideas with image. The possibilities are
endless for you to create rich, communica-
tive, and memorable visual experiences
for the viewer. The only limitation is your
own imagination.

The juxtaposition of line art

and photography, scale and VISUAL ARTS PRESS
texture, and horizontal and New York, NY, USA
vertical orientation, all
provide visual impact and
presence to the figurative
images used on this cover for
the Visual Arts Journal. The
biannual publication features
work from School of Visual
Arts students and alumni,
as well as perspectives on the
latest art trends.

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 Bright, saturated colors These covers and magazine
and iconic photographic MUCCA DESIGN spreads are representative of STOLTZE DESIGN
images with an out-of-focus New York, NY, USA the extensive variety of Boston, MA, USA
appearance create a visual images, such as four-color
power and immediacy for photography, photomontage,
each of these book covers. line drawings, illustrations,
Additionally, bold, sans serif and large-scale letterforms
typography combined with used effectively in Archi-
open-space kerning allows tecture Boston, a quarterly
the typography to be visually magazine on architecture and
perforated, creating more urban design.
immediacy and connection
for the viewer.

23 Image
he

att

ey
m

s)

242
243

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 pat·tern \'pa-t rn\ n e

2
the language of graphic design

3: an artistic, musical, literary, or

mechanical design or form

“P
of
o
W

s
s
s

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 24 pattern
Like texture, pattern is a
“Pattern, the fruit of design, can be seen as the measure
of culture.” fundamental design 244
WILLIAM FEAVER (BRITISH, B. 1942) Art Critic, Author
principle that helps define
the visual quality of
245

surface activity. The visual characteristics of any pattern help us

see distinctions between one object and another. Pattern is a
specific type of visual texture and is traditionally derived from a

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 Soft, muted tones of color,
pattern, and typography are
used as figurative textures to
further enhance the identity
BLOK DESIGN
Mexico City, MX
1
program for Odun, a Mexico
City restaurant featuring He
Asian cuisines. The overall LU
identity, as well as its array of Mu
tones, colors, and patterns,
was inspired by a diversity of
influences, flavors, scents,
and spirits found throughout
Asian cultures.

Lu
tr
19
de

wh
fo
of
te
m
19
sig
si
an
He
H
defined and repeated compositional
structure always appearing in an organized wo
w
and regimented graphic manner. po
The elements of point, line, and shape 19
have been the basis for creating pattern he
throughout history. In combining pattern By
with the organizational design principle of di
the grid, you can create an infinite variety of be
end results. By utilizing a singular element in hi
different organizations, configurations, and
compositions, patterns can be realized with b.
endless variations, subtle or obvious, all built m
around a common graphic denominator. ist
is
(continued on page 248) wi
w
st
va
dr
se
This visual identity system in
for the Hutchins Center for BRUCE MAU DESIGN fu
African & African American Toronto, ONT, CA
Research comprises two an
type-based elements that ba
are consistently framed on a
left-hand edge with abstract
line patterns reminiscent of st
African visual cultures. qu
an
Th
fo

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 1911
Hermann Scherrer Poster
LUDWIG HOHLWEIN
Munich, DE

24
Lu dw i g H o h lw e i n (1847–1949) was element of the man is optically centered
trained and practiced as an architect until in the poster with no apparent horizon line.

Pattern
1906, when he became interested in graphic The well-dressed gentleman and his rid-
design and the visual arts. ing accessories, as well as his pure-bred
During the 1890s, he lived in Munich, dog, are all represented in a reductive,
where he was part of the United Workshops stark manner combined with vivid color
for Arts and Crafts, an avant-garde group and an abstract, black-and-white checker-
of artists and craftsmen dedicated to the board pattern. Here, Hohlwein treats this
tenets and principles of the Arts and Crafts distinctive pattern as a two-dimensional
movement. Hohlwein moved to Berlin in plane. It is in extreme contrast to the sur-
1911 and started working as a graphic de- rounding three-dimensional compositional
signer primarily designing advertisements elements, creating a strong and memorable
and posters for the men’s clothing company focal point for the poster.
Hermann Scherrer. His adaptation of photographic im-

and the Hermann Scherrer style

Ludwig Hohlwein
Hohlwein’s most creative phase of ages was based on an intuitive under-
work and a large variety of his best-known standing of visual design principles. His
posters were created between 1912 and creative use of color and architectural
e 1925. It was during this critical period that compositions dispels any suggestion that
he developed his own unique visual style. he used photographs as the basis of his
By 1925, he had already designed 3,000 creative output. Additionally, his use of
different advertisements and became the high tonal contrasts, interlocking shapes,
of best-known German commercial artist of and distinctive patterns made his work in-
n his time. stantly recognizable and memorable.
Poster historian Alain Weill (French, Along with Lucian Bernhard (Ger-
b. 1946) comments that “Hohlwein was the man, 1883–1972), Ludwig Hohlwein
lt most prolific and brilliant German poster- was one of the most successful and
ist of the twentieth century . . . Beginning celebrated designers of the Plakatstil
with his first efforts, Hohlwein found his and Sachplakat modes or “poster” and
style with disconcerting facility. It would “object poster” styles in Germany during
vary little for the next forty years. The this time period.
drawing was perfect from the start, nothing 246
247
seemed alien to him, and in any case, noth-
ing posed a problem for him. His figures are
full of touches of color and a play of light
247

and shade that brings them out of their

background and gives them substance.”
Hohlwein’s work relied mostly on
strong figurative elements with reductive
qualities of high contrast, intense flat color,
and bold patterns of geometric elements.
This is evident in his iconographic poster
for Hermann Scherrer. The figurative

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 The genesis of the rebrand- used across all print and
ing program for the Jewish digital media.
Museum in New York City is
based on “sacred geometry,” SAGMESITER & WALSH
an ancient geometric system New York, NY, USA
from which the Star of David
was conceived, with program
elements drawn from this
grid-like pattern. These
elements include a custom
wordmark, iconography,
typography, illustrations, and
supporting graphic patterns
the language of graphic design

Historical Influences
Throughout history, an abundance of pattern
making has occurred in practically every
culture around the world. Patterns have been
evident not only in the graphic arts, but in
fine and applied arts, such as textiles, pot-
tery, wallpaper, apparel, furniture, interiors,
metalwork, ceramic tiles, mosaics, and
stencils, as well as new and innovative digital
experiments by contemporary artists and
graphic designers.
Artists and graphic designers have also
developed a wide range of styles, forms, and
motifs. For example, early twentieth-century
innovators of pattern making include William

The branding program for TC

Nizuc, an upscale resort and CARBONE SMOLAN bas
residential community in AGENCY ma
Mexico, was inspired by the New York, NY, USA bro
site’s Mayan history. The fun
project’s figurative symbol, ele
also evocative of Mayan pro
carvings and bas-reliefs, is enc
the base element of graphic Az
Azt
patterns used throughout cho
this visual program. of c
lin
line
pat

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 24 Pattern
Morris (British, 1834–1896), Koloman Moser
rn (Austrian, 1868–1918), Anni Albers (German,
1899–1994), Mariano Fortuny (Spanish, 1871–
en 1949), Alvin Lustig (American, 1915–1955),
Ray Eames (American, 1912–1988), and
Alexander Girard (American, 1907–1993) up
to contemporary designers such as Richard
Rhys (British).
al In the early 1900s, with the advent of
the modernist movement in the visual and
applied arts, a preference for minimalist
o surfaces and textures was the norm; ornate
d patterning and overtly decorative surfaces
y were avoided. This trend has been tempered,
m and a far wider palette of choices is now
evident and appreciated worldwide.
248
Basic Structures and Forms
TCHO is a San Francisco– flavor-driven product lines— the flavors as well as the A pattern can be a theme of recurring events
based luxury chocolate chocolaty, nutty, fruity, high-tech modernist values of or objects, sometimes referred to as ele-
249

manufacturer that uses a floral, and citrus—are used the product line.
broad palette of pattern as as decorative product ments of a given set. These events, objects,
functional and interpretive identifiers. Each pattern is EDENSPIEKERMANN or elements always repeat themselves in a
elements in its branding framed within a square and is Berlin, DE predictable and organized manner.
program. Its graphic influ- the base element connecting
ences are derived from all packaging, collateral, Pattern has a strong relationship to
Aztec culture, where and visual communication geometry, since it is an organized and regi-
chocolate was used as a form material. The brand’s color mented texture in which singular elements
of currency. Contemporary palette extends from dark
line variations on currency brown to bright magenta, are composed on a defined and repeated
patterns, representing the six orange, and yellow, reflecting structure. Due to this underlying structure,

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 the language of graphic design

th
an

th
re
lin
is
ch
ch
alt

ele
el
pa
O
an

This assignment requires and white, monochromatic, Th

Thi
students to analyze the analogous, complementary, Bo
potential of pattern in split complementary, triadic, tw
two
relationship to color and and tetradic. wa
composition. Using abstract the
shapes and fundamental ALETA CORBOY, Student sta
graphic elements, students ANNABELLE GOULD, che
initially develop a 10 X 10- Instructor Th
The
inch (25.4 X 25.4 cm) square UNIVERSITY the
complex pattern based on an OF WASHINGTON the
assigned piece of music. This Seattle, WA, USA jet
pattern is then modified into ste
seven color variations—black the

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 Brown, Juana Francisca’s used on confections and
Kitchen, is a confectionery baked goods.
offering a delicate selection
of gourmet sweets. Its pack- LIP
aging system uses kraft board Bogotá, CO
boxes, a series of preprinted
tag cards, and rubber stamps
with decorative motifs and
patterns that carry informa-
tion about what’s inside the
box. The repetitive dot and
line motifs and patterns are
evocative of decorative icing

24Pattern
that patterns are always synthetic, man-made,
and mechanical, and never organic.
The most basic patterns are composed
through repetition and are considered a
repeat of any visual element such as point,
line, shape, form, or color. A single element
is combined with duplicates of itself without
change or modification. For example, a
checkerboard is a simple pattern based on
alternating squares of black and red.
Patterns can also be based on familiar
elements, such as in simple decorative
patterns of stripes, zigzags, and polka dots.
Other patterns are more visually complex
and are found in nature, art, and the built

250

This entrance to Brooklyn

Botanic Garden comprises POULIN + MORRIS INC.
251

two 12-foot (4 m) high curved New York, NY, USA

walls rising on both sides of
the entrance and sheathed in
stainless steel with an etched
cherry tree leaf pattern.
The actual entrance gates are
the same material; however,
the leaf pattern here is water-
jet cut, creating a stainless
steel grille for viewing into
the garden when it is closed.

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 Decorative patterns are
layered in vellum; the outer ISABELLE RANCIER, Student
layer represented graphically TRACY BOYCHUK, Instructor
in stark black and white, the SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
other revealing the same New York, NY, USA
pattern in a rich, vibrant,
multicolored palette. This
layering device is a metaphor
for the dual undertone
themes of these classic Jane
Austen (British, 1775–1817)
novels—Sense and Sensibility
(1811) and Emma (1815).

en
br
lat
sp
re
is

us
de
wi
of
M
lay
pr
vis
no
tim

ce
sa

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 Kinetic and energetic line
patterns are used for a series ADAMSMORIOKA INC.
of notebook covers Beverly Hills, CA, USA
developed, designed, and
marketed by this California–
based design firm. The
juxtaposition of two patterns
for each notebook, and the
use of a broad range of in-
tense, vibrant color palettes
throughout, add a visual
power and vibrancy to each of
these cover combinations.

24 Pattern
environment. These include arabesques,
branching, circulation, fractals, helixes,
lattices, meanders, nests, polyhedra, spheres,
spirals, symmetry, volutes, and waves. A
recurring pattern in fine art and architecture
is referred to as a motif.
Moirés are also a form of pattern first
used after World War II, when graphic
designers began to exploit and experiment
with the conventional methods and attributes
of process reproduction and offset printing.
Moiré patterns revealed to the viewer the
layered tints and enlarged halftones of these
processes, creating dynamic and unexpected
visual effects of color and texture that had
not been visually experienced before this
time period. 252
Today, digital software is an easily ac-
cessible and immediate means by which the Both labels for “Il conte” use
same visual pattern effects can be achieved. a common base pattern LOUISE FILI LTD.
253

comprising geometric form New York, NY, USA

triangles and vine leaf
elements that function as a
frame and iconic backdrop
for each wine name—Montep-
ulciano d’Abruzzo and Pinot
Grigio. This pattern is further
enhanced and articulated
with color, red or warm white,
depending upon which wine
type is identified.

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 ty·pog·ra·phy \tī-pä-gr -fē\ n e

2
the language of graphic design

2: the style, arrangement, or appearance

of typeset matter

“Ty
“T
ti
RO

p
a
a

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 25 typography
“Typography at its best is a visual form of language linking Typography is designing
timelessness and time.” with type. Type is the term 254
ROBERT BRINGHURST (CANADIAN, B. 1946) Author, Poet, Typographer
used for letterforms—
alphabet, numbers, and
255

punctuation—that when used together create words, sentences,

and narrative form. The term typeface refers to the design of
all the characters mentioned above, unified by common visual

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 1
Ho
JO
Ne

Jo
the language of graphic design

Am
of
in
de
ni
st
co

fa
m
ar
Ho
H
Es
elements and characteristics. Typography is Ba
also a unique principle in your vocabulary Ni
N
because it has dual functions. It can function th
on its purest level as a graphic element such ca
as point, line, form, shape, and texture in &
a visual composition. However, its primary of
function is verbal and visual. It is to be read. ty
When typography has a relationship only to m
its verbal meaning, its communicative in
character can lack visual impact. When it th
reflects a treatment that enhances both its Of
O
verbal and visual meaning, it is perceived
on multiple levels, not only intellectually but in
also sensually and emotionally. ru
Typography, of course, is all around us. ar
In graphic design, the goal of the designer is st
not to just place typography on a page but in
rather to understand and use it effectively in
Ana Pro is an autochromatic in visual communications. The selection and to
font of uppercase Latin char- VEDRAN ERAKOVIC choice of typography, size, alignment, color, de
acters, inspired by arabesque Belgrade, RS
and spacing are all critical. ad
patterns from the nineteenth
century. This decorative co
display font has been pro- Historical References te
grammed to enable users to
Since the beginning of mankind, we have re
easily create multicolored
drop caps and initials, as well needed to communicate our lives to our
as different ornaments for fellow man. Before we learned to “speak” Ho
H
every letterform, which fit
verbally, we spoke “visually” by leaving crude wi
w
perfectly with each unique
glyph shape. (continued on page 258) ca

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 1989
Hoefler Text, Peristyle, and Isotope Typefaces
JONATHAN HOEFLER
New York, NY, USA

Jo nat h a n H o e f l e r ( b. 1970) is an b. 1953), and Roger Black (American, b.

American typeface designer and founder 1945). This gave him the opportunity to
of Hoefler & Co., a type foundry located spend practically every free moment he had
in New York City. Since 1989, Hoefler has in their libraries perusing books and visual
designed some of the world’s most recog- references on the history of graphic design
nizable typefaces that continually reflect a and typography.
strong visual integrity to craft, historical Hoefler is the only type designer to be
context, and a universal vernacular. honored by the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian
With a library of more than 1,500 type- Design Museum’s National Design Awards,
faces designed for print, web, office, and and the American Institute of Graphic Arts’
mobile environments, Hoefler & Co. fonts prestigious AIGA Medal, the design pro-
are now ubiquitous in our visual landscape. fession’s highest honor. His typefaces are
Hoefler has designed original typefaces for some of the most well-designed and crafted
Esquire, Martha Stewart Living , Harper’s typefaces created in the past forty years

Jonathan Hoefler
The Craft and Creativity of
s Bazaar, Rolling Stone, Sports Illustrated, and are in the permanent collections of
Nike, the New York Times Magazine , and the Smithsonian Institution, the Victoria
n the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. They & Albert Museum (V&A), and the Museum
h can also be seen on Twitter and at Tiffany of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.
& Co., on HBO and Netflix, on every can His best-known typeface family,
of Coca-Cola, and on every iPhone. His Hoefler Text (1991), is part of the Macin-
. typefaces also provide a distinctive and tosh operating system and can be found on
o memorable voice to organizations includ- every Apple computer. Other well-known
ing the Natural Resources Defense Council, typefaces include Gotham (2000), Cham-
the Southern Poverty Law Center, and the pion (1990), Knockout (1994), Archer
Office of Barack and Michelle Obama. (2001), Chronicle (2002), and, more re-
Born in New York City, Hoefler grew up cently, Peristyle (2017) and Isotope (2018).
t in the pre-Macintosh era of transfer type, In 1995, he was named one of the forty
rubylith, rubber cement, and mechanical most influential designers in the United
s.. art—a time when hand skills and craft were States by i-D magazine, and in 2002, the
is still essential to creating visual concepts Association Typographique Internationale
in graphic design. He describes his early (ATypl) presented him with its most pres- 256
interest in letterforms: “I really wanted tigious award, the Prix Charles Peignot for
d to be part of that secret embedded in the outstanding contributions to type design.
r, design of the letters . . . discovering as an He has also been profiled in The New York
257

adolescent that typography was incredibly Times, Time, and Esquire, and has appeared
coded—that the choice of a typeface could on National Public Radio and CBS Sunday
tell you the genre of a movie before you Morning.
read the titles was irresistible.”
Following high school graduation,
Hoefler worked as a production assistant
de with graphic designers Louise Fili (Ameri-
can, b. 1951), Fred Woodward (American,

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 Bold, black, oversized An
A
letterforms are used on this
set of textbook covers for
Written Language and
Power and Introduction to
Linguistics, creating iconic,
singular, and immediate
identifiers for each book.

CASA REX
São Paulo, BR
the language of graphic design

marks on walls and surfaces. From prehistoric following six common characteristics with Ap
cave paintings and Egyptian hieroglyphics only subtle alteration and variation: Th
tw
to Roman inscriptions and medieval crests, str
communicating experiences to one another Case top
has been a common human denominator for Each letter in any alphabet comprises two the

telling our stories at any given time. Man case forms—uppercase and lowercase. Ar
has discovered how to make the word and Ap
the image become one. As our world has Weight or
or
become more complex, so has the means by The weight of a letterform is defined by the wi
which we communicate those stories in their overall thickness of its stroke in relation to its an
many forms. The most universal means height. Common weight variations include
As
throughout our collective history has been, light, book, medium, bold, and black. Th
and will continue to be, typography. low
Contrast loc
he
Anatomy of Letterforms The contrast of a letterform is determined by
To better understand and recognize the simi- the degree of weight change in its stroke. Ba
larities and differences between typefaces, Al
bo
an effective graphic designer needs to be Posture wi
familiar with the anatomy of letterforms. The posture of a letterform is its vertical ori- or
Each typeface has a distinct appearance with entation to a baseline. Upright and perpen-
Bo
fundamental characteristics and features that dicular letterforms to a baseline are roman; Ac
provide distinguishing details to group or set slanted or angled are italic. tha
typefaces apart from one another. as

Width
Form Variations The width of any letterform is based on how
Typographic form varies only in case, weight, wide it is in relation to its height. A letter-
contrast, posture, width, and style. Individual form’s standard width is based on a square
typefaces or fonts available today share the (continued on page 260)

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 Anatomy of Letterforms

Apex Cap height

Ascender Stem
Ear x-height

Crossbar
Counter Joint
Vertex Leg

25
Bracket
Serif Baseline
Descender

Typography
Cap height

Arm Terminal
Ligature x-height
Spine Vertical Inclined
Bowl Stress Stress

Spur Baseline
Tail

Apex Bracket Ear Pica Spur Terminal (or Finial)

The outer point where A curving joint between A small projecting A typographic unit of A small, pointed A stem or stroke ending
two diagonal stems or the serif and a stem or stroke sometimes measurement where projection from a stem other than a serif.
strokes meet, as at the stroke; also known as attached to the bowl of a 12 points equal 1 pica or stroke, sometimes
top of an A or M or at a fillet. g or the stem of a r. (1/16 inch or 0.166 inch) found on the bottom of a Vertex
the bottom of an M. and 6 picas equal 1 inch b, t, or G. The angle formed at the
Cap height Joint (0.996 inch). bottom of a character
Arm The distance from a The angle formed where Stem (or Stroke) where the left and right
A projecting horizontal baseline to the top of a two strokes meet or Point The principal vertical or strokes meet or inter-
or upward diagonal stem capital character. intersect, as is a K or R. The smallest unit of oblique element(s) of a sect, as in a V or x.
or stroke not enclosed typographic measure- character, as in an A, B,
within a character, as in Cicero Leg ment; one point is equal L, or V; except for curved x-height
an E, K, or L. A European typographic A projecting diagonal to 1/72 inch or 0.0148 characters where they The distance from the
unit of measurement stem or stroke extending inches or 0.351 mm. are called strokes. baseline to the top of
Ascender approximately equal to downward, as in a R and lowercase x.
The stem or stroke of a the British or American K; also known as a tail. Serif Stress (or Axis)
lowercase character pica, or 4.155 mm. The beginning or end The inclination suggest-
located above the x- Ligature of a stem or stroke, ed by the relationship of
height, as in b, d, or k. Counter A stem or stroke that arm, leg, or tail, drawn thin and thick stems or
An area enclosed by a connects two characters at a right angle or at an strokes in a character,
Baseline bowl or a crossbar. together creating a liga- oblique to the stem or which can be an inclined
A line on which the ture or tied character. stroke. or vertical stress or axis.
258
bottom of characters Crossbar
without descenders sit A horizontal element Link Shoulder Swash
or align. connecting two vertical The stem or stroke that The portion of a curved A flourished terminal,
or diagonal stems or connects the bowl and stroke, but not the stem, or stroke added to
259

Bowl strokes, or crossing a the loop of a g. hairline, connecting two a character.

A curved stem or stroke stem or stroke, as in an vertical strokes or stems.
that encloses a counter, A, H, f, or t; also known Loop Tail
as in a b, p, or O. as a bar or cross stroke. The descender of a Spine The short stem or stroke
g when it is entirely The diagonal portion or that rests on a baseline,
Descender closed. main curved stroke of as in a K or R; or extend-
The stem or stroke of a an S or s. ing below a baseline, as
lowercase character in a Q or j. In a K and R,
located below the base- also known as a leg.
line, as in a g, p, or y.

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 proportion. Exaggerated widths with narrow-
er proportions are identified as condensed or
compressed; ones with wider proportions are
identified as extended or expanded.

Style
The style of letterforms refers to the two
basic categories of serif and sans serif, as well
as its historical context and classification.
While there have been many different
approaches to typographic design over the
centuries, whether driven by societal needs
or technological advances, basic typographic
characteristics such as the ones referenced
above are still used today. Well-designed
typographic forms transcend history, culture,
and geography.

The branding program for Descriptions and Classifications

Mrs. Meyer’s Clean Day, a WERNER DESIGN WERKS How do you decide, among the thousands of
line of aromatherapeutic St. Paul, MN, USA
household cleaners, uses typefaces available, which font or font family
no-fuss, no-frills, utilitarian, might fulfill a specific graphic design need?
sans serif typography that Most typefaces are classified into three
is functional with a subtle
hint of visual style, character, categories, namely serif, sans serif, and script,
and flair. This typographic but it is a limited and somewhat short-
approach is appropriate in sighted classification system. One method
this context since the product
line is designed to represent for familiarizing yourself with typefaces and
the same work ethic. their unique characteristics and attributes,

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 This series of theatrical representations of “Goat”
production posters for and “Sylvia,” force the viewer
Edward Albee’s (American, to immediately question and
1928–2016) The Goat, or Who further consider who these
Is Sylvia? use typographic two characters are.
overlays as interpretive
representations of the play’s ADRIANA URIBE, Student
themes and explorations of PAUL SAHRE, Instructor
morality and identity. The SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
effective use of typographic New York, NY, USA
forms and collage, overlay
blocking, fragmenting,
and revealing of alternative

25 Typography
w- as well as understanding their historical
or development and potential applications, is to
re use a more detailed and accurate system of
typeface classification.
The following classification system is
a simplified, practical reference tool for any
graphic designer:
ell
Old Style
Old style typefaces are primarily based on
roman proportions. They do not have strong
contrasts in stroke weights, the stress of
ic curved strokes is noticeably oblique, a smaller
x-height defines their lowercase letters,
terminals are pear shaped, and lowercase
e, counters are small. Bembo (Francesco Griffo,
1495), Garamond (Claude Garamond, 260
c. 1530), and Goudy (Frederic Goudy, 1915)
are old style typefaces.
of
261

ly Transitional
? Transitional typefaces primarily have greater
stroke contrast in comparison to old style
pt, typefaces. Their serifs are sharper, a larger
x-height defines their lowercase letters, and
the stress of curved-stroke letterforms is
d vertical or nearly so. Baskerville (John
Baskerville, 1757), Bell (Richard Austin, 1788),

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 Perricone MD’s branding raphy, while restrained and
campaign includes packaging, small-scale in relationship
website, advertising, and to the photograph of the
promotional sales collateral bottle, is clean, crisp,
that reflect a modern visual immediate, and highly visible.
interpretation of a traditional
apothecary—understated, MONNET DESIGN
small-scale serif typography, Toronto, ONT, CA
scientific photography,
frosted amber glass—all
organized and composed in
an asymmetrical manner.
Asymmetrical serif typog-

Bulmer (William Martin, 1792), Fournier Slab Serif

(Pierre Simon Fournier, 1742), and Perpetua Slab serif typefaces are uniform in stroke
(Eric Gill, 1928) are all transitional typefaces. weight and their stress is vertical. Their serifs
are usually the same weight as the stem of
Modern the letterforms. Slab serif typefaces are also
The most prominent characteristic of identified as Egyptian. Clarendon (Robert
modern typefaces is their extreme contrast in Besley, 1845), Lubalin Graph (Herb Lubalin,
stroke weights. Serifs are thin and completely 1974), Memphis (Dr. Rudolph Wolf, 1929),
flat, displaying little, if any, bracketing. The and Stymie (Morris Fuller Benton, 1931) are
stress of modern typefaces is almost invari- classified as slab serif typefaces.
ably vertical. Bodoni (Giambattista Bodoni,
1798), Didot (Firmin Didot, 1799), Melior Graphic
(Hermann Zapf, 1952) and Walbaum (Justis This typeface category includes unique and
Erich Walbaum, 1800) are classified as mod- idiosyncratic type families that have graphic
ern typefaces. and illustrative characteristics such as script,
cursive, brush, decorative, and blackletter.
Sans Serif The graphic character of any typeface
The distinguishing feature of sans serif communicates a purely visual message as
The purity and simplicity of typefaces is their lack of serifs (sans means well as a narrative one. It may have a distinct
these all-cap letterforms used “without” in French). Stroke weight is even physical presence on the page and also
in this identity program for
the retailer Walrus creates a and uniform, and their stress is vertical. The convey obvious or implied meanings, such as
strong and impactful visual italic versions of sans serif typefaces often young or old, feminine or masculine,
message that is immediate, appear as slanted romans or obliques. aggressive or timid. Although everyone may
direct, and memorable, due
to the sensitive and effective Akzidenz Grotesk (1896), Franklin Gothic not understand or connect with your intent
use of sans serif typography. (Morris Fuller Benton, 1903), Futura (Paul with any given typeface used, it is your sole
Renner, 1927), Meta (Erik Spiekermann, responsibility to carefully evaluate your own
MERCER CREATIVE GROUP
Vancouver, BC, CA 1986), and Univers (Adrian Frutiger, 1957) typographic decisions in the context of the
are classified as sans serif typefaces. message and the audience.

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 25 Typography
fs

d
c
,

e 262

ct Both of these promotional program listings, and the

posters for the Australian use of horizontal hairlines
263

Graphic Design Association located between each list-

as function as an announce- ing, organize information
ment for a series of member reinforcing a visual hierarchy.
y programs and offerings. The Bold, graphic contrast with
visual power and character black and white and saturated
of typographic form—in this colors of red and yellow are
e case, Futura (Paul Renner, used effectively to further
n 1927)—is used as a visual engage the viewer.
common denominator in both
poster compositions. Left LANDOR
and right justification of Paris, FR

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 the language of graphic design

Optical Issues at the same point along a left-hand vertical

The graphic character of a typeface also has edge. A flush right alignment is set in the
a direct relationship to the perception of same manner with all text beginning at the
its size. For example, a typographic line set same point along a right-hand vertical edge.
in the same point size with two visually A centered alignment is set so that all text
distinctive type styles will appear to be dif- shares the same center axis with the width
ferent sizes. This optical discrepancy is due of the paragraph. Additionally, there are two
to a graphic, as well as measured, difference alignment options with a centered composi-
between the actual x-heights of both type tional format. A centered alignment is set so
styles. Sans serif x-heights tend to be larger that all text lines are varied lengths, centered
in relationship to their cap heights than ser- above one another, and share the same
ifs, which tend to be smaller in relationship to center axis with the width of the paragraph.
their cap heights. The difference in graphic A justified alignment is set so that every text
and measured sizes can vary as much as two line is the same length and aligning on both
to three points, depending on the typeface. the left- and right-hand vertical edges. A jus-
For example, a sans serif typeface such as tified alignment is the only alignment where
Frutiger (Adrian Frutiger, 1976) or Gill Sans all text lines are the exact same length.
(Eric Gill, 1927) may be legible and comfort- When text is set flush left, flush right,
Old, wood-type, slab serif able to read at 8 points, but an Old Style or centered, the varied lengths of these text
letterforms are the inspira- STEREOTYPE DESIGN typeface such as Bembo or Garamond at the lines create an uneven textural edge(s) called
tion, as well as the primary New York, NY, USA
imagery, for these posters same size will be illegible and impossible to a “rag.”
promoting the band Milton’s read with any level of comfort or ease. Alignments also can have an effect on
public concert in Madison typographic spacing within a body of text.
Square Park in New York City.
This bold, black typography Alignment Formats When text is set flush left rag right, word
is organized in a playful Typography can be organized in several spacing is uniform and even. The same
composition and set off by different compositional formats called align- effect occurs with flush right rag left and
vibrant color backgrounds.
ments. A flush left alignment is set so that centered alignments. In a justified alignment,
multiple typographic lines (or text) begin word spacing varies because the width of the

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 The textured letterforms nuances appearing in each
used in this poster for UCLA typographic treatment.
School of Architecture’s Color, contrast, and figure–
“Double Edge” lecture series ground also reinforce these
function as visual metaphors subtle textural distinctions
and identifiers for each and characteristics.
architect’s style, aesthetic,
and individual approach to THE MAP OFFICE
their discipline and craft. A New York, NY, USA
two-column grid provides
maximum scale and visibility,
allowing the viewer to
connect with the subtle visual

e.

o
-
o
ed

.
xt
h
us-
s-
e
264

t This logotype for Brawer

ed & Hauptman Architects is PAONE DESIGN
265

unified and singular in ASSOCIATES, LTD.

appearance due to the use Philadelphia, PA, USA
n of layered and integrated
letterforms—a ligature
created with the ampersand
and c in the word Architects,
and the lower serif of the A in
Architects registered with the
crossbar of the e in Brawer.
nt,
he

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 This visual identity system applications such as this
for an exhibition titled promotional poster, are all
"Graphic Design in China" derived from lines represent-
relies solely on the ing fluorescent lighting tube
fluorescent light installations fixtures used throughout the
evident in each exhibition exhibit installations.
venue that spell out the
names of each designer and SENSE TEAM
discipline represented in the Shenzhen, CN
exhibition. These custom,
stencil-like letterforms used
in the exhibition, as well
as in smaller-scale, print

paragraph is fixed and the words on every sim

line need to align with both vertical edges, or
no matter how many words are on each line. co
With justified alignments, variations in ty
word spacing are the most challenging issue tio
for you to resolve properly and effectively. sp
The result of ineffective justified alignments
is an overabundance of “rivers”—arbitrary dia
di
negative spaces that occur and visually con- te
nect from line to line within the body of the im
typographic text. One method to solve this ch
issue is to identify the optimum flush-left inv
in
alignment width for the type size being used ty
prior to creating a justified alignment. an
su
Typographic Color
Typography is a reality as well as an abstrac- an
tion in visual communications. While we ele
el
think of typography primarily as elements te
used together to form words and sentences, as
it also has an inherent function purely as a th
visual form. As such, typography can func- let
le
tion in the same way as other basic design
elements such as point, line, shape, form,
color, texture, contrast, and pattern, in any
visual composition. It has rhythmic, spatial,
and textural characteristics, identified as
typographic color. Typographic color is

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nt-
be
he

25 Typography
similar to a color’s hue—such as yellow, red,
or blue—as well as its variations in density,
e.. contrast, texture, and value. Effective
n typographic color in any visual communica-
e tion is determined by variations in weight,
spacing, kerning, leading, mass, and texture.
s A change in typographic color imme-
diately influences not only the spatial and
- textural appearance of typography but, more
e importantly, its meaning. A typographic color
s change allows you to highlight structure and
invigorate a page. An effective use of
d typographic color in graphic composition
and verbal clarity is directly related to the
success of any visual communication.
Ultimately, your use of typography as
- an effective and communicative design 266
element is solely dependent upon your
technical expertise and historical knowledge, New York City's New Museum Museum” and to loosen up
s,, as well as your thorough understanding of of Contemporary Art is the the visual feel of the museum
267

city's only museum dedicated itself. The logotype changes

the functional and aesthetic characteristics of exclusively to showcasing and takes on new visual forms
letterform and typographic composition. contemporary art. Its brand- when used in a variety of
ing program, as well as its print and digital applications
bold, sans serif logotype, is that rely upon a full spectrum
based on the premise of “new of colors, images, and other
art and new ideas” as well as related visual elements.
the act of self-renewal. The
designer’s first step with this WOLFF OLINS
program was to simplify the New York, NY, USA
institution’s name to “New

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 grid \'grid\ n

2
the language of graphic design

2 b: a network of uniformly spaced

horizontal and perpendicular lines
(as for locating points on a map)

“Th
“T
le
JO

m
m
ti

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 26 grid
“The grid system is an aid, not a guarantee . . . . But one must Fundamentally, a grid is
learn how to use the grid; it is an art that requires practice.” composed of a series of 268
JOSEF MÜLLER-BROCKMANN (SWISS, 1914–1996) Author, Designer, Educator
horizontal and vertical
lines that provide align-
269

ments and intersections for you to use in an obvious or subtle

manner. It is a primary design principle for all visual communica-
tions. Similar to many other design elements and principles in

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 This self-promotional series
for IDEO relies upon a rigid,
square organizational and
compositional grid, and a
1
tactile material solution so
that the visual integrity of The
Th
all typography and imagery MA
could be maintained. Ne

VOLUME INC.
San Francisco, CA, USA

In
st
gn
Un
re
on
in
an
m
pu
as
ny
ic
su
this book, a grid’s functions are limitless. It
can provide order and visual unity as well as di
enhance the rhythm and pacing of any visual cr
message. A typographic page grid is a two- m
dimensional organizational framework used pr
to structure content. It is an armature for the co
graphic designer to organize narrative and in
visual content in a rational, aesthetic, and
accessible manner. ob
da
Historical References m
Whenever there has been a need to build an in
object, divide an area, or decorate a flat St
surface, some form of a grid has been used.
(continued on page 272) Un
fo
Le
pl
A three-column page grid, This type of page grid giving it a more active and ph
based on a square planning provides maximum flexibility varied presentation yet still th
module, is used as an and continuity, allowing for a providing a unified voice.
effective organizational tool variety of types of narrative th
for the layout and design of and visual information to be FORM an
this annual report for Media treated in a meaningful and London, UK ra
Trust, an organization that accessible manner for the
works in partnership with reader. Different-scale typo- fu
media industries throughout graphic elements and blocks in
the United Kingdom in of narrative text are set flush po
building effective communi- left, ragged right, and hang
cations for charities and from a set of integral grid da- sim
si
nonprofit organizations. tums throughout the report, sig
si

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 1971
The Herald Newspaper
MASSIMO VIGNELLI
New York, NY, USA

In 1960, after completing his architectural While Vignelli’s typographic range

studies in Milan and Venice, Massimo Vi- expanded beyond the sole use of Helveti-
gnelli (Italian, 1931–2014) moved to the ca for Unimark’s clients, he retained and
United States as cofounder and design di- strengthened a rational use of grid systems
rector of Unimark International, at the time and an emphasis on clear, precise, and ob-
one of the largest design-consulting firms jective visual communications.
in the world. During the 1960s, Unimark One primary example of this philoso-
and Vignelli designed many of the world’s phy was evident in the early 1970s with
most recognizable corporate identities and the design of the Herald newspaper. Pri-
public information systems for clients such or to this time, newspapers and tabloids
as American Airlines, Ford Motor Compa- were one of the most neglected areas of
ny, and Knoll International, as well as the visual communication. In 1971, Vignelli
iconic sign program for the New York City Associates was given the opportunity to
subway system. design the Herald, a new weekly newspa-

and The Herald

Massimo Vignelli
Unimark’s philosophy was based on a per for the New York City tristate area.
disciplined and systemized approach for the Herald was structured on a page grid
creating effective and rational mass com- of six columns with sixteen modules per
munications for their clients; solutions that column. One typeface, Times Roman, was
provided the means by which an individual used throughout the publication, with one
could implement any aspect of a program type size for all running, narrative text, two
in an efficient and effective manner. type sizes for titles and subtitles, and italic
The primary tool for achieving this for captions and decks. Every page or two
objective was the grid, ultimately stan- constituted a section of the whole paper,
dardizing graphic communications for the and all pages were structured with clear
majority of their corporate clients includ- horizontal bands, which provided a strong,
ing Alcoa, JCPenney, Memorex, Panasonic, easy-to-read accessibility to the paper’s
Steelcase, and Xerox. editorial content. Reliance on a fully ar-
In 1971, following the closing of ticulated page grid, as well as a unified set
Unimark’s New York offices, Vignelli co- of design specifications, further indicated
founded Vignelli Associates with his wife, that the paper would be equipped for fast
Lella (Italian, 1934–2016). The multidisci- production and quick turn-around. 270
plinary design consultancy firm’s philoso- Unfortunately, the newspaper folded
phy and approach was firmly grounded in in less than a year due to union and distri-
the modernist tradition and on simplicity bution problems. However, use of the grid
271

through the use of fundamental elements as an organizational, design, and produc-

and principles in all of its work. Its broad tion principle proved to be successful, and
range of work and interests, including was subsequently used by designers and
furniture, tableware, apparel, showrooms, publishers as an effective tool for the rede-
interiors, posters, publications, and cor- sign of numerous newspapers and tabloids
porate identity programs, was based on a in the coming years.
simple belief, Vignelli said: “If you can de-
sign one thing, you can design everything.”

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 the language of graphic design

The grid has been relied upon as a guiding as

organizational principle by Renaissance St
artists for scaling sketches and images to fit de
the proportion of murals, by cartographers va
in plotting map coordinates, by architects re
for scaling drawings and plotting perspective in
views, and by typographers in the design of Br
letterforms and the printed page. m
Prior to the invention of movable type th
in printing by Johannes Gutenberg (German,
c. 1400–1468) in the fifteenth century, simple Fu
grids based on various proportional relation- Vi
ships were also used to arrange handwritten an
text on pages. While the grid evolved and ar
developed over the next five hundred years, Th
it primarily remained the same in structure is
and use. us
to
This information-based a multivariate mapping of Evolution of the Modern Grid pr
data poster titled The Shape news interests and coverage CHRISTINA VAN VLECK In the early 1950s, European designers such th
of News, documents the such as local, national, and Lexington, MA, USA
designer’s analysis of news- international; the wars in Iran as Emil Ruder (Swiss, 1914-1970) and int
in
paper title pages and their and Afghanistan reveal the Josef Müller-Brockmann (Swiss, 1914–1996), th
various content. The overall tenor of regional reporting influenced by the modernist tenets of Jan cre
cr
composition is arranged over a period of two months.
according to the U.S. states The actual use of newspaper Tschichold’s Die Neue Typographie (The re
and provides the viewer with page grids as the poster’s New Typography), began to question the de
insight into the way public primary communication relevance and use of the conventional grid.
opinion was formed during device further conveys the
the Iraq War. This study uses use and type of information The result was the development of gr
various colors to express in a familiar manner. the modern typographic grid that became es

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 26 Grid
associated with the International Typographic
Style or Swiss Design, which provided
t designers with a flexible system for achieving
variations of the printed page. A seminal
reference book on this subject, Grid Systems
ve in Graphic Design (1981), written by Müller-
f Brockmann, helped propagate the use of the
modern page grid, first in Europe, and later
e throughout the world.
an,
ple
le Functions
n- Visual communication carries its message
n and meaning through the organization and
arrangement of disparate design elements.
s,, The clarity and immediacy of any message
is further achieved with visual unity by the
use of the grid. It is a useful and purposeful 272
tool for any graphic designer. A page grid
provides a framework for composition The identity and branding This grid’s triangular base
h through its network of horizontal and vertical program for the city of module is also used as an
273

Melbourne is based on a interpretive visual element

intersecting lines that organize and divide triangular grid and fully that is articulated in a diverse
), the page into field and interval, thereby expresses the multifaceted palette of colors, patterns,
creating a guide for establishing proportional spirit of the city as a creative, textures, and images.
cultural, and sustainable
relationships between the composition’s urban center. An iconic M LANDOR
design elements. is the central element of Paris, FR
The grid is an invaluable principle of a this program and has been
constructed from the same
graphic designer’s vocabulary, as well as an triangular element of the pro-
essential tool to be used in the increasingly gram’s organizational grid.

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 The inventive use of a flex- grid, while a thoughtfully
ible, four-column page grid considered hierarchy of type
with alternating narrow and weights and sizes contributes
wide columns, when needed, to a unified whole.
provides Yale’s “A Guide to
Yale College” with a rhythmic PENTAGRAM
pacing and unexpected varia- New York, NY, USA
tion from spread to spread.
Full color, photographic
images of different scales are
allowed to invade columns
and bleed beyond the de-
lineated format of the page

complex production of print-based and as

digitally based visual communications. of
It can be used to compose, organize, tio
separate, enlarge, reduce, and locate visual sy
elements. Grid construction can be loose and re
organic or rigorous and mechanical. When so
used correctly and appropriately, a grid pro- int
in
vides simplicity, clarity, efficiency, flexibility, fe
economy, continuity, consistency, and unity
to any visual communication. gr
A grid, like any other element in the ba
design process, is not an absolute. It should m
be used with flexibility and, when necessary, we
be modified or even abandoned for a more
intuitive solution. It can be developed as
a simple framework that has an obvious and
integrated relationship to its narrative and
visual content or it can be composed of more
These representative page complex forms and proportions that provide Au
spreads from See for more varied and nuanced results. gri
Yourself: A Visual Guide to is c
Everyday Beauty reflect an Müller-Brockmann maintains that “the equ
effective use of a symmetrical grid system is an aid, not a guarantee. It mo
page grid and a planned pac- permits a number of possible uses, and each av
ing and sequencing of visual wa
and narrative content in a designer can look for a solution appropriate the
multiple-page publication. to their own personal style. But one must Ka
learn how to use the grid: It is an art that Ste
VOLUME INC. use
San Francisco, CA, USA requires practice.” As a counterpoint, the
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris (also known siss
sis

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 26 Grid
as Le Corbusier; Swiss, 1887–1965), a pioneer
of modernist architecture and the Interna-
tional Style, in his comments about his grid
system called “Le Modulor” points out: “I still
nd reserve the right, at any time, to doubt the
solutions furnished by the Modulor, keeping
- intact my freedom which must depend on my
, feelings rather than my reason.”
The use of an underlying organizational
grid can enhance the clarity, legibility, and
balance of any visual communication. When
multiple pages are involved, as in a book or
y, website, it guarantees continuity and unity.

d
274
ore
re
e A utilitarian, organizational and Florida—that were
grid used in this poster affected by flooding, and are
275

is composed of forty-eight intermittently interrupted by

equally proportioned the letters SOS as a further
modules and functions as identifier for the urgency of
h a visual identity for this the message. The contrast
water table, communicating of warm and cool colors also
e the effects of Hurricane reinforces the seriousness of
Katrina in the Gulf of Mexico. this message.
Stenciled letterforms are
used solely to identify each of STEREOTYPE DESIGN
the neighboring states—Mis- New York, NY, USA
wn sissippi, Alabama, Louisiana,

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 Anatomy of a Page Grid* Bo
dat
sam
org
tio
ing
ma
A lan
D int
dat
the
in s

B
the language of graphic design

F Applications fo
A grid can be used to solve a wide range of co
design problems and is an effective organiza- Pu
tional framework for newspapers, magazines, ing
in
books, annual reports, brochures, catalogs, tio
G
sign systems, corporate identity and brand- re
ing programs, and websites. to
As a flexible compositional tool, a grid
A B D F can assist the graphic designer in creating it
Margins are the borders Flow lines are horizontal Columns are vertical Markers are graphic either static, symmetrical compositions, or m
or negative spaces alignments that organize alignments of type that indicators for support-
active, asymmetrical ones. The construction co
surrounding the page’s content into defined create horizontal divi- ing page information,
format and content. areas, assist in guiding sions between the page such as running headers of any grid can be orthogonal, angular,
They define the live area the reader’s eyes across margins. There can be or footers, folios or page irregular, or circular. It is an invisible and an
of the page where type the page, and imply any number of columns; numbers, or any other
functional layer of a compositional layout or de
and image are located additional start and stop sometimes they are all element that occupies
and composed. Propor- points for type or images the same width or are only one location on a an obvious and active visual element or
tions of margins are also on the page. different widths cor- page or spread. of any composition. ha
a critical consideration responding to specific
The structure of a grid should always co
since they assist in C types of information. G
establishing the overall Modules are individual Gutters, also known be based on a thorough understanding and ov
balance and tension in units of space within E as alleys, are vertical analysis of the visual and narrative material
the page composition. the grid separated by Spatial zones are groups spaces located between
to be used. This will allow a considerable
Margins are also used to regular intervals that, of modules that form columns of type.
bring focus and atten- when repeated across distinct fields on the degree of flexibility when composing and
tion to content, create the page, create columns page for containing or * The page grid illus- arranging disparate elements—such as typo-
respite for the reader’s and rows. displaying similar or trated here is the page
graphic text and images, on a grid and
eyes, and function as an like information, such grid used throughout
area for supporting page as groups of images or this book. ultimately the page—be it two-dimensional,
information. multiple columns of text. three-dimensional, or virtual.
A grid can be visible or invisible, an
implied framework or an obvious design ele-
ment. It is also an essential design principle

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 Both of these informational
data-based posters use the LORENZO GEIGER
same articulated grid to Bern, CH
organize and structure rela-
tional statistics in a mean-
ingful and informative
manner. Imaginary visual
landscapes are built from the
intersection and interplay of
data formulated in both of
these studies on people living
in selected cities.

26 Grid
for organizing and presenting multifaceted,
f complex information in a systematic manner.
za-
a- Publications, websites, sign systems, advertis-
s, ing campaigns, and corporate communica-
tions are all made up of multiple pages—each
requiring a slightly different composition due
to their varied content.
d If a grid is well planned and conceived,
it provides you with an efficient way to create
multiple layouts while maintaining visual
n consistency, continuity, and cohesiveness.
The development of the grid has been
an evolutionary process. No one artist or
r designer can be identified as its sole creator
or inventor; however, many creative minds
have contributed to its development and will
continue to influence its further refinement 276
over time.
277

e-

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 abstraction axonometric color de Stijl golden ratio joi
join
the language of graphic design

the visual simplification, a drawing projection method a visual property of an object that a Dutch art movement (also also known as the divine the
distortion, or rearrangement where a form is viewed from a depends on a combination of known as neoplasticism) founded proportion, golden section, and stro
of a recognizable image skewed direction to reveal more reflected and absorbed light from in 1917 and characterized by pure golden rectangle; proportional aK
than one of its sides in the same the spectrum, as well as inherent abstraction, as well as essential relationship defined as the whole
analogous colors picture plane hues found in light and pigment reduction of form and color compared to a larger part in leg
colors created from adjacent exactly the same way that the p
a pr
colors on a color wheel, with balance column ear larger part is compared to a stro
minimal chroma differences a state of equilibrium in which vertical alignments of type that a small projecting stroke smaller one; its mathematical an R
visual forces of equal strength pull create horizontal divisions on a sometimes attached to the bowl expression is the number 1.618
apex in opposite directions page grid of a g or the stem of an r lig
liga
the outer point where two grid a st
diagonal stems or strokes meet, as baseline complementary colors expression a module system composed of two
at the top of an A or M or at the a line on which the bottom of any two colors found directly a principle of visual perception a set of horizontal and vertical liga
bottom of an M characters without descenders opposite one another on a color concerning the emotional, cultural, lines used as a guide to align type
sit or align wheel and social content of a visual and image and create a uniform lig
ligh
arm message composition ele
elec
a projecting horizontal or upward bowl Constructivism wav
diagonal stem or stroke not a curved stem or stroke that an art movement, originating in figure–ground gutter (or alley) eye
enclosed within a character, as in encloses a counter, as in a b, Russia in 1919, that rejected the the relationship of foreground and vertical spaces located between dep
an E, K, or L p, or O idea of “art for art’s sake” in favor background in a two-dimensional columns of type on a page grid
of art as a practice directed toward composition lin
line
art nouveau bracket social purposes and needs hierarchy a fu
French for “new art”; also known a curving joint between the serif figure–ground reversal an arranged, established visual con
as Jugendstil, German for “youth and a stem or stroke; also known contrast a visual effect where a figure can order of importance, emphasis, loc
loca
style”; an international movement as a fillet a visual principle in which function as a ground and a ground and movement given to elements one
and style of art, architecture, and differences in light, value, texture, as a figure in a composition
applied art that was popular from cap height and color create the illusion lin
link
1890 to 1905 and characterized by the distance from a baseline to the of depth flow line hue the
organic, floral, and plant-inspired top of a capital character. horizontal alignments that a fundamental property of color the
motifs counter organize content into defined defined in its purest form
chiaroscuro an area enclosed by a bowl or areas on a page grid loo
Arts and Crafts movement a technical term for achieving a crossbar International the
an international movement strong contrasts of light to create form Typographic Style ent
that originated in Great a sense of volume in modeling crossbar three-dimensional derivatives of a graphic design style developed
Britain during the late 1800s three-dimensional objects a horizontal element connecting basic shapes, such as a sphere, in Switzerland in the 1950s and ma
through the writings of William two vertical or diagonal stems cube, or pyramid characterized by clean, readable, bor
Morris (1834–1896) and John chroma or strokes, or crossing a stem or asymmetric layouts and use of the sur
surr
Ruskin (1819–1900) and was the amount of colorant in stroke, as in an A, H, f, or t; also gestalt page grid and san serif typefaces; and
characterized by simple form and a pigment known as a bar or cross stroke. the perception of the whole image also known as the Swiss School are
area
a medieval style of decoration as opposed to its individual parts ima
cicero cubism or elements isometric
ascender a European typographic unit of a twentieth-century avant-garde a drawing projection method ma
the part of a lowercase letter that measurement approximately equal art movement, pioneered by Pablo glyph where three visible surfaces of gra
rises above the body of the letter, to the British or American pica, Picasso and Georges Braque, a simplistic form or element of a form have equal emphasis, all pag
or x-height, as in a b, d, f, h, l, and t or 4.155 mm characterized by objects that are writing axes are simultaneously rotated hea
broken up and reassembled in away from the picture plane at num
asymmetry closure abstract forms 30 degrees, all lines are equally tha
a state of visual balance (also a principle of visual perception foreshortened, and angles p
a pa
known as informal or dynamic in which the human eye visually descender between lines are always at 120
balance) in which compositional completes an unfinished shape or the part of a lowercase letter that degrees mo
elements are not identical but are form through the memory of that falls below the body of the letter ind
indi
perceived as visually balanced shape or form or baseline, as in g, j, p, q, and y p
a pa
inte
acr
acro

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 glossary
vertex
joint monochromatic colors rhythm spatial zone tail the angle formed at the bottom
the angle formed where two colors with varying values of a an alternating repetition of groups of modules that form the short stem or stroke that rests of a character where the left and
strokes meet or intersect, as is single color, created by adding shape and space or a planned distinct fields on a page grid for on a baseline, as in a K or R; or right strokes meet or intersect, as
a K or R. white or black to a color movement of visual elements in a containing or displaying similar or extending below a baseline, as in in a V or x
le composition alike information, such as groups a Q or j. In K and R, also known
leg movement of images or multiple columns as a leg x-height
a projecting diagonal stem or a principle of visual perception saturation of text the height of the body of
stroke extending downward, as in that moves the viewer’s eye a fundamental property of color tension lowercase letters, exclusive of
an R and a K; also known as a tail through a two-dimensional space defined by intensity, or the spine a principle of visual perception ascenders and descenders
brightness or dullness of a color the diagonal portion or main in which the forces of balance
ligature pattern curved stroke of an S or s or imbalance, stress, action,
a stem or stroke that connects the combination of lines, shapes, scale and reaction exist between the
two characters together creating a and/or colors in a consistent, the relationship of size or a spur elements of any composition
ligature or tied character orderly, or repetitive motif composition of size from one a small, pointed projection from
pe element to another a stem or stroke, sometimes found terminal (or finial)
m light pica on the bottom of a b, t, or G A stem or stroke ending other
electromagnetic radiation of a typographic unit of secondary colors than a serif
wavelengths visible to the human measurement where 12 points colors created by combining two stem (or stroke)
eye and used to create contrast, equal 1 pica (1/16 inch or 0.166 of the three primary colors the principal vertical or oblique tertiary colors
n depth, brightness, and illumination inch) and 6 picas equal 1 inch element(s) of a character, as in colors created by combining one
(0.996 inch) semiotics an A, B, L, or V; except for curved primary color with one secondary
line the study of sign processes or the characters where they are called color
a fundamental element that Plakatstil significance and communication of strokes
consists of a number of points an early poster style of art that signs and symbols texture
located next to one another in began in the early 1900s and stress (or axis) a design element that creates
nts one direction originated in Germany serif the inclination suggested by the or implies the tactile quality and
the beginning or end of a stem or relationship of thin and thick characteristics of a surface
link point stroke, arm, leg, or tail drawn at a stems or strokes in a character,
the stem or stroke that connects an abstract phenomenon right angle or at an oblique to the which can be an inclined or vertical tint
r the bowl and the loop of a g indicating a precise location; stem or stroke stress or axis a fundamental property of color
also defined as the smallest defined by the amount of white
loop typographical unit of measure; one shade Suprematism in a color
the descender of a g when it is point is equal to 0.0148 inches a fundamental property of color a Russian abstract art movement
entirely closed defined by the amount of black that focused on fundamental tone
d primary colors in a color geometric forms such as the circle a visual characteristic, also known
margin yellow, red, and blue are pure in and the square as value or shade, based on the
e, border or negative space color composition and cannot be shape degree of light or dark apparent
the surrounding a page’s format, grid, created from other colors the external outline or contour of swash on the surface of an object
es; and content, and defining the live an object, figure, or mass a flourished terminal, stem, or
area of the page where type and proportion stroke added to a character triadic colors
image are located and composed a comparison of two ratios; shoulder colors created from other colors 278
includes an indication of how the the portion of a curved stroke, but symmetry that are equidistant from one
marker two ratios are related not the hairline, connecting two a state of visual balance (also another on a color wheel
graphic indicators for supporting vertical strokes or stems known as formal balance or
page information, such as running quadratic colors reflective symmetry) in which typography
279

d headers or footers, folios or page created from colors located in the space compositional elements are the arrangement and aesthetics of
numbers, or any other element corners of a square or rectangle an element of design that identical, equally balanced, and letters and letterforms
that occupies only one location on juxtaposed on a color wheel indicates area and depth on a can be divided into two equal
a page or spread two-dimensional plane parts that are mirror images value
radial balance of each other a fundamental property of color
module a state of visual balance (also defined by the lightness and
individual units of space within known as rotative symmetry) darkness of a color
a page grid separated by regular in which visual forces of equal
intervals that, when repeated strength radiate or extend out
across, create columns and rows from a central point

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 Books

Adams, Morioka and Stone, Terry. Color Design Workbook: Evans, Poppy, and Thomas, Mark A. Exploring the Elements of Kr
the language of graphic design

A Real-World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design. Beverly: Design. New York: Thomas Delmar, 2008.
Rockport Publishers, 2006. Ku
Gerstner, Karl. The Forms of Color: The Interaction of Visual De
D
Albers, Josef. Interaction of Color. New Haven: Yale University Elements. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986.
Press, 1963. Le
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von. Theory of Colours. Cambridge: Ar
A
Arnheim, Rudolf. Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the MIT Press, 1970.
Creative Eye. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Lu
Heller, Steven, and Fili, Louise. Stylepedia. San Francisco: W
Arntson, Amy E. Graphic Design Basics. New York: Rinehart Chronicle Books, 2006. Pr
and Winston, 1988.
Hemenway, Priya. Divine Proportion. New York: Sterling Lu
Blackwell, Lewis. 20th Century Type. New Haven: Yale University Publishing Co. 2005. Th
Press, 2004. Pr
Hofmann, Armin. Graphic Design Manual: Principles and Practice.
Bringhurst, Robert. The Elements of Typographic Style. Vancouver: Switzerland: Niggli Verlag, Sulgen, 1965. Lu
Hartley and Marks, 2005. Ba
Igarashi, Takenobu. Igarashi Alphabets. Zurich: ABC Verlag
Cohen, Arthur A. Herbert Bayer: The Complete Work. Cambridge: Zurich, 1987. M
MIT Press, 1984. Re
Igarashi, Takenobu. Igarashi Sculptures. Tokyo: Robundo
Dondis, Donis A. Primer of Visual Literacy. Cambridge: Publishing, 1992. M
MIT Press, 1973. Pr
Itten, Johannes. The Art of Color. New York: Van Nostrand
Drew, Ned, and Sternberger, Paul. By Its Cover: Modern American Reinhold, 1970. M
Book Cover Design. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005. &
Jute, Andre. Grids: The Structure of Graphic Design. Mies,
Eason, Ron, and Rookledge, Sarah. Rookledge’s International Switzerland: RotoVision, 1996. M
Directory of Type Designers. New York: The Sarabande Press, 1994.
Kandinsky, Wassily. Point and Line to Plane. New York: Dover M
Elam, Kimberly. Geometry of Design: Studies in Proportion and Publications, 1979. Originally published in 1926. So
Composition. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001.
Kepes, Gyorgy. Language of Vision. Chicago: Paul Theobold, 1944. M
Elam, Kimberly. Grid Systems: Principles of Organizing Type. Pu
New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005. Kirkham, Pat, ed. Women Designers in the USA: 1900–2000.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. M
Elam, Kimberly. Typographic Systems. New York: Princeton Pr
Architectural Press, 2007. Klanten, Robert. Data Flow: Visualising Information in Graphic Design.
Berlin: Gestalten, 2008. M
Eskilson, Stephen J. Graphic Design: A New History. New Haven: Ni
N
Yale University Press, 2007.

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 bibliography
Krause, Jim. Color Index. Cincinnati: How Design Books, 2002.

Kurlansky, Mervyn. Masters of the 20th Century: The ICOGRADA

Design Hall of Fame. New York: Graphis, 2001.

Leborg, Christian. Visual Grammar. New York: Princeton

Architectural Press, 2004.

Lupton, Ellen. Thinking with Type: A Critical Guide for Designers,

Writers, Editors, and Students. New York: Princeton Architectural
Press, 2004.

Lupton, Ellen, and Miller, J. Abbott. The ABC’s of The Bauhaus:

The Bauhaus and Design Theory. New York: Princeton Architectural
Press, 2000.

Lupton, Ellen, and Phillips, Jennifer C. Graphic Design: The New

Basics. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008.

Maier, Manfred. Basic Principles of Design. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold, 1978.

McLean, Ruari. Jan Tschichold: A Life in Typography. New York:

Princeton Architectural Press, 1997.

Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. New York: John Wiley

& Sons, 2005.

Moholy-Nagy, László. Vision in Motion. Chicago: Paul Theobold, 1947.

Mount, Christopher. Stenberg Brothers: Constructing a Revolution in 280

Soviet Design. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1997.

Mouron, Henri. A. M. Cassandre. New York: Rizzoli International

281

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Problems. Teufen AR, Switzerland: Verlag Arthur Niggli, 1968.
n.
Müller-Brockmann, Josef. Grid Systems in Graphic Design.
Niederteufen: Verlag Arthur Niggli, 1981.

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 Books (continued ) Periodicals

Rand, Paul. Paul Rand: A Designer’s Art. New Haven: Yale University Doubleday, Richard B. “Jan Tschichold at Penguin Books—A Resur-
the language of graphic design

Press, 1985. gence of Classical Book Design,” Baseline, No. 49, 2006, pg. 13–20.

Remington, R. Roger. Lester Beall: Trailblazer of American Graphic Friedman, Milton, ed. “LA 84: Games of the XXIII Olympiad,”
Design. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996. Design Quarterly 127, 1985

Remington, R. Roger, and Hodik, Barbara J. Nine Pioneers in Heller, Steven. “Paul Rand Laboratory: The Art of Bookjackets and
American Graphic Design. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1989. Covers,” Baseline, No. 27, 1999, pg. 17–24.

Resnick, Elizabeth. Design for Communication: Conceptual Graphic Heller, Steven. “When Paperbacks Went Highbrow—Modern Cover
Design Basics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Design in the 50s and 60s,” Baseline, No. 43, 2003, pg. 5–12.

Ruder, Emil. Typography. New York: Hastings House, 1971. Nunoo-Quarcoo, Franc. “Bruno Monguzzi—Master Communicator,”
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Samara, Timothy. Design Evolution: Theory into Practice.
A Handbook of Basic Design Principles Applied in Contemporary
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Samara, Timothy. Making and Breaking the Grid: A Graphic Design

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Samara, Timothy. Typography Workbook. Beverly: Rockport

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Spencer, Herbert. Pioneers of Modern Typography. Cambridge:

MIT Press, 1983.

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Von Moos, Stanislaus, Mara Campana, and Giampiero Bosoni.

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Wong, Wucius. Principles of Two-Dimensional Design. New York,

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 index
Page numbers in italic indicate figures.

A Animal Farm (Orwell), 240 and formal symmetry, 127

A magazine, 119 Anouilh, Jean, 39 and location of elements, 125
abstraction APA Technologies, 208 as organizational and compositional
definition, 177–178 Archer Farms, 94 principle, 129
historical references, 178, 181 Architecture Boston magazine, 243 types of, 122, 125
levels of, 181–182, 185 Arctic Club Hotel, 122 Baltimore’s Theatre Project, 125
Academy for Graphic Arts and Book Arp, Hans, 103 Bam, 181
Production in Leipzig, 141 Art Center College of Design, 74, 222 Bantjes, Marian, 170
Academy of Art University, 54 Art Directors Club of Metropolitan Barboe, Cassandra, 54
Accept & Proceed, 61 Washington, 86 Barragan, Luis, 111
Acquire New York, 164 Art Institute of Chicago, 113 Basel School of Design (Allgemeine
Ada, or Ardor (Nabokov), 170 Art Students League, 83, 219 Gewerbeschule), 161, 199, 209
AdamsMorioka Inc., 68, 194, 198, 253 artists’ films and videos, poster for, 143 Bass, Saul, 219
additive color, 75, 78 Arts in HealthCare program, 42 Bauhaus, 23, 59, 133, 141, 189, 199, 209
Aguinaldo, Neil, 25 ASICS Tiger, 9 bauhaus zeitschrift (Bauhaus magazine), 59
Ahmad, Sehyr, 210 As You Like It (Shakespeare), 85 Bayer, Herbert, 59, 140, 169
Aicher, Otl, 209 “Ashamed to be Asian?”, 205 Beall, Lester, 113
Al Groobi, Sarah, 241 Aspen Institute, 154 Beckley, Bill, 109
Albers, Josef, 59, 70, 209 Aspenware, 94 Behrens, Peter, 23
Alfalfa Studio LLC, 47, 182, 228 Assuring the Jefferson Legacy: The Site Berbic, Amir, 210, 241
Alfred A. Knopf Publishers, 184 and Facilities Plan for Monticello, 231 Berg, Alan, 31
Allegemein Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG), Asymmetric Typography (Typographische Bergen Street Studio, 163
23 Gestaltung), 141 Berlage, H. P., 151
Allgemeine Gewerbeschule Basel School of asymmetry The Berlin Stories (Isherwood), 106
Art and Crafts (Schule fur Gestaltung characteristics, 142, 144–146 Bernhard, Lucien, 247
or AGS), 161, 199, 209 definition, 139–140 The Best Creative Nonfiction, Volume 1
Allianz, 209 references in nature, 140, 142 (Gutkind, ed.), 79
All My Sons (Miller), 89 Atelier Pastille Rose, 54–55, 92 Bierut, Michael, 170
Aluminum Alphabet Series, 51 atlas, use of balance in, 129 Bill, Max, 203, 209
American Institute of Architects San Diego, Austellung Helmhaus, 161 Biruta, 150
176 Austopchuk, Christopher, 205 Black, Roger, 257 284
American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA), Australian Graphic Design Association, 147, Blok Design, 92, 94, 108, 188, 246
46, 202, 228, 237, 257 263 BLT Architects, 165
American University of Sharjah, 210, 241 Aventine, 85 Boggeri, Antonio, 169
285

American University jazz ensemble, 193 Awake and Sing! (Odets), 238 Boney’s Bayside Market, 132
“Amore y Arte” (“Love and Art”), 172 Booher, Jason, 170
Amphibian Stage Productions, 182 B Boy and Girl on a Fence, Rural Electrification
Ana Pro typeface, 256 Bacon, Paul, 83 Administration Series Two, 113
And Partners, 132 balance, 121 Boychuk, Tracy, 24, 252
Anderson, Gail, 168 asymmetrical, 142, 144–146 BPI, 150
Angelou, Maya, 13, 101 definition, 120–121 Brainard, Kevin, 180, 200
Angels in America (Kushner), 35 degrees of, 125–126, 128 Brawer & Hauptman Architects, 265

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 Bregenz, Austria, contemporary art museum, Cincinnati Civic Center, 78 Writes to the Colonel and Other Stories) Eg
the language of graphic design

201 Civil Elegies (Lee), 238 (Marquez), 19 em

Breuer, Marcel, 59 Clark, John, 73 The Courage to Create (May), 137 Em
Bringhurst, Robert, 255 Cleveland International Film Festival, 44 Cranbrook Academy of Art, 195 Em
Brno Echo: Ornament and Crime from closure Creation of Adam (Michaelangelo), 160 Eu
Adolf Loos to Now, 32–33 characteristics, 160, 162 cropping, 222–223 Ev
Brody, Neville, 18 compositional forms, 162–163 Ev
Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 228, 251 definition, 158–159 D Ex
Brooklyn College, 219 forms of perception, 163–164 Dance magazine, 107, 116 Ex
Brown, Juana Francisca’s Kitchen, 251 historical references, 160 Darden Studio, 43 ex
Brownjohn, Robert, 237 CNN Grill, 50 Darfur, 223
Bruno Monguzzi Studio, 169 Collins, 50, 52, 195 Darien Library, 102
Bucheron (Woodcutter), 93 color Darmstadt Artists’ Colony, 23
Burton, Mikey, 127, 240 additive, 74, 78 Davies, Robertson, 239 Th
Burton, Tim, 204 and balance, 125 The Day of the Locust (West), 88
categories, 73 Daycorp Property Development, 112 F
C characteristics, 67–68, 70 de Stijl movement, 151, 173, 199 Fa
Calder, Alexander, 102, 172 classification systems, 70 Deberny & Peignot, 229 Fa
California Academy of Sciences, 98–99 definition, 66 Design UK, 32 Th
Camera Work magazine, 50 and light, 75, 78 Designing the News, 71 Fa
Carbone Smolan Agency, 79, 82, 172, 205, properties, 70–71 Despair (Nabokov), 170 A
248 relationships, 74 deWilde, Barbara, 170 Fe
Casa da Musica, 55 subtractive, 78 Dickens, Charles, 197 Fe
Casa Lever, 202 temperature, 75, 78–79 Diller Scofidio + Renfro, 104 Fe
Casa Rex, 58, 150, 258 wheels, 75, 76–77, 183 direction, balance and, 125 fig
Casey, Jacqueline, 123 Colour Cosmetica, 198 Divina Proportione (Pacioli), 230
Cass Art Stores, 70 The Comedy of Errors (Shakespeare), 85 Divine Hierarchies (McCloud), 136
Cassandre, A. M. (Adolphe Jean-Marie Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare Divine Proportion: Phi in Art, Nature, and
Mouron), 93 (Russell), 237 Science (Hemenway), 231
Castellano, Jonathan Sikov, 102 Condak, Henrietta, 54, 62 The Dogs of Lincoln Park (Welsh), 180
Cathedral Church of Saint John the Divine, Coney Island of the Mind (Ferlinghetti), 68 “Double Edge,” 265
128 constructivism, 41, 151 Doyle, Stephen, 170 Fi
C+G Partners LLC, 30, 102, 140, 160, 178, contrast Dubai Waterfront Canal District, 128 “Fi
218 characteristics and functions, 201–202 Dürer, Albrecht, 230 Fi
Chan, Tammi, 205 comparative relationships, 200–201 Dwiggins, William Addison, 131, 168 Fi
Chanterelle, 225 definition, 196–197 Fi
Charles Ross: Light Placed, 123 types of, 202, 205 E Fl
Charles Shaw wines, 87 Cooper-Hewitt National Design Week, 52 Eames, Charles, 69, 232 Fo
Chemi Montes Design, 184, 193 Cooper Union, 83 Eames, Ray, 69, 249 Fo
Chermayeff, Ivan, 46, 83, 237 Coral Technologies, 164 École des Arts Décoratifs (Geneva), 93, 169 fo
Chesterton, G. K., 217 Corboy, Aleta, 250 Edel Rodriguez Studio, 85
chiaroscuro, 202 El Coronet no tiene quien le Escriba (No One Edenspiekermann, 249

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 Eggers, Dave, 170 spatial depth, 54 the Front Lines of Modern Manhood
emerystudio, 35 tone and shading, 54 (Houghton, et al., eds.), 145

Index
Emil Ruder: Typography, 199 types of, 52 “Good Work,” 175
Emma (Austen), 252 visual relationship between typographi- Goodbye, Columbus and 5 Short Stories
Euclid, 22, 230 cal and architectural form, 54, (Roth), 83
Everything Italian, 87 62–63 Goodman, Timothy, 135
Evolutiva, 92 vs. shape, 47 Gottschalk, Fritz, 205
Exile and the Kingdom (Camus), 215 Fort Worth Opera Festival, 213 Gould, Annabelle, 25, 34, 102, 250
Experimenta typographica, 189 Fortner, Wolfgang, 31 Gralnick, Laura, 107, 116, 155, 160
expression Fox River Paper, 87 Gran Premio dell’Autodromo di Monza
definition, 166–167 frame (Monza Grand Prix), 103
historic references, 168, 172 characteristics and functions, 218, 220 Grant, Roderick, 210, 241
visual, 172, 175 definition, 216–217 Graphic Design in China, 162, 266
The Eye (Nabokov), 170 forms and functions, 220, 222–223, 225 Graphic typefaces, 262
Fraser Muggeridge Studio, 99, 143 Green World (Cunningham), 119
F Frizz, 96 grid
Fahim, Erini, 210 Froelich, Janet, 173 anatomy of, 276
Fahrenheit 451 (Bradbury), 240 Frutiger, Adrian, 229 applications, 276–277
The Fall (Camus), 215 Fulford, Jason, 170 definition, 268–269
Farevaag, Bryan, 96, 129 Fuller, Richard Buckminster, 1419 evolution of, 272–273
A Farewell to Arms (Hemingway), 135 Funky Lofts, 45 functions, 273–275
Feaver, William, 245 Fuszion, 86 historical references, 270, 272
Felton, Nicholas, 98 Future Flight, 147 statistics, organization and structuring
Felton Communication, 203, 211 of, 277
figure-ground G Grid Systems in Graphic Design
characteristics, 213–214 Gall, John, 24, 88, 153, 170, 215 (Müller-Brockmann), 273
definition, 206–207, 210 Geiger, Lorenzo, 115, 217 Grootens, Joost, 97, 129, 142
elements, 210–211 Geismar, Thomas, 83, 237 Gropius, Walter, 23
and letterform compositions, 210, 211, Gertsner, Karl, 123 Grosz, George, 83
213 “Get It On,” 211 The Guardsman (Molnar), 238
types of, 211–213 Gibney Dance Spring Benefit, 9 Guggenheim Museum, 18, 153, 257 286
Fili, Louise, 257 Girard, Alexander (Sandro), 69, 249 “A Guide to Yale College,” 275
“Film Project,” 108 Girard Management, 214 Gutenberg Prize, 229
Finian’s Rainbow, 60 Glengarry Glen Ross (Mamet), 238 Guthrie Theater, 126
287

First Amendment tablet (Newseum), 143 The Goat or Who Is Sylvia? (Albee), 261
Fisher, Jack Henrie, 195 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 15, 70 H
Flaubert, Gustave, 49 Goldberg, Carin, 170 Harak, Rudolph de, 237
For Whom the Bell Tolls (Hemingway), 135 golden ratio, 231–232 Harvard University, 237
Form, 32, 50, 106, 270 golden rectangle, 232 Heath Ceramics, 221
9 form golden section rectangle, construction of, Hedda Gabler (Ibsen), 175
definition, 48–49 233 Helmo, 190, 230, 236
projections, 52, 54 The Good Men Project: Real Stories from Hemenway, Priya, 231

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 Henrion, F. H. K., 123 International Typographic Style, 31, 161, 199, L
the language of graphic design

Herald newspaper, 271 209, 273 La Radio dans le Noir, 165

Hermann Scherrer style, 247 Introduction to Linguistics (Koch), 258 Lab31, 65 Li
Hinterland, 114, 140 Introduction to Philosophy (Heidegger), 58 Laga Company, 151 Li
Hippocampe (Brullemans), 175 Invitation to a Beheading (Nabokov), 170 L’Amore per i Libri (De Bury), 242–243 Li
Hoefler, Jonathan, 257 Itten, Johannes, 209 Landor, 63, 95, 126, 147, 222, 263, 273 Li
Hoefler & Co., 18, 257 The Language of Things (Sudjic), 117 Li
Hoefler text typeface, 257 J LargaVista Companies, 114 lo
Hoffmann, Julia, 35, 204 J. Christopher Capital, 140 Latina magazine, 75 Lo
Hofmann, Armin, 123, 161, 199 Japanese Cinema Festival ‘09, 222 Laughter in the Dark (Nabokov), 170 Lo
Hohlwein, Ludwig, 247 Jeanneret-Gris, Charles-Édouard Le Bras canadien et autre vanités (Lehoux), Lo
Horace, 235 (Le Corbusier), 23, 103, 274-275 89 Lo
The House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Jewish Museum, 248 Le Cabaret de Carmen, 125 Lu
Lost African Childhood (Cooper), 36–37 JFK International Air Terminal, 14 Le Corbusier (Jeanneret-Gris, Charles- Lu
Huasen Architecture Company, 27 Jin, Sang Lee, 24 Édouard), 23, 103, 274-275 Lu
Huber, Max, 103, 209 Joehnk, Amber, 34 Lee, Ji, 33, 85, 211 Ly
Hurricane Katrina, 275 Jog Limited, 192-193 Leo Ingwer Jewelers, 132
The Husband’s Prayer (Schlemmer), 169 John P. McNulty Prize, 154 Leonardo da Vinci, 60 M
Hutchins Center for African & African Johnston, Simon, 74, 222 Les Adventures de Lagardère, 194 M
American Research, 246 Jugendstil (New Art), 23 Les Noces, 169 M
letterforms, anatomy of, 259 M
I K Leuppi, Leo, 103, 209 M
If You Liked School, You’ll Love Work Kandinsky, Wassily, 29, 41, 59, 69, 209 lg2boutique, 144, 200 M
(Welsh), 180 Kanuhura, 86 light M
Igarashi, Takenobu, 51 Kaye, Michael Ian, 58, 87, 225 definition, 56–57 M
Iizuka, Ryota, 74, 222 Kepes, Gyorgy, 219 historical references, 58, 60 M
´
Il conte, 253 Kidd, Chip, 170 properties and characteristics, 60, Th
Ilic, Mirko, 137 Kim, Hauen, 16 62–64 M
Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), 237 King, Queen, Knave (Nabokov), 170 representation of data about light and M
illustration vs. photography, 242 Kingdom of Fife (Welsh), 180 dark, 60–61 M
image Klee, Paul, 59, 103, 141, 179, 209 light festival in Porec, Croatia, 65 Th
characteristics, 236, 239 Kobayashi, Mikihiro, 35 Lim, Andrew, 87, 225 M
classifications, 239 Konstruktivisten, 141 line M
definition, 234–235 Kuhlman, Roy, 237 characteristics, 29–30 M
functions, 241–242 Kunstgewerbemuseum, 209 definition, 28 M
graphic forms, 239–241 Kunstgewerbeschule, Zurich (School of in environment, 34
new relationships of photographic form, Applied Arts), 103, 161, 209, 229 functions of, 32, 36 Th
development of, 241 Kusama, Yayoi, 24 graphic forms, 34–25 M
The Importance of Being Earnest (Wilde), 89 Kusui, Takashi, 33, 85, 200, 211 historical references, 30, 32 M
Impulse, 46 Kyorin, 178 quality, 36 M
Infinite Scale Design, 45 tone and message, 32, 34 M
M

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 linear/one-point perspective, 53, Media Trust, 106, 270 function, 102
117–118 Meet Girls, 183 rhythm, 105, 107–108

Index
Lionni, Leo, 83 Melbourne, City of, 126–127, 273 Mrs. Meyer’s Clean Day, 260
Lip, 251 Mende Design, 50, 163, 178, 225 Mucca Design, 43, 202, 221, 225, 243
Liquid Capital, 192–193 Mendelsund, Peter, 170 Much Ado About Nothing (Shakespeare), 85
Lissitzky, El (Eliezer, Elizar, or Lazar), 41, 141 Mercer Creative Group, 117, 232, 262 Müller-Brockmann, Josef, 31, 123, 169, 269,
Living Openly and Notoriously (Hess), 125 Meschonnic, Henri, 185 273, 274
location of elements, 125 Metropolis magazine, 52 Museo Cantonale d’Arte, 169
Lohse, Richard Paul, 102, 209 Meyer, Adolf, 23 Museum of Arts and Design (MAD), 40
Lord of the Flies (Golding), 240 Mezhibovskaya, Katya, 64, 109 Museum of Modern Art, 51, 93, 113, 204, 257
Los Angeles magazine, 135 Michaelangelo, 160 Museum of the African Diaspora (MoAD),
Louise Fili Ltd., 33, 42, 134, 137, 253, 257 Microsoft Corporation, 73 25
Lubalin, Herb, 262 Microsoft Store, 195
Lustig, Alvin, 83, 179, 237, 249 Middlebury College, 74–75 N
Lux, 190, 230 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 23 National Theatre School of Canada, 88–89,
Lynch, Jason, 183 Mijovi, 175 220
Miller & Green, 63 Neruda, Pablo, 64
M Miriello Grafico, 72, 87, 132, 236 Die Neue Typographie
Mac Industries, 45 Miró, Joan, 179 (The New Typography) (Tschichold),
Macbeth (Shakespeare), 182 Miss Arizona (Welsh), 180 133, 141, 151, 199, 272
Magritte, René, 207 Miss Lonelyhearts (West), 88 New Art (Jugendstil), 23
Maison Theatre, 144 Modern typefaces, 262 New Directions Books, 179
Mak, Jeanelle, 208 Mohamed, Omar, 210 The New Group Theater, 146
Maldonado, Tomas, 209 Mohawk Papers, 68 New Museum of Contemporary Art, 267
Malevich, Kasimir, 41 Moholy-Nagy, Lazlo, 59, 103 The New Typography (Die Neue Typographie)
Man on Wire, 128 Monnet Design, 26, 145, 262 (Tschichold), 133, 141, 151, 199, 272
The Man with the Golden Arm, 219 Montreal theater companies posters, New Words Festival, 89
Mann, Thomas, 136 152–153 New York City, 43, 72
Man’s Search for Himself (May), 137 Monza Grand Prix (Gran Premio New York Times Book Review, 37
Mao (Short), 221 dell’Autodromo di Monza), 103 New York Times Style Magazine, 173
The Map Office, 212, 265 Morrisey, William, 183 News Corporation, 95 288
Marceau, Marcel, 200 Mother Design, 106, 117, 137, 190 Newseum, 143
Markatos Moore, 47, 85 Mountain Woods, 212 Newton, Sir Isaac, 70, 75
Marquette, Jamus, 180 Mourning Becomes Electra (O’Neill), 146 ‘Night, Mother (Norman), 84
289

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mouron, Adolphe Jean-Marie Nightwood (Barnes), 179

(MIT), 123 (A. M. Cassandre), 93 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics, 69
The Matchbox Studio, 213 movement Nizuc, 248
Matisse, Henri, 121 definition, 100–101 Nobel, Akzo, 119
Max Protetch Gallery, 160 effects of, 108 No One Writes to the Colonel and Other
Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 41 elements and techniques, 104–105 Stories (El Coronel no tiene quien le Escriba)
McCoy, Katherine, 11 in environment and everyday objects, (Marquez), 19
McGill School of Architecture, 54–55, 92 102 Normandie, 93

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 Novarese, Aldo, 16 Piscatello Design Center, 46 Random House, 170–171
the language of graphic design

The Plague (Camus), 215 The Real Life of Sebastian Knight (Nabokov),
O Plakastil mode, 247 171
O’Brien, Morgan, 18 planar/two-point perspective, 53, 118 The Real Show, 86
Ödün (Mexico City), 188, 246 PMP Limited Melbourne, 35 The Rebel (Camus), 215
The Office of Paul Sahre, 114, 134-135, 261 Pnin (Nabokov), 170 reflective symmetry, 154–155 Sc
The Old Man and The Sea (Hemingway), 134 point Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (Camus), Sc
Old Police Headquarters building, 47, 146 characteristics, 24 215 Sc
Old Style typefaces, 261 definition, 20–22 rhythm, effects of, 108 Sc
Olin, 22 in environment and everyday objects, Rhythm Textures, 124
One Degree program, 95 25 Rime (Buonarroti), 242–243
160over90, 82 and offset printing, 25 Ring Around the Moon (Anouilh), 84 Sc
“The 1%”, 224–225 “Pop Justice,” 50 Ripped: How the Wired Generation Sc
One Week of the Guardian, 71 Posavec, Stefanie, 124 Revolutionized Music (Kot), 114
On the Pulse of Morning (Angelou), 13 Potts, Sam, 170 Rockwell, Jarvis, 62
Open Source, 184 Poulin, Richard, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 35, 107, 116, Rodchenko, Alexandr, 41
O’Shaughnessy Asset Management, 160 11, 160 Rodrigo Corral Design, 68, 75, 79, 88 Sc
The Outsiders (Hinton), 127 Poulin + Morris Inc., 9, 13, 17, 42, 73, 128, 143, Rodriquez, Daniel, 19
Overture, 140 145, 150, 154, 157, 163, 164, 165, 175, 214, Rogers Eckersley Design, 35, 62, 136, 146
228, 231, 251 rotative symmetry, 137 Sc
P Pratt Institute, 83 Rothko, Mark, 179 Sc
Pale Fire (Nabokov), 170 The Prisoner of Guantánamo (Fesperman), Roundabout Theatre Company, 126 Se
Paone Design Associates Ltd., 265 153 Ruder, Emil, 161, 199, 272 Se
Paris Diderot Université, 22 Prix Émile Hermès, 34 The Ruined Map (Abe), 88 Se
Parsons School of Design, 83 projections, 52–54, 53 Ruskin, John, 167 se
pattern Promenades, 236 Russian Constructivism, 41 Se
basic structures and forms, 249, 251, 253 proportion Se
definition, 244–245 basic relationships, 231 S Sh
historical influences, 248–249 definition, 226–227 Sachplakat mode, 247 sh
relationship to color and composition, golden ratio, 231–232 Sacks, Oliver, 12
250 golden rectangle, 232 Saegusa, Takako, 58
“Peace One Day,” 208 golden section rectangle, construction Safe Horizon, 35
Penguin Books, 239 of, 233 Sagmeister & Walsh, 30, 55, 168, 201
Pentagram, 22, 31, 40, 70, 86, 96, 104, 119, historical references, 228, 230-231 Sahre, Paul, 114, 155, 261
128, 274 “Prospect New Orleans,” 221 Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de, 177 Th
Perricone MD, 145, 262 Public Inc., 156, 224 Sandberg, Willem, 189
perspective, 53, 98, 116–118 Pump House Gallery, 99 Sandwich Creative, 238 Th
Pfau Long Architecture, 156 Pure + Applied, 221 Sans Serif typefaces, 262 Sh
Philographica, 74 scale Sh
photography vs. illustration, 242 R atlas, use of in, 97 Si
Picasso, Pablo, 21, 47, 93 Rancier, Isabelle, 252 and context, 95–96 Sl
Pinabel, Laurent, 88, 153, 175, 194, 220 Rand, Paul, 31, 83, 161, 237 definition, 90–92 Sl

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 and optical effects, 96–98 Smithsonian Institution, 52, 257 Studio Joost Grootens, 97, 129, 142
), representation of data about personal Soapbox Design Communications, 239 Studio Museum in Harlem, 212

Index
activity, 98 Society of Young Artists, 41 Studio Sonda, 65, 172, 232
types of, 92, 94 The Sold Appetite, 41 subtractive color, 78
use of, 94–95 Sondheim on Sondheim, 118 The Sun Also Rises (Hemingway), 135
Schlemmer, Oskar, 169, 209 Soto, 222–223 Sun UV, 208
Schmidt, Joost, 59 Soulpepper Theatre, 84–85, 238 Support and Resist (Rappaport), 156
Scholastic, 47 space Suprematist painting, 41
School of Applied Arts characteristics and techniques, 114–116 Surace, John, 136
(Kunstgewerbeschule), Zurich, 103, 161, definition, 110–112 Sussman, Deborah, 69
209, 229 describing, 112 Sussman/ Prejza & Company, 25, 69, 78
School of Arts and Crafts (Amsterdam), 151 perspective, 116–118 Swiss International Typographic Style, 31
School of Visual Arts, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 24, 32, representation of data about people in Swiss modernism, 103, 209
35, 54, 58, 62, 73, 85, 87, 96, 107, 116, cities, 115 symmetry
129, 136, 137, 155, 157, 160, 168, 180, 183, types of, 114 and balance, 127
200, 205, 211, 225, 242, 252, 261 use of white space, 117 definition, 130–132, 134
Schule fur Gestaltung or AGS (Allgemeine Speak, Memory (Nabokov), 170 types of, 134–135, 137
Gewerbeschule Basel School of Art and Spotco, 60, 118, 126
Crafts), 161, 199, 209 Sprint, 72 T
Scrap House, 163 Spur Design, 125 Tam, Jason, 175
Scripps Research Institute, 236 Staatliche Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste, Target, 47
Seagull, 105 209 TCHO, 249
Seeds of the Cities, 27 State Academy of Art, Amsterdam, 189 tension
Seitz, Peter, 209 State Free Art Workshops (formerly characteristics and effects, 153–154, 156
semiotics, 209 Stoganov School of Applied Art), 41 definition, 148–149
Sense & Sensibility (Austen), 252 Stealth, 212 Terence Higgins Trust, 203, 211
Sense Team, 27, 162, 266 Stedelijk Museum, 189 Terrazzo Prosecco, 42
Shakespeare, William, 81, 85, 133, 182 Stenberg, Vladimir and Georgii (Stenberg texture
shape Brothers), 41 and balance, 125
and balance, 125 Stephen Petronio Company, 155 characteristics, 82
categories of, 45 Stepnova, Varvara, 41 creation of, 86, 88 290
characteristics, 40, 42 Stereotype Design, 264, 275 definition, 80–81
definition, 38–39 Still, Clifford, 179 effects of, 88
vs. form, 47 Stoganov School of Applied Art (later State types of, 85–86
291

The Shape of Globalization: World Auto Free Art Workshops), 41 and use of diverse compositional
Industry, 26 Stoltze Design, 202, 243 elements, 82
The Shape of News, 272 Stories from the Field, 145 Theater Construction in Antiquity and
Shaw, George Bernard, 87, 159, 161 Stories (Nabokov), 170 Modernity, 161
Shopsin, Tamara, 170 The Stranger (Camus), 215 Theaterbau von der Antike bis zur Moderne,
Signature Theatre Company, 30 Stravinsky, Igor, 31, 169 161
Slab Serif typefaces, 262 Studio Abbasi, 10, 181 Théâtre Français, 174–175
Slavko, 200–201 Studio Boggeri, 103, 169 Think Studio, 156

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 This Book is Not Pink, 225 typeface, classifications of, 260–262 Waiting for Godot (Beckett), 126
the language of graphic design

This is NPR, 16 Walrus, 262

Thomas & Star, 46–47 U weight of elements, 126, 151
Thoreau, Henry David, 8 UCLA School of Architecture, 265 Weill, Alain, 247
Three Quandries (Mann), 136 Ulm School of Design (Hochschule fur Werman, Hendrik, 189
The Three Sisters (Chekhov), 105 Gestaltung-HfG Ulm), 209 Werner Design Werks, 94, 260
Tiffany & Company, 18, 134, 257 Une Fête pour Boris (Bernhard), 175 Whitman, Walt, 187
Tirondola, Meaghan, 62 Unimark International, 271 Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (Albee), 238
To Have and Have Not (Hemingway), 134 United Nations Documentary Film Festival, Widmer, Jean, 169
To Kill A Mockingbird (Lee), 240 32 Williams, Genevieve, 96, 129
Tobin, Isaac, 122 United Workshops for Arts and Crafts, 247 Wink, 46, 52, 208, 212, 214
Toledo Museum of Art, 218 Univers Family of Typefaces, 229 Wolff Olins, 43, 96, 267
tone University of Chicago, 113 Wolf, Rudolph, 262
characteristics, 188, 190, 191 University of Kentucky, 42 Woodward, Fred, 257
definition, 186–187 University of Washington, 25, 34, 102, 250 World Trade Center Tribute Center, 214
types and effects, 193–194 Urban Influence Design Studio, 45, 47, 122, World’s Proven Oil Reserves, 96
Top Graphic Design (Henrion), 123 146 Woyzeck (Büchner), 175
Toxico, 108 Uribe, Adriana, 261 Written Language and Power (Gnerre), 258
The Tragedy of King Lear (Shakespseare), 133 used book festival, 172 WUN, 94
Transitional typefaces, 261-262
translative symmetry, 137 V Y
Transparent Things (Nabokov), 170 value, 70, 126, 188, 190 Yale University, 83, 274
Tratturi Primitivo, 137 van Doesburg, Theo, 169 Yale University School of Art and
Travesties (Stoppard), 238 Van Vleck, Christina, 26, 272 Architecture, 237
Triboro Design Solutions, 19, 27, 72, 164, 184 The Verificationist (Antrim), 24 Yenthus, Helen, 170
“A Tribute to Kind of Blue,” 193 Vignelli, Lella, 271 You Will Mingle, 183
Truth Machine (Lynch, et al.), 122 Vignelli, Massimo, 271
Tschichold, Jan, 133, 139, 141, 169, 189, 199, Vignelli Associates, 271 Z
272 Visual Arts Journal, 242 Zask, Catherine, 22, 34, 105, 165, 182, 185
Twelfth Night (Shakespeare), 84-85 Visual Arts Press, 242 Zeischegg, Walter, 209
Twist Creative Inc., 44 Visuel Design studio, 169 Zeppetelli, Anita, 136
Txikito Cocina Vasca, 32 Vitruvian Man (Leonardo da Vinci), 230 Zero Decibels: The Quest for Absolute
Typographische Gestaltung (Asymmetric Vitruvius, 227, 230 Silence (Foy), 190
Typography), 141 Vivarelli, Carlo, 169 Zurich Tonhalle, 31
typography Voice, 112, 198 Zwart, Piet, 141, 151, 169, 189
alignment formats, 264, 266 Volume Inc., 65, 71, 98, 221, 223, 270, 274
color, 266–267 Volume magazine, 192
definition, 254–255 Vote, 228
form variations, 258, 260 Vrgoc, Kruno, 232
historical references, 256, 258
letterforms, anatomy of, 258, 259, 260 W
optical issues, 264 W. L. Gore, 82

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 Index
8

292
293

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 160OVER90 ATELIER PASTILLE ROSE RODRIGO CORRAL NICHOLAS FELTON TIMOTHY GOODMAN LG2BOUTIQUE KA
the language of graphic design

82 54-55, 92 DESIGN 98 135 144, 200-201 64,

64
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BLOK DESIGN DEVICE CREATIVE JACK HENRIE FISHER 114, 140 JEANELLE MAK MO
ACCEPT & PROCEED 92, 94, 108, 188, 246 COLLABORATIVE 195 241 Centre Street, 4th Fl. 208 26,
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8484 Wilshire Boulevard, Ste. 600 College of Fine Arts Freidrichstrafe 126 London, UK EC2A 4AA New York, NY, USA 10013 Fall
Fal
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www.adamsmorioka.com Provo, UT, USA 84602 www.de.edenspiekermann.com 36-37, 204
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Ne
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AND PARTNERS www.carbonesmolan.com ESTRADA DESIGN www.jogdesign.com 50, 163, 178, 224-225
132 188 JOHN GALL 1211 Folsom Street, 4th Fl. PA
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New York, NY, USA 10001 58, 150, 258 Madrid, ES 28006 Random House 63, 95, 126-127, 222-223, www.mendedesign.com 265
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www.andpartners.com Rua Cartes 107 Perdizes www.estradadesign.eu New York, NY, USA 263, 273 242
São Paulo, BR 05016.080 www.randomhouse.com 44 Rue des Petites MERCER Phi
ART CENTER COLLEGE www.rexnet.com.br FELTON Paris, FR 75010 CREATIVE GROUP ww
OF DESIGN COMMUNICATION LORENZO GEIGER www.landor.com 117, 232, 262
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www.wearecollins.com

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 contributors
KATYA MEZHIBOVSKAYA PENTAGRAM (NY) PURE + APPLIED SPOTCO THINK STUDIO VOICE
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 About the Author DEDICATION IMAGE RESOURCES
the language of graphic design

Richard Poulin is cofounder, design director, This book is dedicated to the two most important and influential 23: Peter Behrens, Bildarchive Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art
people in my life: Resource, New York, ©2010 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
and principal of Poulin + Morris Inc., an York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn. 31: Josef Müller-Brockman,
internationally recognized, multidisciplinary Muriel Poulin, who has always inspired me and taught me © ZHdK, Museum für Gestaltung Zürich, Poster Collection.
design consultancy located in New York City. “to know is nothing at all . . . to imagine is everything.” 41: © Estate of Vladimir and Georgii Stenberg/RAO, Moscow/
—Anatole France, French Novelist, 1881. VAGA, New York. 51: Takenobu Igarashi, Photographs by
His work has been published in periodi- Mitsumasa Fujitsuka. 59: Herbert Bayer, Museum für Gestaltung
cals and books worldwide, is in the perma- And, above all, to Zürich, Graphics Collection. Photographer: Umberto Romito
nent collection of the Library of Congress, © ZHdK. 69: Courtesy of Deborah Sussman, Sussman/Prejza
Doug Morris, for giving me the time, freedom, love, and support & Company. 83: Paul Rand, Paul Rand Papers. Manuscripts &
and has received awards from the American to pursue my dreams. Archives, Yale University Library. 93: A.M. Cassandre, © Mouron
Institute of Architects, American Institute of Cassandre. Lic 2010-13-07-05 www.cassandre-france.com. 103:
Graphic Arts, Applied Arts, Communication ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Max Huber, © Aoi Huber Kono. 113: Lester Beall © Lester Beall,
This book would not have been possible without the support Jr. Trust/Licensed by VAGA, New York, New York, RIT Archive
Arts, Creative Review, Graphis, ID, Print, and contributions of all the designers who shared their work Collections, Rochester Institute of Technology. 123: Jacqueline
Society for Environmental Graphic Design, with me. Going through this process has truly reminded me of Casey, Courtesy MIT Museum. 133: Jan Tschichold, Reproduced
Society of Publication Designers, Type Di- the incredible community that I am a part of and the great work by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. 141: Jan Tschichold,
my colleagues are producing all around the world. A special © ZHdK, Museum für Gestaltung Zürich, Poster Collection.
rectors Club, and the Art Directors Clubs of thanks to Sean Adams, Michael Bierut, Ivan Chermayeff, Richard 151: Piet Zwart, Collection of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag.
Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco. Doubleday, Steff Geissbuhler, Allan Haley, Jonathan Hoefler, 161: Armin Hofmann, © ZHdK, Museum für Gestaltung Zürich,
Richard is a fellow of the Society for Takenobu Igarashi, Bruno Monguzzi, Roland Mouron, Deborah Poster Collection. 169: Courtesy of Bruno Monguzzi. 179: Alvin
Sussman, Massimo Vignelli, and Catherine Zask for their as- Lustig, Alvin Lustig Archive, Courtesy of Kind Company. 189:
Environmental Graphic Design (SEGD), sistance, cooperation, and contributions to this book. Willem Sandberg, Collection of Richard Poulin. 199: Emil Ruder,
the organization’s highest honor for lifetime To Steve Heller for recommending me to Rockport Publish- © Niggli Publishers, www.niggli.ch. 209: Max Bill; © ZHdK, Mu-
achievement; and past president and board ers as a potential author for this volume. seum für Gestaltung Zürich, Poster Collection. 219: Saul Bass,
To everyone at The Quarto Group and Rockport Publishers, © Copyright Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
member of the New York Chapter of AIGA, especially Winnie Prentiss, publisher, and Judith Cressy, acquisi- Courtesy of Otto Preminger Films Ltd. All rights reserved.
He is also a recipient of a research grant in tion editor, for their encouragement, enthusiasm, and support, 237: Courtesy of Ivan Chermayeff, Chermayeff & Geismar. 247:
design history from the Graham Foundation as well as to Mary Ann Hall, David Martinell, and Renae Haines Ludwig Hohlwein, © ZHdK, Museum für Gestaltung Zürich,
for collaborating with me on this book. Poster Collection. 257: Courtesy of Hoefler & Co. 271: Courtesy
for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts. To Derek Koch, my colleague at Poulin + Morris Inc. who has of Massimo Vignelli, Vignelli Associates.
Since 1992, he has been a faculty mem- helped design this volume with a level of detail and nuance that
ber of the School of Visual Arts in New York I did not fully realize when we started this project. His invaluable COLOPHON
contributions and insights to the design of this book are deeply The Language of Graphic Design was designed and typeset
City and was formerly an adjunct professor appreciated and have made it one of the truly memorable and by Poulin + Morris Inc., New York, New York. Digital type
at The Cooper Union. He has also taught enjoyable experiences of my career. composition, page layouts, and type design were originated on
and lectured at Carnegie-Mellon University, And to my students—past, present, and future. Apple iMac computers, utilizing Adobe InDesign CS6, Version
8.0 software.
Maryland Institute College of Art, Massa- The text of the book was set in Verlag and Archer, two
chusetts College of Art, North Carolina typefaces designed and produced by Hoefler & Co., New York,
State University, Simmons College, Syracuse New York.

University, University of the Arts, and Uni- DEFINITIONS

versity of Cincinnati. All definitions used in this book are from Merriam-Webster’s
He currently lives in Palm Springs, Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition, 2009.

California with his husband of thirty years,

Douglas Morris.

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